Understanding Textile for a non textile Engr.

N o R
I b r a rn a n d z rn m a n f u ri
av g ch gy; Fa c str tu e a d d si ; cia n ric ct
eft d w p k tig t ; d f c d si ; cia l knt c p ct
Swe ate r k n itt i n g;
Dyeing, printing and finishing.
sitant fesso
ka, sh
aka, Bangades
tr ctin to xti
y p rt s f textie fires
Classification of textile fibres
with a modern blowroom Iine
Carding section
Sp i n n i n g mach i ne
Autoconer
fi ti
Formulae for count conversion
nt cacuatin and den n f r y ya
ngh ca at n of a cone of ew ng th ad
arn nd
044
046
O47
050
051
051
051
051
052
W oven fabries
W eaving preparation
Indirect or Section warping
W oven fabric specification
rafti
Plain weave
Classification of plain c10th
Derivatives of plain weave
Satin weave
Derivatives of satin weave
Huckaback weaves
Figuring with extra threads
Construction principle
Fabric based on twillweave
Other com mercial fabrics
Fabric construction or specification
Braid fabrics
Bo n d e d f a b ri cs
229
231
235
238
241
241
242
242
244
244
247
248
248
251
253
256
256
261
263
265
267
268
269
270
271
W eaving principle and end uses 278
Lappet and Sw ivel fabrics 280
Lappet weaving principle 280
Denim fabrics 283
W arp preparation 285
The w ire m ethod 292
The doubIe-cloth or face-to-face method 295
The slack tension pile or terry weave 305
Flocked fabrics 313
ng ch ntoduc n and hi al bacground of ni
General terms related to knitting technology
M echanical principles of knitting technology
Basic elements of knitting
Th e ca m s
The sinkers
Stitch formation on bearded needles
Loop formation on Iatch needles
Knitting action of com pound needles 351
W eft knitting machines 354
Main features of a knitting machine 354
Classification of weft knitting machines 354
Flat knitting m achine 356
Circular knitting machine 358
Fa b ri c m a ch i n e 36 1
Garment-length machines 362
Rib circular knitting machine 369
Interlock circular knitting machine 377
Links-links or Purl knitting machine 380
Basic weft knitted structures 383
The plain knit structure or plain fabric 383
The rib structure or rib fabric 385
The purlknit structure or purl fabric 389
The interlock structure or interlock fabric 392
Com parison between basic structures 394
tificatin f singe nd e rsey
Basic Ioop or stitch types 396
The held loop 396
rna atin f sigle- y ab c 13
Sing rsey rivatives 14
Derivatives of interlock structure 427
eft kn ed uad n
e- y ac uad es n
ey acq ard gn
he anual atr kn ng achine 8
.
knitting machine 4s3
titch r p tr sfer n ft tt g 1
he elt 7
Shape formation 483
Linking operation 491
Production calculation 504
Relation beto yarn count & machine gauge 511
Relation between yarn count and GSM 512
W arp knitting principle 514
ntrod ct n to p kn ted fabrics 14
The guides 515
W arp knitting maehinery 531
Tricot warp knitting machine 531
Raschel warp knitting machine 538
Two fully threaded guide bar structures or fabrics 546
Spetial knit fabric production 553
Knitted pile fabrics 553
Fleece knit fabric 553
Plush fabrics or knitted terry fabrics 557
The crochet warp knitting machine 559
The straight bar frame 563
 
Specaly nonwoven p oduct
Singeing
ch
Mercerizing
ves
cal shng t ts
no edgem nt
atefl ackno dge nts e m e o many of y ds, eag es and dear dent
ho have relentlessly enco aged e to e ths kind of a book nd ad ent chapter
s ook, gien enc ag nt and vey helpful cr ci
Specaly, I d Ie to show a huge a precat n to my beov d wfe Su a and my Itl
gis afa, Su a and Eu a. thout eir su po t nd at nce l d never e bee
e to f sh ths w
 
TRO N TO TETI
,
yarns, r s or s made of es
,
,
s the xtie Istitutes rms nd fiti
,
,
th kn ss'
,
.
o it s ant o kn w e m ufact ng
nce f ab c f m . he aly t is e m n go l at pr nt
,W ithout
kn edge of exte m uf ng i
. fire, arn and fa rics it s i ssi e to aitai
he aly f a nt. e eab atig on w e p s of gr y c man actu
t s k n w t s textie fire
, arn d ab c nd w at are e cess w ch t
extie an tu ng can be d crbe
. T ti
A t m rigialy ap d o y to woven fa cs, ut the s textie a d t e p al
,
at l nd m ufact ed
and t ucts r ch t e are a cial aw at ai
* tie re
,
th a h h Ingth to h ratio a d w
,
.
@ arn
n asse blage of s at s ed r d ogeth r so as o f m a nti us
.
So a ya n is a stand of atu l r an
,
kntt g, r th r eth s f co trctig textie fab
. e tpe of ya n to be
,
,
the fabric's end ses.
q'
@ ab
c is a f e p r st e c trud d frm so ti s, fires, rns, r s,
n any co binatin. Texte fab cs can be produced cty from ebs of fi es b
bondng, fusing r nt ocking to ake non- ven abrics and felts, ut ther physica
tis tend to rstrict th r potential nd-usag . The m ancal ni at n of
rn i o c s the st versate m th d of facturig textie f cs r a w
ange of nd-uses.
put ateral
tie Fi
str
armen dutry)
E FI ES
y s nce, atual r ufactu , h a h h I gth to w h o and h su
ch act tis r beng rocessed nto fa c; he smalest co pone t, air ke n natu e,
at can be s arat d f m a f c.
erties of extie F s:
Pri y opertes f ex e es
h Ing h to w th rati
Tenacity
ty
ni
hy l sh
si cy
Density
Lusture
gh ng h rat
'
nsi aby eater n t e et . e gth
(-
t Sythetc f res are actu y fi ts fi e I th
.( : st e fires, h c , n th r turn, e s
E
( .JL
r are ch ped into (s
 
06
Flexibility is the property of bending without breaking that is the third necessaw
characteristic of textile fibre. In order to form yarns or fabrics that can be creased, that have
he qua y f ab y d the y to m ve w h t e b y nd th t t ne
ee m of ve nt, e es t e b abe, abe r exi . he d gr q of
flexibility determines the ease with which fibres, yarns and fabrics will bend and is
important in fabric durability and general performance.
Spnnnz qua W fnh-WR --Q)
This charaderistic refers to the ability of the fibre to stick together in yarn manufaduring
ce s. en s ca es that f s d to d together ng yar
manufacturing as a result of the longitudinal contour of the fibre or the cross-section shape
at ab s the fi e to ft togeth r and ntange suffci y to adhe e to e an the
n'
o ze the reg y n the f l ya , t s i nt at ' fi es be so ew at
si r n length a d w th i . e u form. e iherent vari y in the nat l tire c
be averaged out by blending natural fibres from many different batches in order to produce
yarn that are uniform.
0 01 shaN (sne n* .* a ' o
The fibre shapes i.e. the sudace struclure is important for the fibre behaviour in a yarn and
n a ab c. A gh scay s e of l fi , r xa , hfl nces e f an
kage pe s f l cs. e scales e fi s to g p e an r he'n
yarn is spun.
he sm ot , sy su e of a f e such as e nyln f , af s the ustre of e f -A
oth ace l not clng to rt o y. he cros-sec al sha e of a fbre
nfluences the av r f e f c. A cicu r r ne ci r cr ctin ) es
an att ve or co e fel as co d to a f , ke cross-sectin èo
Circular fibres often have a poorer covering-power than the flatter or triangular ones: A flat
r rian ular tin gives e tr. Se ed r nted c ss- cti s (sc
e bettr co r n as a rsut f e arg r . e co r s o ed d
the case of fine filaments. The latter also give a softer handle or feel. :
El c and -
A fi , ch s subeded to a frce, l stretch to a certain d gree- his stretchng can also
 
97
e may be easu d at ny speci d l d r as te ngatin reached w n e
breaks.
n a f e is sbj ed o a small ce (r etched to a sm l gree, t ay ex bi
st ct elastcity. ast ty is the rty of a fire to rec r ts ri al ngth
af r tretchng cau d by a Iad
e t m eakig e gatin ef s o te a t of etch t at cu s o he pont
where the fibre breaks. Elastic Recovery designates the percentage of return from
ga n or etch t rd e ginal ngth or ea nt. f a f e etuns to i
l gth f m a speci d am nt f atte atin, t is sad to have 100%
recovew at X% elongation.
esi nty
t s the ab ty of a fire to return to sh e fo ng co ressin, en ng or si ar
de ati . t s i nt in dete ning e c ase re vey of a e or , and i
ys a s cant roe in the r y w th ch fltt d carpet p e w l regan ts hape
and restore its appearance.
Re nce is the pe y of a fi e w ch e abes it o ecover m a ce n ad o
strtc d p sitin and flxi ty is that property to sist peated ben g a d fo ng.
su e fire has a lw resi ce a d s siy co ressi . A stff fire has a hih res ce
and cannot e easy co sed
Flam y and o r ther l ea s:
urnng charact cs f he es e i po nt n d ning e a d use, and ey
se e s h ful s in the fire i fi ti . l sltin n texti
nflam ab y is n i nt consu r ssue and a ariety f ypes of tie end
ucts ust eet a secied esi nce to fames.
I s e afected in o e- ay or nother as they e h ated. So , e w , begin to
eco e befoe m ng; oth , ke p yethylene or ate l soften and m t ef
sitin sets i. The eh vi r f es on h ating and eir tin p ert s
of at actical po ance. deed, ab s s d w thstnd e t tu es used
g, de ng ( h water r nt) etc. Since ynhetic s are th ast
substa ces ( . they w l softn as they ae at , ths sotenng w l argey determ ne
th r ractcal sefuness.
n the presence of r, st fi s l rn. n ths co text, the term LOI s se . t stan s fo
ng xy n Ind x. he high r he vale of L , he e dffcut a substnce w l
si e LOI s a asue of the a nt f xygen ch as to be esent n the air o et
substane nt ue to n. n av ag os stbstnces have an of ab ut Ef s
 
05
The staple Iength of natural fibres is not an easy property to define because the fibre Iength
can vary over a great area. A statistical interpretation of the data obtained on fibre length in
a Iboatoy, kes it si e to d e the st e I gth (an ave age gth. n o er
for a fibre to be spinnable, i.e. to be twistable, and therefore offer sufficient cohesion to the
whole, a fibre must at least have a Iength of 5 to 15 millimetres. Fibres which are Ionger
than 150 millimetres require specialized spinning machines which make the spinning
rocess more expensive. '
e m t n nat l es ave a rato I lh / ckn s ch als e usnd
r ve l ds (co : 50 ' : 00 ; ax: 1200. arsr es sch as ute an
sisal have ratios between 100 and 1000. W hen filaments of man-made fibres are chopped
into shorter fibres, an effort is made to bring the ratios close to those of natural fibres, i.e.
between 1000 and 4000.
T *
Second necessaw property for a product to qualify for textile fibre is adequate strength,
termed as tenacity. Tenacity is defined as the tensile stress expressed as force per unit
Iinear density of the unstrained specimen.
The strength of a fibre is generally dependent on the length of the polymer chain, the
degree of orientation of these polymer chains, the strength and types of the forces of
attactin etw en the ym r chais po r s). e ger a r chan i
the higher the degrees of orientation and crystallization and, hence, the stronger the
interpolymer forces. Crystalline systems feel stiff and present less resistance to rep ated
bending or folding. Stronger fibres will Iead to stronger yarns under the appropriate
conditions of twist.
The tensile strength or breaking load is com monly described as t e force required to reach
break.
n the case of a f re, the strength s sc ed as t acty (sp cific stress at reak
breuking Ioad
Tenacity = / ttt
m ass per unit enq
naciy is xp essed n terms f (centi ns per x cN ex or tex
lt is im portant to note that the fibre strength does not always in icate com parable yarn or
fabric strength. Fibres with high strength are useful in seer and Iightweight fabrics. Fabrics
used in w ork cloths and various industrial applications are bett r from high tenacity fibres.
Fibre tenacity does not always reflect the actual strength of textile yarn. It is possible for
yarns to be m ade so that fibre slippage occurs; this does ot m ake optim um use of the
actual fibre tenacity.
0'8
ade boh in the fid of nth s f s ch cal cati ) nd, aft ard, by
usig sbstan s ch ow n or esit ng
he y aking, egeta e fi es have t ntical co siti , nd co sit
e, ch s a at n of car , hy gen a d oxyg . ey al n as per
, te rea , ave ttle or no ashes and ase a dst ct e fire sm l f
Paper.
Fi s f ni al gin aso have a si r ch cal co positin; ey aI co n trge
nd l the ef e n t ea y b n t ug . ey l nd m ch d ashes. ey ave
a fie s l of b rnt feath s.
xcept s e ed natu l sik ( aves ashes w ch ke p the f m f e yan) an
acetate he e i cig acet e gr s n e po r ch s akes the f e
efre t can te
n-made f s ased n n n as s of l . Fu y snth c s
without ignition.
Density:
s th d nt nsies but f eq l eter l ave nt cove ng ower at
s the a ty to cover a surfac . Fa rics m e w th fi s of ferent sities w l av
rence n f ric a earance, flxi ty, air perm ab ty d c ver.
he de y, o d vo c s r ass nsiy, s e s per t e and as
as s . t is usualy expressed n gra s p r cu c ce ete. r m s speci
gravity, which is the ratio of the mass of a fibre material and the mass of an equal volume of
3 he sp cic av y f a su e v -à-s r s atr ensiy lg/cm
3
umerical va e of e bs ) siy f ths su ta f t s expressed n g/cm . Ev
e is charact d by is de siy, ch n be ea d n vari s ays
as em nt f y c n be c d o t h a g t co n, e e I d in t
tube has a de sity ch v ris in ht. f a f re is dro ed n the tube, t l sik to th
nt at hich the f e d nsiy e als the d nsiy, nd n su ed there
s xpe ent is ba d on te f t at a f e w ch s su d in a d w h th
sa e density l sik nor rift ut flat, and that te d siy of a d can easiy b
 
09
.
extie Fi es Fi e ties n g/c 3 cil am
otton 1.55 Raw
Silk 1.33 Natural
Polyvinyl alcohol 1.30 Kuralon
vinal
Lusture:
lt refers to the gloss, sheen or shine that a fibre has. It is the result of the amount of Iight
.
Colour:
Natural colour of fibres vary from pure white to deep gray. tan or black. Man-made fibres
e usualy w e or e as they ae
Moisture regain or effed of moisture:
AIl fibres tend to absorb moisture when in contact with the atmosphere. The amount
absorbed depends on the relative humidity of the air.
For absorption of moisture of a fibre, the term regain is used. This is the amount of
moisture present in a textile material expressed as the percentage of the oven-dry weight
ry ht) f the texti . s dy m ss s the co stnt ht f texte bta ed afte
.
) j ht e w ght aftr beng in a no alzed atm ere f 20 C and 65% e
 
) .
oisure onen A - B
A
10
e tue cont t s e m s f st e n a f e and is xp essed as a pe age
the total weight. It is a measure of the amount of water held under any particular set of
.
Fi es n p esent eat va ati s n t e a nt f e t ey l abso
. W ool has a
,
t ta e fr cessing into c th g b ause th y l sorb sp tin rom re os su
body and will hold considerable amounts of moisture without feeling clammy
.The ability of a
re to a sob m tue w l so afect the pro ssig a d f shig of fi
. Fibres which easily
absorb moisture, will therefore Iet dyestuffs penetrate more easily during the dyeing process
Synthetic res, h often a sorb ltte st , are e siy shed a d rid by co ariso
th f s, ch abs b a lt of . n e th r an
this ntais e p en en n
electrostatic charging.
.
Fi s, h e si
bs b m tu r, l suay be ess st n w t xce t fofl n coto ) nd w l rese
crased e gatin at k. e sh d aso ze that abso n of e can al
ke t e f e s l o a co si e d , h is t r xa g d ff
NM URAL FIBER:
.
.
. 44 .
. . : .
.
. ., zfk, . : a,..  .' . J . 
p' # .# . e. e .
Textile Fibres
Natural Fibres
) ) fibe Yntetic pol ) re carbon,gass, eta
ceramic, etc.)
(sheep) (alpaca, camel, cow, goat, (elastodi erated e r3ted ester
horse, rabbit etc.) ene) rotein cellulo
(azlon) -se
(ra on)
scose Cupro Modal Lyocell
etc.) etc.)
Polymethyl Polyolefin Polyvinyl Polyure Polyamide Polyimide Aramid Polyester Synthetic
-
N
yethyl e yl e yuethane astne, spa de, ycra)
i ) ) )
Man-made Fibres
C f the stuy f textie sci
.At one time,  The identification of textile fibres is a vew important part o
l Ie fibre identification was a relatively easy task; most consumers could tell by appearance and handimp
whether a fabric was cotton, wool, silk, or Iinen. Once the first manmade fibres were introduced, the
process became a bit more difficult. Consu ers usually could identify the fibre composition of fabrics
made of 100 percent rayon or acetate, but blends of some fibres were difficult to identify. As more
fibres were introduced, the task became progre sively more difficult. Today, sophiticated
techniques are usually required for accurate fibre identification.
The purpose of the Textile Fibre Products Identification Act was to provide information on fibre
content of textiles at the point of sale. Consumers were at once relieved of the responsibility to
identify fibre content of items they purchased; howeverz professionals working with textile
products still must be able to identify fibres accurately. Such individuals include retailers who
suspect some textile products they bought for resale have been Iabeled inaccurately; customs
osicials who m ust identify imported fibres; dry cleaners w ho must clean an item from which aII
the labels have been removed; extension hom e econom ists who are asked to help solve a
consumer's problem with a textile product; and forensic scientists who m ust use a textile
sam ple to help solve a crim e.
For most individuals, the only information needed is a qualitative analysis of fibre content: what
fibre or fibres are present in this product? For others, a quantitative analysis of the product is
also im portant: in w hat percentages are the fibres present? W ith the num bers of fibres
available today and the variety of blends being produced, neither analysis is easy.
Methods for qualitative identification of fibres include such procedures as burning tests,
microscopy, density determination, m oisture regain analysis, dye staining, chem ical solubility,
melting point determination, infrared spectroscopy, and chromatography. Simplified versions
of the first six procedures are relatively easy to pedorm in most Iaboratories. They require the
use of a drying oven, an analytical balance sensitive to 0.005 gram, a compound light
microscope capable of 200 x agnification, laboratory glassware, and a supply of chemicals.
A. Burning Test:
The burning test is a good preliminary test for categorizing fibres. Observation of burning
provides information on behavior in a flame, smoke generation, odor during burning, and
ash or residue. lt never should be used as the only method of identifying a fibre, but it
provides valuable information that may be used with other evidence to m ake a positive
identification of an unknown fibre.
Blends of fibres are difficult to test using this procedure. Tbe reaction of the predom inant
fibre may mask the presence of a second fibre, which could have entirely different burning
characteristics. Finishes, especially flameretardant finishes, can also give mislea ing
inform ation. Although the test is easy to perform, it does involve the use of an open flame, making it
necessary to observe certain safety precautions. Use a sm all flam e source in an area where
there is no danger of igniting other materials. A candle in a stable base or a small alcohol
lamp is preferable to a hand-held m atch. A nonflam mable pad should be used under the
burning mate ial to provide protection from molten drip and smoldering ash. Do not touch
ash or tweezers while they are still hot.
 
p- - ure:
e s e to be d s d be in e
. A single yarn from a woven or k itted
 
Use the following
.
. d the tuft f s h a p r f
. ve the tuft clse o the sie f e am ; o not e the es ab ve or be
,
f lame .
,
and then
slowly and carefully remove the tuft from the flame to observe the reaction once
the flame source is no longer present
. Careful observation provides an answer to
ese f r ueti s: ) n intro d to te fl , es e e b n r
r ow y, r es show o n o gn n? (b es e mate egn to ? (c)
,
,
extinguish?
,
blow out the flame.
ote e od r and r of e sm ke, r ote tat no sm ke was pr d w
e f e w s oved m e f
Observe the residue rem ining after burning
.
Does a residue drop from the
ezes? D s at si e conti e to b rn? w uch resi e is ef? s th
e r ain red, catig that t is til vew t? hat co r s e ah that
,
or is it bead-shaped?
. ftr t s ff, to h t e re e or . s t sot r ritt ? n it e ru
easily between the fingers, or is it hard to crush?
Results:
cal e ractins r the majr at l nd an e f e typ s e given in t
following table. W hen interpreting results
,
14
It is difficult to detect the presence of blends with a burning test. O e fibre in a
blend may completely mask the proper ties of another fibre.
2. Dyes and finishes affect test results. Flame-retardant finishes are especially
m isI ea d i ng.
Coloured fibres, especially those produced with pigments, may retain the colour in
the ash or residue.
Table for burning characteristics of fibre:
Fi e oachng 1 n ame ve m 1 r Resi e
1 j l 
amee
n & 1 es t sh k ay; rns ckly Continus to Si r to j Li , athey;
ax s n act ; w g er j ht o   j j
yith flame gray n co  i
I I s t sh k away; Burns cky cont ues o si rto Li , uffy ; r 
1 i s n t ; aft w g er 1 w   g 
with flame ' l amount1
,
1 l
.
'
I 1  t Melts & fuses away Burns rapidly 1Continues to 1A
crid Irregularly  1
, s e burnng  I I
,
drips
,
ay m e Slowy I n ead
e s ay m e s y 1 xti shes i r o , l
rn i g ha r b k b
&lk curls away from flame Burns slowly Usually Similar to Crushable black
& sputters self-extinguishes singed hair beadlunweighted)
Shape of fibre or
fabric (weighted)
1 s t s t s h l nties o r , cky,
shrik ay m ng ' n th g y
. ht cr y t:
A compound microscope capable of at Ieast 200x magnifications is required for fibre
identification. A magnification of 200x may be adequate for tentative identification,
especialy of the atural fibres, s not uate fr ew g th deta f fire strct
The ns and bjectives f the m crscope, as ell as the sldes and cover asses, ust be
clan nd free f scratch s. he ht so ce sh d be adjusted for ax um visibity prior
to Iooking at prepared slides. Have materials at hand to sketch the fibres viewed? and have
access to a source of photogrphs of known fibres to m ake comparisons for identification.
The following figure shows the longitudinal and cross-sectional views of the most common
fibres.
Longitudinal mounts:
It is possible to mount a single fibre, but it is Iess frustrating for m ost microscopists to use
several fibres. A minimum of ten fibres is useful when the material to be studied is a blend.
Too many fibres on a slide makes it difficult to focus on a single fibre to observe the details
of its sudace contour. W hen taking a sam ple from a yarn in a fabric, untwist the yarn
com pletely to separate tbe fibres. Tbe basic steps for making a Iongitudinal mount are as
follow s.
1. Place a single drop of water, glycerine. or m ineral oiI on the center of the gl ss'slide.
M ineral oiI provides the best definition, but the other m aterials are adequate.
2. Carefully place the fibres in the drop of liquid with the Iength of the fibres parallel to
the Iong dimension of the slide.
3. Place the cover glass lightly over the drop of Iiquid a d the specim en. Tap the cover
glass gently to rem ove air bubbles.
. W h e obj tie in is h st si , ace the sl e on te s e of
co . r the o ectie ca efu y b e tryig to cus the sl . t s
asy to age the objectve y scratch g t r sm ng t h o
Focus on low pow er and obsere the fibre before focusing on high power. Note the
general shape of the fibre, then look at it carefully for signs of scales, convolutions,
pockmarks, striations' and other features. Look carefully to see if more than one
type of fibre is present.
. th e m crsc e cused on hgh po , ve the f e dj nt very sl
to see if variations in surface contour are visible. Again, look carefully to see if more
than one fibre type is present.
. Sketch e s as n t h the m crscop , th n co e yo r sketch w
tan d p otog ap s to c cl e w ch f s m ht e p sent.
A N 9  . 4 '
tu l vi
ce d co
Regular polyester
l vi
w
$ : # o
 
e ( ss seti
. a. ' -
' y + . > .. x: *
e (l gitu l
Cross-s<w- ional m ounts:
Special plastic and metal plates are available for making fibre cross-sections. Special fibre m icrotomes
are used for more sophisticated work. W here such aids are not available, it is possible to make a section
using a piece of cork, a threaded sewing machine needle, and a sharp single-edge razor blade,
The instructions follow.
. se a sm l ece of e-gran cok o m e n 1 cm 5 ich) ck. t o that i
is flat on one side. The cork wedge should be of a diam eter sm all enough to slice
easily.
Thread the sew ing machine needle, and carefully force the point of the needle
through the cork until a Ioop of thread can be form ed.
Form a thread Io p around your finger and pull the needle back through the cork.
e ede ay hen be hoved; t as ee d t o push e ad th gh the
cork to form the Ioop.
4. M ake a small bundle of fibre ti fit through the thread Ioop. Then, using the free ends
of the thread, carefully pull the looped fibre back through the cork. The fibre should
of the cork. After a Iittle practice, estim ation of the exact am ount of fibre to use
becom es easier
5. Place the flat side of the cork dow n on a cutting board and use the razor blad'e to cut
a thin slice perpendicular to the fibre em bedded in the cork. The slice should be no
more than 0.5 m m thick. M ake the cut with a single, continuous m otion, not a
saw ing m otion.
6. Place the cork slice on a glass slide. Do not use a mounting medium or cover glass.
Focus the m icroscope and observe the cross sections of the fibres.
Resulu :
Look carefully at the shape of the fibrez and com pare it with photom icrographs of known
fibres. Most natural fibres can be identified by sim ple Iight m icroscopy, but positive
identification of manufactured fibres is often difficult with this technique. W hen a fibre
blend is present, it is possible to approximate the blend Ievel by counting the fibres.
Microscopy is also a good way to determ ine the umber of fibres present in a blend.
. rnl w eeq:
Chemical solubility tests are necessary to identify most manufactured fibres. They are
usually performed after burning tests and m icroscopic exam ination of the fibres.
Preliminary burning tests usually provide some inform ation about the specific fibres that
may be present or the fibres that are definitely not present, and m icroscopy provides
information on the number of fibres to be ientified and the predominant fibres in a blend.
The solubility procedure described in this section is based on the chemicals specified in the
TCC ( rican ssocatin of extie C em sts and C rists) altative denticati
test method. ln some instances, the term soiubility is a misnomer as the material does not
dissolve, but m erely degrades. A m aterial that dissolves in a solvent can be recovered from
that solvent, whereas a material degraded by a solvent breaks apart but does not dissolve,
and so cannot be recovered from the solvent. W hen observing solubility tests for fibres, it is
not always possible to determine w hether a fibre has actually dissolved or has m erely
disintegrated.
19
AIl chemical tests should be conducted in a room with proper ventilation and chemical
safety p n d vices. e r d ateral afety Data Sh et SDS) r ac
chem ical should be posted in areas where the chemical is used
. Although only very small
amounts of chemicals are needed for testing, accidents sometimes happen
. Adhere to
.
W ear protective eye goggles
.
pr- -=ure:
The following Chem icals used for solubility test tabte (ists the chem icals and test conditions
used in chem ical solubility testing. W hen there is no prior knowlédge of the fibres that may
.
.
,
those solvents required for its identification. The general procedure for solvent
identification follows.
W hen solvents are used at room temperature, the tests may be performed in a
watch cwstal, a 50-mI beaker, or a small test tube. Place a small amount of the fibre
.
2. Acetone 100 Room 5
3. Sodium hypochlorite 5 Room 20
4.hydrochloric acid 20 Room 10
5. Formic acid 85 Room 5
6. l,4-Dioxanea 100 101 5
7.m-xylenea 10O 139 5
8.Cyclahexanonea 100 156 5
10. Sulfuric acida 59.5 20 20
11. Sulfuric acida 70 38 20
12. m-cresola 100 139 5
13.Hydrofluoric acidb 50 Room 20
ause in a fume hood
.
buse a nonglass beaker
2. Tests pedormed at the boiling point of the solvent require the use of a ventilated
fum e hood. Pour the solvent into a small eaker and place the beaker on a hot plate
sie t e f e h . djst the t at e of the h t ate to m n a sl
boil. Add the fibre to the boiling liquid
. W atch the reaction carefully to m ake sure
the solvent does not boil dry. Never add additional solvent to the heated beaker
For tests conducted at intermediate tem peratures, heat a beaker of water on a hot
ate und r the fume hoo , and a ust e t pe e using a the et
 Place
the fibre and solvent in a test tube, then set the test tube in the beaker of heated
w ater.
20
. W atch the re in the Sove t efu y o o seve the speed w h w ch it ak
down and the amount of the material dissolved. Note whether the material actuaily
dissolves, degrades into small pieces, or forms a plastic mass. lf all fibres are not
ss ved in a sp cific sove t, ca fuy ve the undssoved f res. Rise th m
water, and attempt to dissolve them in another solvent.
Resqts:
he fo ow ng S y of Fires tabe provies fire so ty tet res ts. pae th
results to identify a fibre. Some of the chemicals in the table are commonly found in the
ho . her hod p s ng si r sove s l so amage r sove
. ce ne s of n a co nt f ail po sh, l po h ov , nt th , an
paint emov s. l ac at , a si r ch cal, ay d age acetat, cr , nd
yon f s. eg r s a d te sout n of acetic a d; t s ot dsso e fi s, ut it
-
,g  z q'
.
iber < < tm X t'p izn =
Acetate s s 1 l S s l s s s s S --
Acrylic I l 1 I I 1 1 1 s 1 I P
Aramid I I l l I I 1 l 1 I I 1 1
Cotton l I I I 1 I 1 1 s I 1
F4a x l I 1 I 4 l I l s j
(.5 a ss I l I I I I I I 1 I I s
Nylon l 1 I s s I I I N S S S ..-.
olef n 1 I 1 I 1 1 s I I l 1 I ..-.
Polyester I I I I I I 1 I I 1 I s I
Rayon l l l I I I 1 1 I s s I I
saran 1 I I 1 I s s s s l l I l
Si Ik I I s I 1 1 1 I I S S I
-
'
è; vinyon I S 1 I 1 s s s s l I s .-.
.
)) )
'
H
Sodum yp , ch h s ut 5 p cent ava e ch e and a p f bout ,
he active ng ent n d d ch e y aches. e ab ato es
z:
,
-
?' ' :k-
F.
@. '. 
.
' esol is sometimes a component of household disinfectants and antiseptics. It is not
C t n a uffcintly h co centrat n o sove , t t ay age ceate
5 )
< ;
yl, ac c, yln, ytri, str, sp ex, nd vny n f s.
y.
). i4;ky '
YARN AND YARN M ANUFAW URING
n ase age of s that s d or aid t ether so as o
m a cont uo s ndh
at can e m e into a textie f
.
So a n s a nd f atu l r an ade bres
nts that have be n d or gr d et r r
e in weaving, knitting
th s of co structng textie f cs
. e type of ya n to be m ufact ed w l pe d on
e fi s se ; the tu
,
r nd, f the c o be ad ; and q al s su h a
warmth, resiliency, softness
.
Ty es of Fi es:
l the te tie fi s are clssifid ccordng to th r sta e
ngth into t o catego es
,
stape s s:
,
jute etc.e ae tw
o pes f st e fi , e is sh rt st e fi e anoth r e is g st
ib
. ottn s y sh t e f e a d o r ax m atu l
res are long
.
Filament:
t as conti s ngth tat ans e I gth of fiam nt s e
qual to the Iength of yarn
.l ade f s e nt
.
,
.
So fi nts e used as st e f re t stap
s ever d as am nt
.
- of ya n O ng to their uGure:
arns m y be d d into th e t pes acco g to t r tu
re as follows:
1. ape 5 > yans r un yarns (singe yarn)
Sp n ya s e made by chan l se y nd t g get
r (sp ) f staib
used to produce this spun or single yarns
.
 
.
-. ...
. 
.
(
.
. .
 ...(L. . .L..u. .
%
'
.
2. y yarn
Si e yarns are used n the majrity f fabrics for rm l textie a d clthng
ap cati s, ut n ord r to o tain specal yarn features, rtcu rly h h strength a
us r ec l nd st l ap ns, y ya s are ftn nee . A lo ed
or pIy yarn is produced by twisting two or more single yarns toqether in one operation,
and a ca ed y n s fo ed by stng er o or ore f d yans or
co bi on f jo d a d s e ya s. e t sting toge r f ve l si e ya
increases the tenacity of t e yarn by improving the binding-in of the fibres on the outer
Iayers of the com ponent single yarns. PIy yarns are also more regular, smoother and
e ard w aring. e d tin of ng s sina d s S or , ust as in sing
yarns. Normally the folding twist is in the opposite direction to that of the single yarns.
Folded or Fly yarn
3. F nt ya
A nt yan is e m ne or e conti s an s cal d famens he
each component filament runs the whole Iength of the yarn. Those yarns composed of
one filament are called monofilament yarns, and those containing more fiiaments are
kn n as ti am nt ns. For pparel ap ca ns, a ent yan ay
con n as jew as t o or e jiam s r as m y as 0 am s. n pe g,
example, a filament yarn could consist of hundreds of filaments, M ost manufactured
es have be n uced n the f m f a f t ar. Sik is e o y ajr atual
filament yarn.
Mono-filament yarn
False-twist Textured yarn
Stuffer-box Textured yarn
According to the shape of the fiiaments in the yarn, filament yarns are classified into
two types, flat and bulk. The filaments in a flat yarn Iie straight and neat, and are
parallel to the yarn axis. Thus, flat filament yarns are usually closely packed and have a
sm oth surface. he b ked yans, n w ch te f k e ether cr ed
entangled with each other, have a greater volume than the flat yarns of the same Iinear
density,
Text q is he ain m hod used o p uce te bulke fiam t yar . A text d yar
is made by introducing durable crimps, coils, and loops along the Iength of the
s. s ertured ya ns ave an icrea d vo e, e air d vapo r ab
of fabrics made from them is greater t an that from flat yarns. However, fo
applications where Iow air permeability is required, such as the fabrics for air bags, flat
yarns may be a better choice. Textured yarns are used for Stockings and tights,
swimwear, sportswear, outerwear, underwear, carpets, sewing and overedge stitching
ads r ex e fa rics
Ela - œ of rns rr n to heir u e:
Yarns may be divided into two classifications according to their use:
Weaving yarns and knitting yarns.
W eaing Yam s:
Yarns for woven c10th are prepared for the intended end use. Yarns to be used in the
warp, the lengthwise drection of a c10th, are generally stronger, have a tighter twist,
of a c10th. ovelty yarns may be used in the warp, but they are generally found n the
 
KnM ng Yarns:
he e ay be vided i o y s r and kni ng and yarns r achne kn ting
Knitting yarns are more slackly twisted than yarns for weaving. Hand knitting yarns are
generally ply, whereas those for machine knitting can be either single or ply. The
following are some of the yarns used for hand knitting:
1. Knitted worsted: The four-ply all-around yarn used for accessories, for the house,
and for apparel. This is the most common weight of hand-knitting yarn,
comprising 90 percent of the handmade yarn business.
Fing rig (baby r sockyarn: e fine yarn that s aly ut is un
most commonly in acrylic for comfort and ease of care.
pot arn: he th e-py y rn us d fr sock, ate , nd has.
Shetland yarn: The two-ply yarn used for sweaters.
Fashion or novelty yarn: Any novelty strudure.
l the y s sted ay e f nd n a y f . f the majr fi s, yon s the least y to
used in the handmade yarn business.
Types of ttn ya
There are two types of cotton yarn according to their manufacturing process as followsz
. rded rn
II. Combed yarn
ow art of ed yarn m uf ng w h input r eed and output or
delvew
np t r Feed prod d nufact ng cess utput r vey od
Cotton bale Blow-Room Lap
)
Sp g Fr
uto cone
* Opening the cotton bale
Cleaning the cotton fibre
* xing and blndng f fi
Even or uniform feed of material to the next process i.e. card.
s of Blow
The b sic p ose of ow-r m e is to suppy f ng ua es of bre tufts to the ca
pr0CeSS.
n fire tufts
Convert fibre tufts into a fibrous sheet, is called Iap.
: e m th d of g diff t res thn a c tic is kn n as bl
Mixing: The method of combining identical fibres in various grade of different ratio is known as
mixing.
,
anufact . For example a typcal bl room ne as foows:
1. pper bae pener
3. Vertical or twine opener or cleaner
4. Hopper feeder -1
.
. .
1. > Ie 1ay n, * ie 2. B.l* ne 3. 4. çher or PIe ker
Typical conventionalBlow-room line
26
Flow chart of co ed yarn m nufadurng w h i ut r eed and output
de ve y pr ud
Input or Feed product Manufacturing process Output or Delivery product
Cotton bale Blow-R om Lap
i
Carding
i
i
Lap
i
$
Sp ng ame)
27
Process and Pr ud of he n R ng sp ning
Process Product Process Produd
-
Drawing
Carding
5. Lap
10 W 1 n d 1 n g :' l.k % )  vj
s .
q 28
l s ayo t of e yan anufad g ys m w h a od n ow oo
l
i
Uniflex
i
Breaker Drawing Pre-comb Drawing
i i
ng )  
o r  
Rin: frame
29
A n b m ne as ow :T e f ow g bow oom ne pov e by the ùtzschler
Bale plucker or bale opener
.
Rieter Unimix
blowroom
ar ng Se ti
 
parallelised and
removes dust, impurities, neps, short fibres to produce a continuous strand of fibres called
sliver of uniform weight per unit length
.
eds of ar g:
Carding is one of the most important operations in the spinning process as it directly
determines the final features of the yarn
above aII as far as the content of neps and husks are
concerne . hee are m ny o ec es of he cardng p cess nd thee cn be sum ed as:
* ndividualization of the cotton fibre at a single fibre staple state i
.e. opening the tufts into
individual fibres;
e. eliminating alI the impurities contained in the fibre
that were not eliminated in the previous claning operations;
@ Disentangling of neps i,e. removal of neps;
* Selecting the fibres on the basis of length
,
@ Farallelising and stretching of the fibre;
* Finally produce a continuous strand of fibres called sliver of uniform weight per unit length i
.e.
,
. <
.
Se al view of he cardng ach e h ho per eede
The carding operation is carried out by the card
,
tatig o s, e d fi d flts
,
.
n p rig the fi e tuts r sp
,
doubling and drawing represent two essential
op ati s and th r co bined effct erm s a sl er th a m re regular sectin to be
btaine th gh d g) ui ed th paralel fi s th gh draw g) as l as th
ou t ue ed by e sp ng pan
 
31
he d ng ope at n ne w h the machine caled te aw am , pe s a ho ogeneo
blend both w th s f he sa e na re as l as bres w h a nt natu ; he bl
steps are usually between four and eight.
n a r th fire ch racteristis ch as I th a d f ss, a r th p l fires
ts a ya n h better egulariy nd nc . e draw ng depe ds n s e fact s such
s e number of ub ngs ca d out nd the ale of e co nt of e en y Slver an
de vey sl er. th daw ng, curls, cr ps and ks e aso el ated, ea g the fi
folded in on themselves, present in the carded sliver.
raw g is a p ess n w h the sl r s ga d by passng t through a se s f par
roflers, each pair moving faster than the previous. This permits combination of several slivers
and g and e ngating tem o staihten and crate greater y o m a regul
sl r of al r ameter. s ct n p s the stape ength se o r ea h othe, th reb
ro g ger and th r ers,F aly te sl r s tak n to the sler ca
Draw frame
* Parallelisation of fibres;
* ce irr ritis f fi s y g d rafti
@ Remove remaining dust from sliver;
* ndng of fi e to povde co pensation of raw aterial va ati
There are o passages of aw ng ae ues
* Breaker drawing and
ween them, like on the card
,
there are also autolevelers on the finisher
dra fram s, hose b t s to corect the t n funct n of variati s
n te f ro s ass, to
intain the section of sliver as even as possible and therefore reduce the fr
equency ofma
.
,
; 2. On-board computer.
,
o ed e co ng ach
.
.
,
.
'
.
.
atrial un ergo s a lght raft of aro nd
.5 to 2 times one a drawing aggregate of the type 2
on top of 3 cylinders.
è
the car . The process eliminates
s carred ut i r to i ve te q ai of the slver co ng
a controlled proportion of the shortestfibres, it achieves
better parallelization
functions that the combing process
nd it emoves ep and res e ties.
is essentially aimed at obtaining
from these
y to fufil ths ti raw
echancad eatues ust e ued m e vey beginn g of e spining process. epend
n what s beng p uc , ase m co ng va es m 12% o 25%, nd this can be
ployed to obain ya ns h a di coare c nt using the o en nd pocess. So c bing
ay e defned as Straighten g nd para sig of fi s and vig f sh t fi s, ne
an pu tis by usig co b (co s) assciated by knives, ushes nd ers
materials with above average physicalan
out of
For e p n of e and very ood ua y yans co ng p ocess s essen al. Fine .00th
co s conti e s aihtening the f s until they ae a anged h a h h deg e of
parallelization that the short fibres, called noils are combed out up to 25%. Combing operation
s not ne when man de fi es are pocesfig. Fialy a s er s ed by necessar
rafting
e main obj s of e c ng are bel
* To re ve s t s be w a e-seected I h so at the ner enabe
uce finer yarn etter yarn tat cannot be possie in car ng tate
* o r ve eps nd ein at r m e
More straighten and parallisation of the fibres.
Co bing ope at
tr tin of com g to y n q al
Improve the uniform ity and strength
fm prove the spinning value of fibre
 
Produce much clearer yarn
* Reduce the hairiness of yarn
* Improve better twist distribution in the yarn
Si plex or oving f e:
The task of this machine is to transform the sliver coming from the drawframe into roving. lt is
se t n the ca d rig g cyce and in the co d g sp g cyc , n the fst se
t is und fo g the postca ng aw ame ne r o awng teps), e n
second case aftr the p st-c bing awfram . Futher afting of the slvers nd twst g take
ce until the cottn stck is ab t o a vey sm l di eter h s c d vi . ovng
the fial uct of the p paatoy p cess. For the rotor spnn g system ths cess can be
ted. g s no te sie st th; t l reak a rt y th a y sl t
Reduce the neps in the yarn.
1 ,, j
ngtj- stape
8
an m e sver nto rvig occus in a c ntinu us manner hrough three stages
@ Drawing
* Twisting
. ndng
k
( th
'
apon pable Of ng w h entering ver uns of 12 e o 024 e nd couns of
, de vered rving of 0.27 eto 3 e.
?
'
('
 
35
e tw t s n y the tatin of the r cated on the s s, n fact the e t rov
coming from the draft cylinders enters in the higher hole of the flyer, passing through the
hollow arm and then winding on the bobbin. The twist value is given by the following equation:
Revolutions of the spindle (flyer)O
.twists =
Exit Iength 1 st cylinder
The number of revolutions of the spindle can reach up to a maximum value of 1500 rpm. The
twst rate ven by the rving has a va e f between 10 to 100 T/m 5 T/nch). t sh uld
noted that the twist value to give the roving, this being an intermediate product, has a
fundamental practical importance for the next processing stage.
The ad is und by the atin f he b bbn rtating at a h er eed than the fye
sp e), n o r that n e y trn the b n m kes n ad tin to the spinde, a col of
rovng s w d on the bb . e I gth of col s sh rtr for the fst y s and ng r r th
Iast.
bjecs or un ns of speed fr
* enua n of aw e, slver to m roving of eq d hank by ng
Insert small am ount of twist to give required strength of roving.
ng the t st vig n to the bo bi
* Build the roving in bobbin such a form, which will facilitate handling with drawing and
transfer to the next cess.
Operations involved:
ott n spnnng syst
In the cotton spinning system one differentiates between two kinds of yarns:
) Caded rn:
the fie materi n o d ( sen cl d an , cessary aso b d i
the fist stag , t s reso d into the state of l fires on a cad a d d ted in th
 
36
ra ng u t n a d aw am . aft g Iads o a red n of e f re mass per ve
Su eq ently the viual ve , w th a er ass, e eced togeth r
m a aw e slve . Co paed to t e ca ed sver e dawn slver ay
a better fibre a nment tow s the ngtud al axs of the sver nd
a h her degree of pa zatin between the es
A yarn f y sp n t of ths sver s ca d a ca ed arn
b) Co bed arn:
n the coton spnn g systm a co ng of fi s ut f aw frame slvers s basica
an ad tinal rocessng stag . bing lea s to the f ng rsuts:
A e-det ed po n of shot es s c ed out er e). his i
significant in the case of cotton, which as a natural fibre contains fibres in varyin
engths. Co er e n nt o as m ch as 0% o 0% of he o gial gh
of he fibre lot eing proce d on t e co be . he po tin of ger s
nceased n the co d mat . h gad to te spnn g l s the f ng
rue s
he ng r the fibres are, the finer e can sp
e sh rtr the fi s ar, the ow r s the spnnng t.
Th e can spn fier yarns ro the fire 1 sler) aftr co
bing ads o a gh r egee f ea ness in the e materi
ed to c ded arns a c ed yan has a sof r an . s y s al
an d to ab s ade ut of t.
Spinnng m
his s e nal age of ya n manufact . e goal f s anufad ng p ocess o get ya
s achieved y this achie. Th e are d erent pes of sp g mac . Ring frame s
conventional spinning machine. This machine has very wide scope, because it can produce
coarse to vey fine yarn. l now ths rig sp ng ac e is dey used w e over the
world.
There are alo so e mod n spinig sys s . Ro r nnng sys m s e of . hi
sys m s also vey famous, but t has so e l tat n. t s mai y used fr co rse yarn
n the f g s n te currntly m t i ant spnnng echn ues ae des bed i
ome detai
Ring Spnnng achi e:
This is comparatively the oldest spinning technique and is therefore also referred to as
the classical or conventional process.
e ate l y to the g sp g ac e s in the f m of a . s fi
s is ced n a d tig u . e tw t se d m s ac s d r aches
s vig t e d af g u t. e f es Iy a d o e a r n a h co
m anner. The normal forces generated here enlarge the adhesive forces between the
'
+ + 1)=Q4 n
Principle of Ring Spinning
A n s , n w h the n p ckage (tape d n t e w h ) fi y s
s resp si e r t. d e sp e s a stat na y . n f m e d aft
t s awn r a trav r a sm l etl ece, fr y ng on the ring, d t
Ied to the yarn package. This traveler, Iagging because of the yarn drag on it, is
e r ng- n t e ya . A ed p a d d n move nt f the
s e sha e of the ya n package, ca d a cop or sp ng b
th the r g sp g ch e aI kn n ya n co nts can be sp n and th s e e
co nt nge s cov d 3 e to 148 e r 4 tex o 0 )
Compared to other spinning methods the ring spinning technique, however, has the
est rm e w h a m xi m f t 0 m/m . ne si ficant eas n r
is that the entire yarn package must insert the full amount of twist into the yarn; it
th e can t co e t o l ge. st se n and yarn w n tke place in o
conti s ce s. e d used f r s ads to I ge n si s nd t si
fluctuations with increasing package diameters and prevents the productions of Iarge
 
. u y- ( . . . ... .. c r .
E Rotor Spinning achine:
ne com on aim of unconvent nal sp ning echnques is o exceed the pe or ance
f g sp . s is m y achev d by g t e cess f n f
m that f n w . e r t s at e y n can e w d n at he
speeds.
s a r e t e s ng m ach e is d w th fi s fr m the awn slver. Fi
ce sed on sho t tape sp ng can a o e p ese t n co d slve s.
tin of a r g ( ed d fr g sp ng) s uo s.
(1);;-.,.
'
.
tyF . ' L.- . jsr:::::f:;,.
y ..
:y. (yj: y . t... . y .dj) llii :)81.11 1 ri N
, qs..L. .( ..-....- .,u
.
,L
Principle of OE Rotor Spinning
th ny of these t ch es te f s m e w e sl r e soved nto
l fi s n a p cessig stage p r o actual n sp . n such c s
e is y d as n End S g (E
ut f s se nt E R tor sp g ( tor sp n y ns) s cu ntly of sp ci
 
rom one another
,
d th h a f e gu e ch l
d to the . n e vo ng r sing e s ay th
selves and form a ring
.t f ths ating ng the f s e w th n in a e e or
s pe pend
o t f the fi e
. e r atin of e tor cts n t e f s n the m f
n th y st ve the f e g p
.
s yarn s d away f m
-
s a sut f the f n geo y d
st se n e f s o t ave t e i zed h co l conf ati
on as in a ring
ya . Eve y w d th n f s so col se s n the n acr ss the
gitudinal
n axis. se paces are ca d w
.A th r ef ce is m e to them atr
a direct com parison between rotor and ring arns
.
cess fi s fr m e d aw
r sp ng as etab shed ts f so r n sh t tape sp
. The accent lies here
 
e technique and ne c ns ud
,
.
Ev n f r co nts e n t y be
.
n sh t e sp g OE r r sp ng ses ce at s st
ge by ab ut 5 to 
ti s s co d to r g s
.
.
-
er
The quantiy of yarn on s ng bo ns or s s small pared to the
ackage needed or
.
e p y p ose of the w ding proces s o trnsfr ya
from small spinning packages to Iarge packages
, ch yi d m e efcient ownstea
processing.
. It is an auto coning system
.
By t s mach e we can
prod e a co e h eq ed ength or ght m a number of all ze
spnnng bo bins
.
g systm s us d i
.
e k ttd yarn is so I ri ted (
,
colour
.
 
arn ng or eat ettig and acking
eat set ng s doing n o e kind f . his cha ber s heated at a ce n em atu
) no y by sea . be yan icond ed his atd r at a ce ain t e (60
o 50 ) o set e yan tw . r he t ng these es ae packed by the po ne
pap r n a cartoon w h a ce n nu ber y 24 c es of 08 g ea h f r kn d ya
Total eiht of e package s 50kg. ut r en yarn total ght of e package is 10 bs.
Finay tese carto s are shi ed to pro uce fbric a d so o
 
Yan Co nt)
efi ti
Count s a nu eri l va e, hich exp be coaseness ne ess amete of e arn an
o ndcate te relatinshp between lngh and w ght e mass er unit ngth or
ength p r t ) of at yan. he
,
.
e di ng shes et een o systems:
1. Dirett Count System:
.
count
e co n fatu s of aII t nt yst s e te lng h of yarn s xed
and the
.
The f ng f ula is used to calcuate the yarn c un
C x / 
L
he e, N = Ya n c unt or nu be ng system
W = W t f the s e at the o cil eg n n t e
f e
I = t f gth of the sa
eeng System nit of ngth ) t of eigh
T x w stem, n 1000 metres No
.of Grams
.
. of Grams
42
Denier
DeciTex
grams per 9000 metres.
: No. of kilograms per 1000 metres.
: No. of Ib per 14,400yds.
he Tex f a ya n ind ates the w ght in g es f 1000 etes yar
. So that 40 Tex
means 1000 metres of yarn weigh 40 gm.
he Den r of a yarn ates the w ght n g es f 00 etes ya
.So that 150
D ans 000 etes of 'arn weih 150 gm and 100 D means 9000 m trs of ar
weigh 100 gm.
Frm above dscu on t s clded tha, gher e yan nu r coun) coarser e ya
and Iower the num er finer the yarn.
. Ind ed Co nt Sys
.
count
he n featues of alI ect co nt yst s are te w ght of yarn is f d and
gth f arn varies accord g to ts fineness
he ng f a is usd to cacuate the yan co nt:
L x w
ere, N = arn count r um er g ys
W = W ght f e sample at he offcil eg n n the un
of the system
w = t f eiht f he s
I = Unit of Iength of the sample.
umbe ng System t of ength ) nit of ,
sh cotton , e eB) 0 s yds) 1 d
etrc count, m 1000 etes / 1km 1 kg
olen count SW) 256 yards 1 pound b)
olpn tount ewsbury) 1 yard 1 unce oz)
d cou , eK 560 ds 1 nd
ki n co , eL 300 s 1 d
 
43
n briet definitin of he bo e sstems s f s:
English count system
Worsted coun, NeK
Linen count, NeL
he Ne di es how any han s of 840 yards ngth gh o e Eng h po nd. So that 32
eans 2 anks of 840 yards e. 32x840 yards engh w gh one pound
The Nm indicates how many hanks of 1000 metres Iength weigh one kg. So that 50Nm means
50 hanks f 1000 metes . 50x1000 metes ngth eigh one kg and m means 100
hanks of 10 0 m res e. 10 00 metrs ngh eigh one kg.
: No. of 840yd lengths per pound .
: No. of kilometers per kilogram.
: . f 256yd Iengths per ound
: No. of yd Iengths per oz.
: . f 60yd ngths per ound
: . f 300yd Ingths per ound
Frm above dscussi s cocluded that, gher the yarn n ber ount) fi r the yarn ad l er
the number coarser the yarn.
So e i nt to ve si n f tors:
1 yard = 0.9144 metre
1 metre = 1.0936 yard
1 metre = 39.37 inch
1 cm = 0.3937 inch
1 gm = 0.0353 oz
1 oz = 28350 gm
1 pound = 453.6 gram
1 kg = 6 po
1 inch = 2.54 cm
.
.
1 pound = 0.4536 kg
1 d/b = 2.159 m/k
alcuations c ncernng t:
-
Count to be found, Iength and weight must be known.
eiht o be nd, count and Ing h m t e know
en th o be nd, count and w ht ust be know
Example 1:
n a cone, he e e 80 m ya n ch h 90gm. hat s he Ne , m , ex nd Den r of
the yarn?
Ne = 11.87
Ne = 12
For Nm :
Denier = 450
Example 2:
w hat Iength of yarn is contained in 1.2 kg of a yarn of Ne 30?
So
L = ( 00) /
L = 60666.67m
am ple 3:
How many kg do 700 000 m of a yarn of Ne 30 weigh?
Solution:
W x I
W = 13 846.15 gm
Known value Needed value
bbr den ktex ex dtex ex m e eL K
'u den -- 0.00011 0.111 1.111 111 Sûûû 5315 11882 7972 17449
x den x den x den x den den den ien den den
ktex 9000 --- 1000 10000 1000000 1 0.590 1,654 9.226 1.938
x ktex x ktex x ktex x ktex ktex ktex ktex ktex ktex
tpv 9 0.001 -- 10 1000 lûûû 59û.5 1654 826 1932
Tt --- x tex x tex x tex x tex tex tex tex tex tex
jtex 0.9 0.0001 0.1 x -- 100 lûûûû 59(5 16549 2269 19329
x itex x dtex dtex x dtex dtex dtex dtex dtex dtex
mtex 0.009 0.000001 0.001 0.01 x --- lûûûûûû 590022 1654(50 826(59 1932999
x mtex x mtex mtex mtex mtex mtex mtex mtex mtex
Metr. No Nm -9tXC 1 10ûC lûûoc lûoûûûo --- 0.590 1.654 0.886 1.938
'Nm Nm Nm Nm Nm x N
m
x Nm x Nm x Nm
 
< N N N N N x N x N x N x N  e e e e
e e e e
ginen Nek 14822 1.651 1654 16540 1654000 0.605 0.357 --- 0.536 1.172
NeL NeL NeL NeL NeL x N
et x Nek x Net x Net
worsted Ner 7972 0.886 886 2260 286000 1.129 0.667 1.867 --- 2.188
Nek Nek NeK Ner Nek x N
eK x Nex x NeK x NeK
Woollen New 17440 1.938 1938 19380 1938000 0.516 0.305 0.853 0.457 ---
w ew ew NeW NeW x New x New x w x NeYorkshire)
Application:
tiy or e the kno n va e by the f tor ven r d va e to obt n the
desired value.
From the above chart the following count conversion formulae those are very important for
actial
000 9000
m = D =
D Nm
00â 100
m= Tex=
T Nm
 
47
Ex m le 1: Known vaue: 32 Ne Ne ded v lue: Nm, T x, D nier
Nm = 1.693xNe = 1.693x32 = 54.176 = 54
Tex = 590 / Ne = 590 / 2 = 18
ni = 5315 / e = 5 15 / 32 = 16
Example 2: Kno n value: 15 D Needed value: Ne, Nm, Tex?
e = 5 15 / den = 5315 / 150 = 33
m = 000 / en = 00 / 150 = 6
Tex = o.lllxden = 0.111x150 = 16.65
nt cacuatin and enot n es at n) r pIy or do ed ed) ya
Ply yarns are produced by twisting two or more singles yarns together. This increases the
ength of the yar . he ngles ya ns ay be of eq al r er nt nt and t ey may be
sted together in ne or several stag s. s of ffrent co nt are twstd togeth r n fnc
yarns, for instance.
gnat n f y yar
n the esinatin of y arn, e d erent pti s e co y u
e to l co nt, ch is esigned y o gve i n ab ut the co po
f the py yarn, . the r f consttu t yarns, ther coun, twst and ct n of twst (
nd the f ng t.
e n nal esu nt) to nt, ch e co nt of a sng s yarn of e s e f eness s he
folded or pIy yarn. This is sed mainly in calculations.
e effed e co , ch is e n nal nt, ectd f r the enng of he y n during
blng ntac . t tr es n a so ew at sh er nd coarsr yarn
he fo ng ex ples quo ed rom en ative T xte San ard . 2 l ustrate th
od.
40/1 Z 16 r g-sp ercan cott
s escrbes a singe yan of lear ensity 40 tex (ap x. 5s cotton co nt)
ha g 16 t . Z t st, sp n on a ng fame f m erican cottn. ad al
. ho s f escr ng e e yarn de e f ow ng
15s ring-spun American cotton, 16 Z;
 
15/2 S 18; 7/1 S 27 cott
s escribes a tw d cottn yan of rsutant lnear densty 15 tex havng 18 tp
S- rect ) fo ng t st, ade frm o singe arn, eah of ear nsy 7 tex
and ha ng 7 tp. recti . adti al etho s f descr ng the sa e yarn
clude the fo ng
2/80s ; 7 S x 18 : r ply 2/80 ton.
e that 5 tx is ap xi atey eq va nt o 40s cottn co nt, nd that th
es ant nt f a 2/80s n ya , ch is d by t g togeth r
singles each approximately 80s cotton count, is 40s cotton count.
5/ Z 20; 15/2 S 18 7/ S 27 c
s escrbes a cottn-se ng thread of resul nt Inear ensiy 5 tex ade b
twst g tgeth , h 20 tp. twst, th e t d y rn si r to that escr
n (1)
e fist fiure in yarn descriptins set out cco ng to Tentative T xte Stan ard N .
al ys r s to t es tant t of the fina arn. n xa e (1, the f fi res
have the following meanings:
3 Z 20 tes that e r y f the fi l n s 5 t , t it co sts f 3
twstd t ether th a twst f 0 tp , Z.
15/2 S 18 cates that ach of the 3 ples co ri g the fi l rn conssts of a t fo
thread having a resultant Iinear density of lstex, and a doubling twist of 18 tpi., S.
7/1 S 7 i cates that ach of the s gle y s c rising the t o-f d p s c sits of a
cottn yarn hav g a l ear sity f 7 tex, nd a sp nig t st f 7 pi,
* th regard to a plain pIy o e m st ff ntiate between t o possibities. uch a
can consist of
yarns having different counts.
y w h ya s of e s e co nt:
his s he most y used pain ply.
I ' akulatin of co nt n e ed syst
z't
(.
-
.
t ere, R = Ply r resutant co nt . m r e)
, ' N = e rn t . m r e)
-
L
.: )jj:
-r'
49
Ex e : A py consi s f 2 nge ya ns, each havng a co nt of m 5
N
= 50 / 2 = 25 N
Example 2: A py c s of 2 s gle yarn, ach avng a co nt of e
N
= 40 / 2 = 20 N
otin or at n ba ed n the ind ed ys
N/n
he py in the ple s deno d as f s:
m 50 / 2; m 30 / 2 / 3; m 40 / 2 3 / 4; e / 29 0 / 3 e / 2 / 3 etc
cu n of co nt n the d ed ystem
NR = N x n
= Snge yan co nt tex o en
n = N r of yarns n the p
Example 1: A ply consists of 2 single yarns, each having a count of 20 tex.
So : y count R = N x
= 20 x 2 = 40 tex
Ex ple : A py cons s of 3 nge arns, each hav g a count of 50 den
solution: Ply ceunt NR = 50 x 3
= 50 x 3 = 150
no n or esinat n based on the ect sysem
N x n
e py in the exa e is enoted as f ows:
20 tex x 2; 50 den x 39 330 dtex x 2 x 3 etc.
@ us te py enot n al ays co s the singe arn co nts, riten n a rescrbe
anne. A kn ed c s ofen uced y fee ng n to very dom ee) yans
at each feder wthout t r eig twsted vi sly. t s ortant to n e that i
 
50
ngth calcuatin of a co e of sew ng th ead
am e 1: hat enth f arn s aied in 95gm of a yarn of e 0/2
solution:
L = 4002.31m
'From the above calrulation, the formula can be developed to caltulate the Iength of sewing
ad f m a t e as ow
-
.
'
.
W here,
j L = Lengh f e yan n ete
.
.
;J
(. L = Nq X W
: t, R = Resu ant r pIy nt of ya
 * ' l
.
y ya n
In the design of textile products: yarns are first selected on the basis of their mechanical
properties such as strength, extensibility, elasticity, etc.Choices may also be made on the basis
of the so-called physiological properties such as vapour permeability and moisture transport
,
Iength, and the spinning system . .
However, yarns may also be selected for their appearance. Special types of yarns, both single
and folded, can be created to give particular optical effects.
Colour effects:
1. Mixture or Ingrain: These yarns are made by mixing fibres of different
colours during spinning. This results in a heather effect. Fabric example:
marengo.
Melange or Vigoureux: These yarns are spun from combed sliver or top
which has been printed with stripes. The appearance is somewhat Iike
mixture.
IV.
laspe' or Mouline': These yarns are made by folding two or more
differently coloured yarns, or yarns made from different fibres with
different dyeing behaviour. They give a mottled appearance. Fabric
example: f resco.
.
.
qkr. .;r : ... 7( ..... n. :.)w î .n( ::trL.'. T$ ï )r .k...4
Mottle or Marl: These yarns are made by spinning from two-colour
rovings or from two rovings of different colours. The appearance is Iike
mouline' but with Iess sharp contrast.
. -
Jy.7 .> a . --a.- <.. -x l '..%'*r.....e (t af:kp.ùyL .w I ;' )ï@:r . t.
.-tt sbjt.. r ... %x . . (. s.. ..s.-..ù.i. '' ' '. ' . ç'. : ' ' ' '. :% kr 2i?.1..2:r >''  .. ôr . r
lytltk. ..r ;:cL .r . t.q'l . .. 7 . k.w;t')yp . j y.
j . .. .v
,
,
B. Structure effeds:
1. Nub: These yarns are single or folded yarns having long thick places, regularly
or irregularly disposed. The slub effect is made either in spinning or in
folding. Fabrics may have the character of Iinen or wild silk which is favoured
in furnishings.
-
.
. .
.
. . .
 
52
Chenille: This is a cut pile yarn, it is soft and voluminous. These yarns are
made by cutting special fabrics into strips. They are used in furnishing fabrics
and knitwear.
v u
1 - ' ' ' .
% ' . . . . .. .. .. TL ...y h,;. g. . .w o .. a z y.>. .v .. .> ) - ; . . . . .. . .  J . . ..x oy . .... .. ; :Qi ... c 7f; .k (. z t.. . . .). 7..' à j ' 'Ls.yzftgy y).., u ;: s. .c u u..y-sè. '
Erepe: These yarns are used to m ake fabrics with a wrinkled surface and a
sandy handle. They are made from highly twisted yarns. Fabric examples:
crepe de chine, georgette, crepon, marocain.
Bourette or knop: These yarns are folded yarns containing short, often
co red unches f fi s r yarn at ular r rrgu r nte als. e kn ps
ay be f ed uring ca ng, g sp ng, r g f Fab
have a structured surface. Example: Donegal tweed.
V. Boude' r : e arns e co po d ar s ade by a special
s ch resu s n wavy or ed poj ti s.Fa s ave a m e o
Iess grainy handle and a textured sudace. Examples: boucle', frise', frotte'.
att or lustre effects are obtained by mixing matt and bright fibres. Lustre and glitter
cts can aso e o d by the use o tal r ta ed stic fi
Lu x), r cl r s, r ade fres th specilcrss-scti s. Fa c xa s:
brocade Iame'.
'
..&: r c . . ...>: t /@ x ) 'L t ï .Rt2% k - ï; :@ 2 . '' % 7: z>'4 qtk L - w '' . à +5 a ;. a( j'(/..z 1 . .e .1 ee . 'œk B T :
y' tjjo. ; .1.'Gf 'k>j )'.j )y .x.v ' ... .p... . a J.' ljjz's ( tjk yyyjjjjtjykjg jjyjjj j x . . .. . ;q.yjjhyyy. ysjy j jji ,.s y .js. jyp . .
 .a. , zw ... i .th)i F qrp
a
j;' rsk .jkâs y .t;fq;Lt-L.L jj
.
 
.
tqùs4tj(11jk5 
 
.
. 
î p.l' . . . . . ..
:..'
, .
'
Fa ric:
Fa c s a f e r st e co tr ted f m so ti s, fi s, , r fab , n
at n. ex e fab s can be produ d di y f m bs of s by b ndng, usng o
interlocking to make non-woven fabrics and felts, but their physical properties tend to restrict
ther otential en sage. he echa cal nipuatin of ya n i o fabric is the ost vesati
ethod of nuac ng texte fab s r a w e rnge of nduses.
Ty es of Fa c:
There are thee principal methods of mechanically manipulating yarn into textile fabrics:
nte eaving (interlcing or nterlac nt), ntrl ng nd i twning. I thee thod
have evolved m ha d-man d t chn es ugh thei r pplcatin on e f es
into sophisticated manufacturing operations on automated machinery.
a. Interweaving:
t s the ntesectin r nte ac nt of t o ses of s t th ads, rp (nds)
nd w t ( cks or ng, h crss and nte eave at r t a ng s o ea h oth
W eaving is by far the oldest and most common method of producing continuous
ng s f tr ht dg d f c.
ven fabrc nt acng
. ng
conssl of frmng s) nto ops, each of w h ityp aly y r eased af r
 
54
p struct e is chev . e l s e a o h d to et r by the ya n passi
m ne to e next. ni ng is e m st co n met d of ng and i
seco d o y to w avng as a met d f uf cturng extie ucts. t
st d at ver seven n to s f d g ds e p uced a nu
th ut e . h the e capabi y f knttng to uf
sh ped nd f fiting cls has n u d fr centu s, n t no gy
s enabld knittd constuc ns in shaped a d nsh d fab c m to exp nd
nto a w e rnge of pp , estc nd indust l d- se
p kn d c eft kn d br
Kn ted f c (nte ng / lnte shng
C. Intertwining and twisting:
t cl s a n r of ni s, su h as g nd knoti ng, e t
e caus d to nt ne w th ea h o r t ht ng s r e r s. ese
sp cic ses.
.
hee s nother ethod of an atng di cty e nto textie fab cs s so ca ed nonwoven
process. s ely yong banch of th exte ind y has expnded eorm us af r the
:
 
.
 
55
ve s are fex , poous poducts consi ng f ne or e f e aye
.The separate
fibres may either be preferentially oriented in one directi on or may be deposited in a random
manner. They are bonded by chemical
,
.
.
nw n ab c chanial, che cal r al ondng
Fa c ass n at a g
eaving machine / Loom
nt acig/ nt ace . p/End -+ ve cal ya
& aral l o the sevedg
. /p ks-+ ri tal
Knitting machine
lI. Knitted Fabric Knitling Process One or one set of yarn
nte shng/ Inte opng
chan / he ca l bo ng
dig achi
. ed F
yan m a sI
nt ning/ ag na
 
voven Fa cs:
,
nterlaced w th one other cc ding o he ass of uct e a d f m of es n hat
desied
Yarn from Spinning
shutte ) uttl ss
i
av g p pa at
.
,
the next
.
However, in practice, the condition
f arn d on the sp g mach e is ot al ays go d enough to be us d d ecty f
c rmati . cka e size
, arn surface ch ct stcs, nd oth r actos ake it necessary
r b0th weft yan and arp arn o be f er oces d fr efcint c at
.These
.
 
58
.
 
p yan isu ctd to hihe
tresses which equi s ex a prpa ati . he eft ya s e not su ectd to he s e type of
stresss as the w p ya ns and t us e eas y pa d f r the avng ces
.Depending on
,
but rat r taken str ht off
e spnning pr ss nd nspo ed to the weav g oce
. s is he case w h op n-end
(roto , et d frict n pinning sys s hich ovde a l ge sigle-end package su bl
for insertion during weaving. However
,
ng spun ya ns need to go t ugh a w ndng oce
for several reasons that are explained below
.
epe d on yarn type as w
,
warping, sizing and drawing-in or tying-in.
Spun y n qua y charct s that e most nt f r go d w aving pe a nce
ncude sh t and ng m ht niform
,
perfct ns, tens e p pertes and ha ness.
t ho d be no ed that va ation n a prop y is a t al s e ant han he
,
a second concept of
ua y has to be ace . t nly ust he ua y of the yarn iself be nta ed and
.
e co t of r air a yarn f re s m ch lss if t cc s p r o te ng process
. ln
.
any i
not ost of the qua ty blems nc nte d d ng f c rm ng ae di y related to
.
,
t w l e sc ss d fi t for
yan sys s. he wea ng process is cuarly abusive to Ingthw se yarns in a ov n fab c;
heefoe, he tech ology su un ng the eparat n of arp ya n for eavig s ven special
attention.
nding:
 
This simple
efi n ay make the w ding sound lke a tr l ocess; owever
t is an i portant nd
.
.
Ring spinning
uces sm l ackages of yan (ca d spinner's packages or ns) hich uld b
.
he ef e, he am unt
yan on seve l small packages is co bied by splcing or knottng nto a sing
.
 
Building Iarge packages Yarn Faults
* The winding process provides an opportunity to clear yarn defects. Thin and thick
plces, slubs, neps or Ioose fibres on the yarn are cleared during winding and, thus, the
overall quality of the yarn is improved. Staple yarns require this clearing operation most
because they may have these kinds of faults more often.
The increasing use of newer spinning technologies resulted in a situation where the oId
concept of yarn clearing and package quality now has become a part of the spinning process
rathe r than part of a separate winding process. Properly formed packages of defect-free
spun yarn a re an even more critical factor. Package considerations include condition of the
ka e cor, the pro e r rovsin of n transfr tais; prpe y frm d s s r kn ts
elimination of internaldefects such as slubs, sloughs, tangles, wild yarn, scuffs and ribbon
wind; and elimination of external defects such as over-end winding, cobwebs, abrasion
scufs, po r acka e shape r bu d, per densty ardness) nd un nd bitv.
ng Pr s:
There are three main regions in winding; those are shown in the following figure.
) Reg n
ng of yan f m e sp ning package - he yan package s hed n e cree
in an optimum position for unwindi ng. Yarn withdrawal can be done in two ways :
e w hdraw : n his d e spool s otated and he e the ya
does not rotate during withdrawal. As a result, the yarn twist does not change,
which is an advantage.
60
ce e ya n s not , the s l st e f r sie w
 This
i s ti l y and i nt, h is a sa
. t
winding speeds, due to inertia, the rotation of the spool can cause yarn tension
ati s. n st , r si s y e d d b ca se the
winder must overcome spoo inertia.
e draw al
nd al: n this sp , the spool oes not rotat
.Therefore, the
s so d w th tatig a s l e av
. The method is sim ple e
and does not require driving the spool
e di dva e of s syst m s ba g w h is e to the w y te ya
s hdaw n and un und f m he package at hi h speeds
. Centrifugal force
ses e ya n to f w a cu ved pa h l g to ba ng u n n of
the ya rn. Ballooning leads to uneven tensions in the yarn
. Each e one
,
the twist in that
ngth s by ne t . s change m y be ins ca t r r nd
yarns, but in cases where flat yarns of metal
 
.
he e ya s cannot be
unw ound using the ve end method; th ef e, he side w thd awal et od
must be used.
) Reg n 2:
e t ns nig and c g n - n t s n, r ns n is ven to the
n fr a des d packa e dens y and bo . e t cal co po s f s reg
e a t sin d vice, a d vice to detct ck a d t n spots n the y n
evce) nd a stp m ti . e stp n ca ses e nd g to stp n c se
ya n b ka e or e d et n of a su y pa kag . he ya n is d nto t
n by a gui
e ae t o t pes f es: clsed a d . ed g des uie a yan d t
th d, d o n g s o ot. n s, ve, e ss sitive g ng
ng ng isues hee are guie s othn ss, sin bet een ya n and gui
ca sig yan d . f e de s o , e of n d e to a sin
ccu. n the o r , f e gu e is o sm h, ct n may d ve .
 
' V
us s f n g : p t - w e h d c , top t - sma cer
co , ott m ht - a si , tt m eft - d p ce
e uies are easer o m nu act e to any shape. he ch m ayer can be
satn fi shed r rr r po hed de en i ng on t e . eram c-oa d
s e e pec y d f r syn etic s. e s ne
st ce of ce c co s th d ct y f tals e g c
s o e . s a , e is no d f r ns ts, s or
um na sinter d yarn gu es th mat suraces a e rec ended f r synthe c nd
d ya s (ny , st , ) e a a s d yan g s wth po sh
s r d d s s ae g y used fr tu l s (sik,
ottn, . ce n y n g s ae p d w h t r r ze . y
st nt to w r f tu l r ynth c fi s a d
Ceram ic Inser't Trum pet Busla
Tvpe A:- A Yarn End is Required for Threading
o <- '
Tvpe B:- A Yarn End is Not Required for Threading
pes f yan
Tensi n Y c
The tension device maintains a proper tension in the yarn to achieve a uniform
ka e d . t o se ves s a d ct r f r ce y w k spo s in te ya
t k r e ad d t sin i d by t e t sin dev
hee ae t e maj r s of n d s; e ae n in te f
figure.
@ tan r ulti ati
The output tension depends on the input tension, coefficient of f riction
e n the yan a d te po t , d te t l nge of p
Y = Yin CVCut
Since g, (x and e are constants, Tout is' a constant m ultiple of the incoming
n Tn ( s is te re n why stan is calld ca ve. f o
zero, so is the Txt.
ns . g can be chang d by c ng ng the post ter l r yan s ac
characteristics.
oçzrlxlxxxa
N
* ve en oner;
n t s syst , a d w t r g is used to ap y a rm l ce (
to change the tension. The output tension is calculated by:
Tout = Tio + 2 -tN
Si nce jt and N are a pproxi mately constants for a given system, Tout is
obtained by simply adding a constant to Tin. If Tjn is zero, there is still an
output te nsion Tout = ZgN. Tout may be c hanged simply by changing the
normal force N.
m wrkyj
> e . '.
. 'r ' ' >
Cap an en r (or ie y n Disc en er
* Com bined tensioner:
This is the most com mon type, which consists of atleast a disc, and
stn pe nsi . e nsin s chang d by n l ce /or
angle.
= n 1+ 3 + 2
nsatng ya n nsi n r ul
n ar
e p rpo e of a n etect r s o e t n d th k ces. n det ct s a
sua y t o t : cal d e ctr
A chanial r y be as si e as o aral l de . e tance b
e ates is djust e o a w y a p d yan d ter o ss
th ug . A th ker t n e ya n ( ) l ca e te t sin on he y rn to
up nd ve tua y b eak the rn. seque ti, his ype of evce c n only d
k p ces in the
e cl s of s tech y a e e st ated a d c n ctr cs
ch co usly tor e y rn to tect thin d thik . ct
ct s e y t o : ca ve d to- ctr . n a citive tpe
ct , the va n in e ss f e y rn passing t b the s
the capaci nce f the u t. t d be e sized t at e system s
s of the y . e sinal s t sed n te hys l si s of the ya
 
66
In a photo-electric detector, the yarn passes between a Iight source and a photocell.
ny fuctuatin in ya n thckness ca s the uctu n f ht co ng tö
photocell, which changes the resistance of the photocell. This resistance change is
detected by a signal conditioning amplifier which can be set to send a signal to cut
e yan nd st p the w ng cess.
a) Capacitive detector
.
;
Principle of mechanical yarn clearer Principles of electronic yarn clearers
è
)q
i.
:
,
he I st ya n cl ng st s n aso de t n es. hese fi s
t classi d and e ated d ng te ng p cess. s a r , e ua y f
n can be oved ng e ng cess
.
S op G on:
The purpose of a stop motion is to stop winding when the yarn breaks or runs out.
Stop motions vary from machine to machine. In general, a mechanical stop motion
consist of a counter weighted or spring loaded sensing device which is held in an
inactive position if the yarn is present. Breakage or running out causes the absence
of his str ng ya n a d a ows he sensng de ce to ac va . ec c sto
motions simply sense the existence of the yarn without mechanical contact.
p
k
-
) e ng n - n s n, the ya n ka e h s ta e r fu
.
cl ng co , e or e, dye e or spo
processing.
depend ng on the next stage o
he b c r nt f g is un rm sin on te . rm sin
ssary f r sistent ng d y rn u y th r pect to p tis t at
e funct s of ns . f e n on yarn passiœ the tens n d ce i
constan , the t sin in the p kage sh d be const nt pr d t the y
sp d is st nt, , e t si n n he pa ka e is y a ctin of e y
speed.
e ya n is nd on the p kage by o y r i ng the ck . si r a dsc
s R, tatig at n r ve y . he , e I r y (or the tan
spë ) f y po t n the c cum e of the p kage s:
V = to R = the yarn Iinear velocity
heef e V = f œ d R
The rotation of the package may be accomplished in two ways: Spindle drive and
Friction drive.
Spindle YZCR
a ng p age Spindle e of a package Fr n ve of a package
* Spindle drive w inder:
n ths syst , the s , h h s the ck , s n d ctl.
e t o va ns of s system : st t d s and va e sp
nde s.
e spi e is d ven at a st nt
 
, V = YR = f
s e yarn s nd on the package, R increases, hence V ncreases.
s s not a d si , s d b
ce T = n = f , a e in n ve ciy ses a ch nge i
ns . , e ns n w l vay t the p ka .
pr m can be ve ome y g te s co d type of the spnde drve
systems n w ch the e s d is
Variable speed winder:
n te n V = oR, s ti e o is v . s R es ( .
n on the kag , o l change to k p V = co stnt. though R
0 e v s, the ct R = V = y n ve ciy = cons
e f, a v e sp d tor r a va e d co nectin
d h nc ses the cost. ef , ths systm can be jst
y f r y ca e s. A si e ay to e this is to use the
seco d type of nd
* Fritin e r:
ln this system, the spindle, that carries the package, is free to rotate and the
ckage is ven t ugh su ce ct n be een t e p kage a d a ve
drum or roller.
t the t f co ct A su g no s , ya , ct n d m
package have the same velocity, i.e.
y = Vd = dRd = co stnt , d e c stnt
hu , a const nt su ace speed on the package d the e an ost
const t a n g pe d e . s sys m s y sed f
staple yarns.
T eo g M echanis s:
A av sig m ch m s d to dst e t e yarn y a g t e p kage
e dist utin of e ya n sh d be d e eve y on t e kag
n the fct n d e r , a ve g ve cut o the frctin d
s œ , h is sho n in t e fol g fi . e y rn l t nto the
 
cal ndng ne ved r r ya n t vese
n the sp e e w nd r so in so e frctin d ve, a ca g vese
s use , . n xt y d ven g e c s the ya n ba k d f th a ss t
package.
Types f Packages:
sed on te w ng pa n, n pack s n be gr ped under thr
ca : , l nd c ss- nd p cka
* Parallel wound packages:
hese pa s e r o w p b s; the e e m y ya s, ch
e p l o ach o . For these packa s, es r s
necessaw to prevent yarn instabilties. The application of this type of
package is limited.
* Near-parallel packages:
n ths pe of pa kage, e is usua y ne ya n e d that s d n
cka . A r pa l d pa ka e is ot pp . f
 
O
Cross-wound packages:
A single yarn end is wound on the package at a considerable helix angle,
.
stability and, theref ore, there is no need to taper or flange the edges.
s, a cone or e coud be used n te w g ss.
k
kr
e rato of ng peed ( ) d t ve g speed ( ) s the
cka e t e r ne -p l nd cr ss- d packag . f t s y
ati y fst uccessie Iye s of n w l e d t stict s to e
ot , ng a c s- d cka . f t s sl , uccess e Iye s
be v y se to pa l o h oth , g a r a
ackag . ng off s a con tin e y s f ya n u d f
he p cka e at a . t s n t s ca d a cr cal ng
 
n Vv ng
A n r l s a w t n that s plced ins e a huttle in sh e ving
s te sh e trav s ba k d fo h acr ss the w h of the shutte l ,
eft yan is unw nd f m the p n th h the eye ( r nay shut ) r slot
r uto c shu ) of e s uttle and d in te sh . he yarn on te pin
pe d at e end such t t the yarn w l kes ce sl
without enta nglement.
Schematic of pirn winding
ng f a n s d t f m e r ng ces . n q ng,
ya n is t sf d f m a r package to the s r pin, ch is sh n i
e f i ng . so, e sp ctin of ya n s n t a t f e ess
theref ore, there is no yarn clearing zone.
e t ve se ch sm s so d nt ca se of e d fe nt y
the p . e trav se he e does n t o ba k d f th alng the cka . t
ds ya n on one t of e pa kage at a ti , ch is ho n in the f
. heefo , n b ng is so hat si r o the b ng of a bo
on a ring spinning fra me. This type of winding helps reduce ballooning effects,
n un m te si , d ce the possi y of sl h- f.
he nes that e sed to nd rn ae ca d s'' r pirn
achnes. se chies e au c, ch m s that hen he pi n i
, t s offd a d an y p n is ced on the sp e uto atica .
 
ndig e:
oss g achnes are d r crss g f be , es and bo s
e or o fanges. Yarn laying and package d ve are achieved by a oved d .
crss-wndng, the stab y of the p ckage is rovied y te acute crssng ng .
package ends can be tapered as el. A near pa el ndng ach e w h f r ng
osti s and auto atic doff g aso ava ab . he yarn traverse s cnt ed by a ca
ven ea . da s ndng ac es ow e of ent sie bo ns w h d ren
nge damete , veall en ths and ndng wdths n the ame machne. For ng
of industral yans such as aram , ca n or ass ya ns and ofi en , sp ci
esigned yan g de e nts e u ed. A spinde speed of 5000 r m s
day yarn singeig mac ne w th gas bu ne s f ess te , av ng b er an
ga / a stti th v ri rati s also a ab
eci n W ding
n p n w , the p sitin of the y rn as t s d n the cka e s co tr
y ec y to ncrease he d ns y f e pacage. e f ng figu e sh s
recisin w ng chne. n ths p ticu r ac e, the y rn posti ng systm s al
ec c. h the e c sy , ely gram abe package b ding
.
Sections
Examples of packages ade th precsin ndng arn ep sitin n a pirn
. . v . ,;. g  .
.
.
,
(.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
t
73
Problem :
How Iong will it take for a winder to wind 3.00 Ibs of 16 Ne yarn if the winder
s t 745 d/ . h te ff cy
W e know that,
, t = I gth / sp
Speed, V = 745 yd/m n.
W eight of the yarn in the package, W = 3.00 Ibs
Yarn count, Ne = 16
x
erefore, L =
=
To consider the effect of efficiency,
54.12h
W ARP PREPARATIO N
The eparat n of arp arn is e an ng and c ca d than that of e eft
li
-
arn. Each spot n a w p yan t nd go sev al and cy es of vari s eses
appied by the eaving chne. aving es s e dynam c extns n / con ac
tatin (twst / un st, d c g of rs. aly, th e ae meta-to-yrn a d yarn
yan flexig nd metalo-yarn and ya o-yarn ab asin stesses. ern weavng
ach es have aced icras d nds n arp prep at n ue to as r eavig eed
.
p yarn m t have
.
he nu r of kno s sho d e kept o a m . he kn s d be nd d tpe and size
such t at ey ft th ugh te h dde eyes nd ed en
  Sizing nt ust e a pl
y on t e s ace of e ya . he ya ns n the warp sheet m t be aral l o ach
oth r th equal tens .
p p paatin inv ves g, arp g, sizing nd aw ng-in or ying n. he pu po e o
arp ndng is o f m a pac ge of go d qua y ya n that s arge enough to be sed in
creel of a warp g m chne. ndng of yarn r rp g is sualy d ne at relativey hgh
tension.
arping sec n f r arp ya n ar on
n geneal ter , ping s trnsf ng ny yarns f m a creel of sing nd packages
ng a para l eet of ya ns nd nto a beam r a s n bea
. day's ar
,
 
.
e arp beam t s ns d on a weavng ne s ca ed a weavers beam
.A weaver's
eam can contain ev l usa d ends and fr nt ras ns it s arely p d in o
opera , hee are sev l ypes f arp g pr s de nd g on te p po
. t s uld
no d that the warp g te noogy is te d erent n d rent reg ns nd ti es he
 
75
ar g s ai d at ar g the ers ea