Understanding French II

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Understanding French

Grammar Part II

Words & pharases

Reviewing Numbers

The French cardinal numbers, those used for counting, require you to use math skills once you get past 69. The number 70 is formed by adding 60 + 10, 71 is 60 + 11, and so on until 80 is reached. The number 80 is 4 × 20, while 81 is 4 × 20 + 1, and so on through the number 99.

Consult Table 1 for a list of French cardinal numbers that you should know.

TABLE 1 Cardinal Numbers

Number French

0 zéro

1 un

2 deux

3 trois

4 quatre

5 cinq

6 six

7 sept

8 huit

9 neuf

10 dix

11 onze

12 douze

13 treize

14 quatorze

15 quinze

16 seize

17 dix-sept

18 dix-huit

19 dix-neuf

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20 vingt

21 vingt et un

22 vingt-deux

30 trente

40 quarante

50 cinquante

60 soixante

70 soixante-dix

71 soixante et onze

72 soixante-douze

80 quatre-vingts

81 quatre-vingt-un

90 quatre-vingt-dix

91 quatre-vingt-onze

100 cent

101 cent un

200 deux cents

201 deux cent un

1,000 mille

2,000 deux mille

1,000,000 un million

2,000,000 deux millions

1,000,000,000 un milliard

2,000,000,000 deux milliards

Note the following about cardinal numbers:

• The conjunction et (and) is used only for the numbers 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, and 71. In all other compound numbers through 99, et is dropped and a hyphen is used.

• Before a feminine noun, un becomes une. o vingt et un garçons(21 boys) o vingt et une filles (21 girls)

• For quatre-vingts (80) and the plural of cent (100) for any number above 199, drop the -s before another number, but not before a noun. The -s is also dropped when these numbers are used in an ordinal sense (for example, to express page or address numbers and dates).

o quatre cent vingt dollars (420 dollars)

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o quatre cents dollars (400 dollars) o quatre-vingt-dix-neuf euros (99 euros) o quatre-vingts euros(80 euros) o à la page deux cent (on page 200) o dans la rue quatre-vingt (on 80th Street) o pendant l'année neuf cent (during the year 900)

• Un is not used before cent (100) and mille (1,000). o cent ans (100 years) o mille personnes (1,000 people)

• Mille doesn't take -s in the plural. o cinq mille dollars (5,000 dollars)

• Mille is generally written mil in dates until 1999: o Je suis né en mil neuf cent quarante-sept. (I was born in 1947.) o Starting with the year 2000, the date is written as follows: o Ma fille est née en (l'an) deux mille. (My daughter was born in 2000.) When

another number is added after 2000, mil is generally preferred to mille. o Mon fils est né en (l'an) deux mil( le) deux. (My son was born in 2002.)

• To express numbers between 1,000 and 9,999, you can avoid using mille and simply use cent where it is more convenient.

o mille neuf centsor dix-neuf cents (1,900) • In numerals and decimals, the French use commas where Americans use periods,

and vice versa:

English French

50,000 50.000

025 ,25

$25.99 $25,99

Numbers and Nouns of Quantity Nouns that are used to express a quantity or a measure are followed by de + noun. The cardinal numbers million and milliard, as well as other nouns of number, follow this rule.

• un million de touristes (a million tourists) • onze milliards de gens (11 billion people) • deux boîtes de céréales (2 boxes of cereal) • un tas de papiers (a pile of papers)

Refer to Table 2 for common nouns of number and quantity.

TABLE 2 Numbers and Nouns of Quantity

Noun of Quantity English

une boîte de a box of, a can of

une bouteille de a bottle of

une centaine de about 100

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une dizaine de about 10

une douzaine de a dozen

un kilo de a kilogram of

un litre de a liter of

une livre de a pound of

un milliard de a billion

un millier de about a thousand

un million de a million

un morceau de a piece of

une paire de a pair of

un paquet de a package of

une quinzaine de about 15

un sac de a bag of

un tas de a pile of

une tasse de a cup of

une tranche de a slice of

un verre de a glass of

une vingtaine de about 20

Arithmetic To calculate simple arithmetic problems in French, use the following:

To add: Dix et (plus) cinq font (égale) quinze. 10 + 5 = 15

To subtract: Quinze moins cinq font (égale) dix. 15 − 5 = 10

To multiply: Cinq fois cinq font (égale) vingt-cinq. 5 × 5 = 25

To divide: Vingt-cinq divisé par cinq font (égale) cinq. 25 ÷ 5 = 5

Ordinal Numbers In French, most ordinal numbers (those used to show rank or placement) are formed by adding -i`me to the cardinal number. When the cardinal number ends in a silent e, that vowel is dropped before adding the ordinal ending ( quatri`me is “fourth,” onzi`me is “eleventh,” and so on). Consult Table 3 for exceptions to the rule.

TABLE 3 Exception Ordinal Numbers

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Ordinal French

1st premier or premi`re

2nd deuxi`me or second( e)

5th cinqui`me

9th neuvi`me

21st vingt et uni`me

Note the following about ordinal numbers:

• Premier and premi`re are abbreviated as follows: o premier: 1er o premi`re: 1re

• All others ordinals get a superscript e. o quinzi`me: 15e

• Ordinal numbers agree in number and gender with the nouns they describe. Premier (premi`re)and second (seconde) are the only ordinal numbers that have a feminine form.

o le premier acte (the first act) o la premi`re pi`ce (the first play) o les premi`res années (the first years) o la Seconde Guerre mondiale (the second World War) o les vingt et uni`mes anniversaires (21st birthdays)

• Premier is used only for the first in a series. For 21 to 71, uni`me is added after the conjunction et to express first, and it must agree in number with the noun it modifies.

o la cinquante et uni`me année (the 51st year) • Second(e) is generally used in a series that goes no higher than two. • Use le or la before huit/huiti`me and onze/onzi`me. There is no elision.

o le huiti`me anniversaire(the 11th birthday) o le onze juillet (July 11th)

• In French, cardinal numbers precede ordinal numbers. o les deux premi`res personnes (the first two people)

Fractions Just as in English, French fractions are formed by combining a cardinal and an ordinal number:

un cinqui`me 1/5

deux septi`mes 2/7

trois huiti`mes 3/8

quatre centi`mes 4/100

The most common fractions are irregular:

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un demi (une moitié) ½

un tiers 1/3

trois quarts 3/4

Note the following:

• Demi is generally used as an adjective. When it is used before the noun with a hyphen, it does not agree with the noun it describes. When used after the noun, however, it must agree with the noun it modifies.

o une demi-heure (a half hour) o une heure et demie (an hour and a half)

• Moitié is a feminine noun and must be used with the article la. o la moitié de la classe (half the class)

Multiples

Multiple numbers are used in French in the same way they are used in English:

une fois one time

vingt fois 20 times

mille fois 1,000 times

simple a single, simple

double a double

triple a triple

Here are some examples of multiples used in a sentence:

• Je l'ai fait une fois. (I did it one time.) • Le prix est triple de ce qu'il était. (The price is triple what it was.)

Titles of Rulers

In numerical titles of rulers, cardinal numbers are used (except for premier).

François premier (François Ier) François the First

Henri Huit (Henri VIII) Henry the Eighth

Louis Quinze (Louis XV) Louis the Fifteenth

Time and Using Advanced Time Expressions

Use the following questions and answers to speak about the time of day:

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• Quelle heure est-il? (What time is it?) Il est … (It is …) • À quelle heure … ? (At what time … ?) À … (At …)

Table 1 gives you a quick refresher course on how to tell time in French.

TABLE 1 Telling Time

Time French

1:00 une heure

2:05 deux heures cinq

3:10 trois heures dix

4:15 quatre heures et quart

5:20 cinq heures vingt

6:25 six heures vingt-cinq

7:30 sept heures et demie

7:35 huit heures moins vingt-cinq

8:40 neuf heures moins vingt

9:45 dix heures moins le quart

10:50 onze heures moins dix

11:55 midi (minuit) moins cinq

midnight minuit

noon midi

Here are some more basics on time:

• To express time after the hour, the number of minutes is added. Et (and) is used only with quart (quarter) and demi( e) (half).

• Moins (less, minus) is used to express time before the hour. • Moins le is used before quart. • Because midi (noon) and minuit (midnight) are masculine, to say “half past,” use et

demi, as in the following: Je mange à midi et demi. (I eat at half past noon.) • In public announcements, such as timetables, the official 24-hour system is commonly

used, with midnight as the zero hour: o 0 h 30 (12:30 a.m.) o 18 heures (6:00 p.m.) o 20 h 45 (8:45 p.m.)

Table 2 provides you with common expressions that will help you express time and anything related to it.

TABLE 2 Common Time-Related Expressions

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French English

une seconde a second

une minute a minute

un quart d'heure a quarter of an hour

une demi-heure a half hour

une heure an hour

il y a une heure an hour ago

du matin in the morning

de l'apr`s-midi in the afternoon

du soir in the evening

à minuit précis at exactly midnight

à une heure précise at exactly 1 o'clock

à trois heures précises at exactly 3 o'clock

vers … at about …

dans une heure in an hour

jusqu'à … until …

avant … before …

apr`s after

depuis … since …

par heure per hour

au bout d'une heure at the end of an hour

tôt, de bonne heure early

tard late (in time)

en retard late (in arriving)

à l'heure, à temps on time

en même temps at the same time

tout à l'heure in a while

Using Advanced Cognates

Cognates help you improve your command of a foreign language because they help you relate words with which you are familiar to the new words that you come across in your studies. Although there are differences in pronunciation and spelling, easily recognizable words help you build a working vocabulary rather quickly. The cognates listed in Table 1 should be easy to understand.

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TABLE 1 Advanced Cognates

Adjectives Le La L'

actif balcon banane acteur

aimable bébé bicyclette adresse

ambitieux coton carotte affaire

amusant dîner cathédrale âge

ancien directeur chambre agence

courageux jardin classe anniversaire

délicieux juge couleur appartement

dynamique mécanicien danse artiste

élégant moteur fontaine éléphant

enchanté papier guitare employé

exquis parfum lampe enveloppe

fatigué parc liste exemple

grillé porc maladie hôtel

insignifiant président marchandise océan

intéressant professeur musique oncle

juste serveur nationalité opéra

naïf théâtre paire opticien

sérieux vendeur région orchestre

The meanings of the following regular verbs should be apparent. Just follow the rules for the conjugation of the appropriate verb families to use these words.

- er verbs

accompagner modifier

adorer observer

aider pardonner

blâmer passer

changer payer

chanter persuader

commander porter

commencer préférer

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danser préparer

décider présenter

déclarer prouver

demander recommander

désirer refuser

dîner regarder

échanger regretter

embrasser remarquer

entrer réparer

envelopper réserver

hésiter signer

ignorer surveiller

inviter tourner

marcher vérifier

accomplir finir

applaudir punir

défendre répondre

dépendre vendre

Words Borrowed from French

There are many French words and expressions that are used daily by speakers of English. These terms have been borrowed and incorporated into our language. Check the list below and see how many of these words are, indeed, quite familiar to you.

• à la carte • à la mode • aide-de-camp • blasé • bon vivant • bon voyage • c'est la vie • camouflage • carte blanche • chaise longue • chef d'oeuvre • chic • coup de grâce • coup d'état • cr`me de la cr`me

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• cri de coeur • de rigueur • débutante • déjà vu • élite • esprit de corps • fait accompli • faux pas • fiancé(e) • gourmet • idée fixe • joie de vivre • matinée • naïve • objet d'art • par excellence • pi`ce de résistance • R.S.V.P. • raison d'être • rendez-vous • tête à tête • tour de force • trompe-l'oeil • vis-à-vis

False Friends: French Words in Disguise Faux amis, or false friends, can trick you into making mistakes because they look like certain English words, but have an entirely different meaning in French. In many instances, despite having the same or similar spellings, the words in English and French can even be different parts of speech. Beware of the tricky faux amis in Table 1 .

TABLE 1 Advanced False Friends

English French Meaning

bless (v) blesser (v) to wound

bra (n) le bras(n) arm

bride (n) la bride (n) bridle

car (n) car (conj) because

chair (n) la chair(n) skin

chose (v) la chose(n) thing

cry (v) crier(v) to shout

fond (a) le fond (n) back, bottom

four (a) le four(n) oven

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laid (v) laid(a) ugly

large (a) large (a) wide

lime (n) la lime (n) file

lit (v) le lit(n) bed

liver (n) le livre(n) book

main (a) la main (n) hand

manger (n) manger (v) to eat

ours (a) l'ours (n) bear

pour (v) pour(prep) for, in order to

prune (n) la prune (n) plum

raisin (n) le raisin(n) grape

ranger (n) ranger(v) to tidy

Roman (a) le roman (n) novel

sang (v) le sang(n) blood

sensible (a) sensible (a) sensitive

sent (v) sentir(v) to smell, to feel

sold (v) le solde (n) sale

son (n) son (pron) OR (n) his, her OR sound

stage (n) le stage(n) training course

store (n) le store(n) shade

ton (n) ton (pron) your

tot (n) tôt(adv) early

Circumflex and Acute Accents A circumflex accent (ˆ) or the acute accent on é generally take the place of an -s that appeared in the word in old French. This clue will make it easier for you to determine the meaning of many words and perhaps avoid the use of a dictionary. Fill in the definitions of the words that are left.

Circumflex Accent (ˆ) Accent Aigu é

French English French English

arrêter to arrest écarlate scarlet

bête beast échapper to escape

conquête conquest école school

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coûter to cost épars sparse

croûte crust épellation spelling

fête feast épice spice

forêt forest épier to spy

hîpital hospital éponge sponge

hôte host épouser to espouse

hôtel hostel établir

hôtesse étal

île état

intérêt étrange

pâte étranger

plâtre étude

quête étudiant

rôti étudier

vêtements répondre

Basic Articles

It's easy to overlook the importance of little articles—but don't make that mistake! Take some time to review the basics.

The French articles Articles—small words typically classified as adjectives—generally (but not always) indicate the gender and number of the noun or pronoun that follows. For this reason, articles are often referred to as “noun markers.” The table below shows the articles that are used in French.

TABLE 1 French Articles

Article Masc. Sing. Fem. Sing. Masc.

Pl. Fem. Pl.

English Translation

Definite le ( l' before vowel)

la ( l' before vowel)

les les the

Indefinite un une des des a or an or one or some

Partitive du de la des des some or any

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Demonstrative ce ( cet before vowel)

cette ces ces this or that or these or those

Using articles The definite article ( le, la, l', les) is used with nouns in a general sense while the partitive is used to express some or part of something:

• Nous aimons le pain. (We love bread.) • Donnez-nous du gâteau. (Give us some cake.)

Use un or une when speaking about one portion or serving and use an adverb or noun of quantity or the partitive ( de, du, de la, de l', des) to express amounts:

• Un pain, s'il vous plaît. (A bread, please.) • Une tranche de pain, s'il vous plaît. (A slice of bread, please.) • Du pain, s'il vous plaît. (Some bread, please.)

Use ce ( cet) or cette to express “this” or “that” item and use ces to express “these” or “those.” Use the tags -ci (here) or -là (there) to be even more specific:

• Je préfère ce pain-ci. (I prefer this bread.) • Donnez-moi ces pains-là. (Give me those breads.)

Contractions with articles The following prepositions contract with articles in French:

Preposition + Article = Contraction (Meaning)

à + le = au (to the)

à + les = aux (to the)

de + le = du (some; of, about, from it)

de + les = des (some; of, about, from them)

Basic Nouns and Nouns of Quantity All French nouns have a number (singular or plural) and a gender (masculine or feminine). Singular articles help you to identify the gender of nouns and should be learned with the nouns they modify. Although the gender of some nouns is quite obvious (those that refer to males are masculine, while those that refer to females are feminine), the gender of other nouns can be tricky and must be memorized

The following list goes into more detail about the number and gender of nouns:

• Some noun endings give you a hint as to gender:

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o Masculine endings include -acle, -age, -al, -eau, -et, -ier, -isme, and -ment. o Feminine endings include -ade, -ale, -ance, -ence, -ette, -ie, -ique, -oire, -sion,

and -tion. • Some nouns can be either masculine or feminine:

o artiste o camarade o collègue o concierge o élève o enfant o malade o secrétaire o touriste

• Some nouns can be changed to the feminine by simply adding an -e: o un cousin → une cousine o un ami → une amie

• Some masculine nouns (usually referring to professions) have a corresponding feminine ending:

Masculine Feminine

- an - anne

- el - elle

- er - ère

- eur - euse

- ien - ienne

- on - onne

- teur - trice

• Some words are always masculine or feminine no matter to whom they are referring:

un agent de police un mannequin (model)

un bébé un médecin (doctor)

un chef un professeur

un dentiste une connaissance (acquaintance)

un écrivain (writer) une star

un ingénieur (engineer) une victime

• Most French nouns are made plural by adding an unpronounced -s to the singular form.

• The letters s, x, and z are all used to make plurals in French. If a singular noun ends in any of these letters, its plural form remains unchanged:

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o le fils → les fils o la voix → les voix o le nez → les nez

• Nouns ending in -eau add -x to form the plural: o le château → les châteaux

• Nouns ending in -eu add -x to form the plural, except that le pneu (tire) becomes les pneus (tires):

o le cheveu → les cheveux • Nouns ending in -al change -al to -aux, except for le bal (which becomes les bals), le

festival (which becomes les festivals), and le récital (which becomes les récitals): o l'animal → les animaux

• Some nouns ending in -ou add -x to form the plural: o le bijou → les bijoux

• Most compound nouns (nouns made up of two nouns that are usually joined by a hyphen) do not change in the plural. Remember, however, to change their respective articles:

o les hors-d'oeuvre

Note the following irregularities:

o les grands-mères o les grands-pères o les grands-parents

• Some French words are always plural: o les ciseaux (scissors) o les gens (people) o les lunettes (glasses) o les vacances (vacation) o les mathématiques

• French last names do not add an -s in the plural: o Les Dupont

Nouns that express quantity are followed by the preposition de ( d' before a vowel) before the noun that follows. For example:

• Je vais acheter une douzaine d'oeufs. (I'm going to buy a dozen eggs.) • Donnez-moi un verre de lait. (Give me a glass of milk.)

High-frequency nouns of quantity include:

• une boûte (a box, a can) • une bouteille (a bottle) • une douzaine • une livre (a pound) • un morceau (a piece) • une paire • un panier (a basket) • un paquet (a package) • un sac (a bag) • une tasse (a cup)

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• une tranche (a slice) • un verre (a glass)

Possession, Possessive Pronouns In English we may use an apostrophe and an - s to show that something belongs to someone. In French, however, because an apostrophe is only used to replace a letter that is omitted due to elision, 's is not used to show possession. French uses a different word order than the one we are accustomed to, and possessive adjectives and pronouns also follow a different set of rules.

• The preposition de (of) is used to express relationship and possession. If the sentence requires de and has two or more nouns, de (or d' before a vowel) is repeated before each noun. De contracts with the definite article le to become du or with les to become des in order to express “of the”:

o C'est la voiture du père de Jean. (It's John's father's car.) o C'est la maison de Lucien et de Sylvie. (It's Lucien and Sylvie's house.) o Ce sont les enfants des Renaud. (They are the Renauds' children.)

• Although de can be used to demonstrate possession of a person or a thing, the idiom être à (to belong to) is usually used to show possession of a thing (not a person). Conjugate être to agree with the subject, and if the sentence contains two or more nouns, repeat the preposition à before each noun:

o À qui est ce livre? Ce livre est à Roger. (Whose book is this? This is Roger's book.)

o À qui sont ces CDs? Ces CDs sont à Anne et à Luc. (Whose CDs are these? These CDs are Anne's and Luke's.)

• Like all French adjectives, possessive adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify (the person or item that is possessed) and not with the subject (the person possessing them).

o Claude est mon frère et Anne est mon amie. (Claude is my brother, and Anne is my friend.)

o Il travaille avec sa mère et son père. (He works with his mother and father.) o Elle aide sa tante et son oncle. (She helps her aunt and uncle.) o Les Leduc aiment leurs enfants et leur chien. (The Leducs love their children

and their dog.) • Possessive pronouns are used to replace a possessive adjective + a noun. The

pronoun must agree in number and gender with the noun it replaces. Definite articles contract with the prepositions à and de when used before a possessive pronoun. Use Tables 1 and 2 to select the appropriate possessive pronoun.

TABLE 1 Possessive Adjectives

Used before all masculine singular nouns and any feminine singular nouns beginning with a vowel

Used only before singular feminine nouns beginning with a consonant

Used before all plural nouns English

mon ma mes my

ton ta tes your

son sa ses his, her, its

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notre notre nos our

votre votre vos your

leur leur leurs their

•

TABLE 2 Possessive Pronouns

Masc. Sing. Fem. Sing. Masc. Pl. Fem. Pl. English

le mien la mienne les miens les miennes mine

le tien la tienne les tiens les tiennes yours (familiar)

le sien la sienne les siens les siennes his, hers, its

le nôtre la nôtre les nôtres les nôtres ours

le vôtre la vôtre les vôtres les vôtres yours

le leur la leur les leurs les leurs theirs

o Mes cheveux sont plus longs que les tiens. (My hair is longer than yours.) o Ses idées et les miennes sont vraiment différentes. (His [or her] ideas and mine

are really different.) o Voilà ma voiture. Où est la vÛtre? (There's my car. Where's yours?) o Tu ressembles à tes parents et je ressemble aux miens. (You resemble your

parents, and I resemble mine.)

Pronouns Learning to use pronouns well and naturally is key to become a fluent speaker of French.

Subject pronouns A subject pronoun replaces a subject noun (the noun performing the action of the verb) and is given a person and a number (singular or plural), as shown in Table 1 .

TABLE 1 Subject Pronouns

Person Singular Plural

First je (I) nous (we)

Second tu (you) vous (you)

il (he, it) ils (they)

Third elle (she, it) elles (they)

on (one, you, we, they)

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Object pronouns Object pronouns replace object nouns to allow for more free-flowing expression. There are direct object pronouns and indirect object pronouns.

• Direct object nouns or pronouns refer to “whom” or “what” the subject is acting upon: people, places, things, or ideas:

o Cette chemise? Je la prends! (That shirt? I'll take it!) o Ils vont m' aider. (They are going to help me.) o Attends- nous. (Wait for us.)

• Indirect object nouns or pronouns refer to “to” or “for” whom the subject is doing something and refer only to people. As a clue, look for a form of the preposition à (to, for) followed by the name or reference to a person:

o J'écris à Luc. Je lui écris. (I write to Luke. I write to him.) o Il va te donner un paquet. (He's going to give you a package.) o Lis- moi. (Read to me.)

Keep the following in mind about object pronouns:

• Make the conjugated verb agree with the subject rather than with the object pronoun. • Place the object pronoun before the verb to which its meaning is tied, usually before the

conjugated verb. • When a sentence contains two verbs, place the object pronoun before the infinitive. • In an affirmative command, place an object pronoun immediately after the verb and join

it to the verb with a hyphen. In an affirmative command only, me changes to moi and te changes to toi.

The minitable below shows direct and indirect object pronouns:

Direct Indirect

me [m'] (me) me [m'] (to me)

te [t'] (you) te [t'] (to you)

le [l'] (he, it) lui (to him)

la [l'] (her, it) lui (to her)

se [s'] (himself, herself, itself) se [s'] (to himself, to herself)

nous (us) nous (to us)

vous (you) vous (to you)

les (them) leur (to them)

se [s'] (themselves) se [s'] (to themselves)

The adverbial pronoun y

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The adverbial pronoun y means “there” when the place has already been mentioned. Y can also mean “it,” “them,” “in it/them,” “to it/them,” or “on it/them.”

Y usually replaces the preposition à + the noun object of the preposition, but it may also replace other prepositions of location or position, such as chez (at the house [business] of), dans ( in), en ( in), sous (under), or sur (on) + noun. In familiar affirmative commands (the tu form), -er verbs retain their final -s:

Ils vont au musée. Ils y vont.

They are going to the museum. They are going there.

Réponds-tu à la lettre? Y réponds-tu?

Are you answering the letter? Are you answering it?

Reste chez moi. Restes-y.

Stay at my house. Stay there.

The adverbial pronoun en The pronoun en refers to previously mentioned things or places. En usually replaces de + noun and may mean “some,” “any,” “of it/them,” “about it/them,” “from it/them,” or “from there.” In familiar affirmative commands (the tu form), -er verbs retain their final - s:

Je ne bois pas de café. Je n'en bois pas.

I don't drink coffee. I don't drink any [of it].

Tu veux parler du futur. Tu veux en parler.

You want to speak about the future. You want to speak about it.

Il sort du restaurant. Il en sort.

He leaves the restaurant. He leaves [from] it.

Mange de la glace. Manges-en.

Eat some ice cream. Eat some.

Double object pronouns Two pronouns may be used in a sentence at the same time. The following examples show how double object pronouns are used before the conjugated verb, before the infinitive when there are two verbs, in the past tense, and in a negative command. In the past tense, past participles agree in number and gender with the preceding direct object pronoun. See Table 2 .

TABLE 2 Double Object Pronouns

Order Before the Verb

21

me

te

se le ( l') lui y en + verb

nous la (l') leur

vous les

Order After the Verb (Affirmative Commands)

- moi

- toi

-le -lui -y - en

verb + -la - nous

-les - vous

- leur

Note the different order of the pronouns in the affirmative command:

• Il te l' offre. (He offers it to you.) • Va-t-elle m'en donner? (Is she going to give me any?) • Je la leur ai achetée. (I bought it for them.) • Ne nous les montrez pas. (Don't show them to us.)

But note the difference in an affirmative command, where moi + en and toi + en become m'en and t'en, respectively:

• Dites-le-nous, s'il vous plaût. (Please tell it to us.) • Donne-m'en. (Give me some.) • Va t'en. (Go away.)

The invariable le The pronouns le, la, and les are variable, meaning that they change according to gender and number when used to replace a previously mentioned modified noun:

• Es-tu la petite amie de Raymond? Oui, je la suis. (Are you Raymond's girlfriend? Yes, I am.)

BUT: The invariable le replaces a previously mentioned infinitive, clause, adjective, or unmodified noun, as the four examples below show:

• J'espère gagner le prix. Je l'espère aussi. (I hope to win the prize. I hope so, too.) • Je pars tout de suite si tu le veux. (I'll leave immediately if you like.) • Est-il occupé? Non, il ne l'est pas. (Is he busy? No, he isn't.)

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• Êtes-vous actrices? Oui, nous le sommes. (Are you actresses? Yes, we are.)

Independent pronouns Independent pronouns (see Table 3 ) may stand alone or follow a verb or a preposition. They are used to emphasize a fact and to highlight or replace nouns or pronouns.

TABLE 3 Independent Pronouns

Singular Plural

moi (I, me) nous (we, us)

toi (you) vous (you)

lui (he, him) eux (masc. they, them)

elle (she, her) elles (fem. they, them)

soi (oneself)

Independent pronouns are used as follows:

• To stress the subject: o Lui, il est vraiment sérieux. (Him, he's really serious.)

• When the pronoun has no verb: o Qui parle? Elle. (Who is speaking? She is.)

• After prepositions to refer to a person or persons: o Dinons chez eux. (Let's eat at their house.)

• After c'est: o C'est moi qui paie. (I'm paying.)

• After the following verbs: avoir affaire à (to have dealings with), être à (to belong to), faire attention à (to pay attention to), penser à (to think about [of]), se fier à (to trust), and s'intéresser à (to be interested in).

o Je pense à lui. (I think about him.) • In compound subjects:

o Elle et moi (nous) allons au café. (She and I [we] are going to the café.) o Marie et toi (vous) partez? (Are you and Marie [you plural] leaving?)

• With -même(s) to reinforce the subject: o Je suis allé au concert moi-même. (I went to the concert by myself.)

Relative pronouns A relative pronoun (“who,” “which,” or “that”) joins a main clause to a dependent clause. This pronoun introduces the dependent clause that describes someone or something mentioned in the main clause. The person or thing the pronoun refers to is called the antecedent. A relative clause may serve as a subject, a direct object, or an object of a preposition.

Tables 4 , 5 , 6 , and 7 summarize the use of relative pronouns.

TABLE 4 When the Relative Pronoun Is the Subject

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Antecedent Relative Pronoun Example Translation

Person qui Voilà la fille qui parlait. There's the girl who was speaking.

Thing qui Je lis un livre qui me plaÛt.

I'm reading a book that I like.

Place/time qui C'est un pays qui intrigue. That's a country that's intriguing.

Clause ce qui Sais-tu ce qui arrive? Do you know what's happening?

TABLE 5 When the Relative Pronoun Is the Direct Object

Antecedent Relative Pronoun Example Translation

Person que (qu') C'est l'homme que je cherchais.

That's the man who I was looking for.

Thing que (qu') J'ai trouvé l'argent qu'il a perdu.

I found the money that he lost.

Place/Time que (qu') C'est un état que j'aime beaucoup.

That's a state I like a lot.

Clause ce que (ce qu') Je ne sais pas ce que tu veux.

I don't know what you want.

TABLE 6 When the Relative Pronoun Is the Object of de

Antecedent RelativePronoun Example Translation

Person dont Anne est la fille dont il parlait.

Anne is the girl he was talking about.

Thing dont C'est le livre dont j'ai besoin.

That's the book I need.

Place/time dont Voici le café dont elle parlait.

Here is the café she was talking about.

Clause ce dont Voilà ce dont j'ai besoin. Here's what I need.

TABLE 7 When the Relative Pronoun Is the Object of All Other Prepositions

Antecedent Relative Pronoun Example Translation

Person qui (lequel) C'est le garçon avec qui elle sort.

That's the boy she's going out with.

Thing lequel, laquelle, C'est la porte par laquelle il est That's the door from

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Place/time où or lequel C'est la boutique où (dans That's the shop where I

The form of lequel must agree with the antecedent (the preceding noun to which it refers). For example, you are in a store and speaking about a feminine singular article: La chemise bleue est très chic (The blue shirt is very stylish). If I wanted to know to which blue shirt you were referring, I would have to use the feminine, singular form: Laquelle? Select the proper form of lequel after consulting Table 8 .

TABLE 8 Forms of Lequel

Singular Plural

Masculine lequel lesquels

Feminine laquelle lesquelles

Lequel and its forms contract with the prepositions à and de, as shown in Table 9 :

TABLE 9 Lequel with Prepositions

Singular Plural

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

auquel à laquelle auxquels auxquelles

duquel de laquelle desquels desquelles

Some examples of lequel + preposition are:

• Ce sont les problèmes auxquels je pense. (Those are the problems I'm thinking about.) • C'est la voiture de laquelle (dont) il rêvait. (That's the car he was dreaming about.)

Interrogative pronouns An interrogative pronoun is used to form a question. These pronouns may be invariable (their forms never change) or variable (their forms change to agree in gender and number with a noun or pronoun).

Interrogative pronouns may be used as the subject or object of a verb, or the object of a preposition, as shown in Table 10 and 11 .

TABLE 10 Invariable Interrogative Pronouns

Person Thing

Subject of a verb qui, qui est-ce qui qu'est-ce qui

Qui (Qui est-ce qui) vient? Qu'est-ce qui se passe?

Who is coming? What's happening?

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Direct object of a verb qui, qui est-ce que que, qu'est-ce que

Qui ( Qui est-ce que) tu cherches? Que ( Qu'est-ce que) tu cherches?

Whom are you looking for? What are you looking for?

Object of a preposition qui, qui est-ce que quoi, quoi est-ce que

À qui penses-tu? À quoi penses-tu?

About whom are you thinking? About what are you thinking?

TABLE 11 Variable Interrogative Pronouns

Masculine Feminine

Singular lequel laquelle

Lequel de ces livres achètes-tu? Laquelle de ces robes préfères-tu?

Which one of these books are you buying?

Which one of these dresses do you prefer?

Plural lesquels lesquelles

Lesquels de ces livres achètes-tu? Lesquelles de ces robes préfères-tu?

The variable interrogative pronouns shown in Table 11 express “which one?” in the singular and “which ones?” in the plural:

Contractions occur when à and de are used before the interrogative forms of lequel:

• Auquel de ces musées es-tu allé? (To which one of these museums did you go?) • De laquelle de ses filles parle-t-il? (About which of his daughters is he talking?)

Demonstrative pronouns Demonstrative pronouns agree with the nouns to which they refer. They express “this/that/the one” in the singular and “these/those/the ones” in the plural, as shown in Table 12 :

TABLE 12 Demonstrative Pronouns

Masculine Feminine

Singular celui celle

Plural ceux celles

Demonstrative pronouns cannot stand alone and are generally followed by the tags -ci (this/the latter) or -là (that/the former); by de or où; or by the relative pronouns qui, que, or dont (which may be the object of a preposition):

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• Donnez-moi ces fruits-ci and ces légumes-là. (Give me these fruits and those vegetables.)

• Jean et Paul sont frères. Celui-ci est docteur et celui-là est dentiste. (John and Paul are brothers. The latter is a doctor and the former is a dentist.)

• Ma voiture est sportive. Celle de mon ami est plus sportive. (My car is sporty. My friend's car [that of my friend] is sportier.)

• À quel magasin vas-tu? À celui où il y a de bons soldes. (Which store do you go to? To the one where there are good sales.)

• Ceux qui étudient réussissent. (Those [the ones] who study succeed.) • Ces cravates sont celles que je préfère. (These ties are those [the ones] that I prefer.) • Cet outil? C'est celui dont j'ai besoin. (This tool? It's the one I need.) • Cette femme est celle pour qui je travaille. (This woman is the one for whom I work.)

The demonstrative pronouns ceci (this) and cela (that) (abbreviated as ça, which is often used conversationally) refer to objects, facts, or ideas that have been indicated but not named. Ceci generally introduces an idea, while cela refers to something already mentioned:

• Ceci m'intéresse. (This interests me.) • Qu'est-ce que c'est que cela? (What's that?) • Ceci est important: nos invités arriveront demain. (This is important: Our guests will

arrive tomorrow.) • Nos invités arriveront demain; cela est important. (Our guests will arrive tomorrow;

that is important.)

Verbs in the Present Tense The present tense of a verb explains what is happening, what does happen, or what happens at the current time. The present is also sometimes used to express an action that will occur in the near future.

A verb expresses an action or a state of being and is generally shown in its “to” form, called the infinitive. Verbs are used in the present tense as follows:

• To express what is or does happen now: o Je travaille. (I work. I'm working. I do work.)

• To imply the immediate future: o Il arrive ce matin. (He's arriving this morning.)

• To show that an action began in the past and is continuing in the present, using one of the following two formulas:

o present + depuis + an expression of time o il y a (or voilà or ça fait) + expression of time + que + present

Both of the expressions below mean “We've been living here for two years.”

o Nous habitons ici depuis deux ans. o Il y a (or Voilà) (or Ça fait) deux ans que nous habitons ici.

Regular Verbs

In French, there are three main infinitive families: -er, -ir, and -re. Once you memorize the pattern of endings for the specific infinitive family, you can conjugate any regular verb within that family. Simply drop the infinitive ending and add the appropriate ending for each subject. Table 1 shows the conjugations for regular verbs in the present tense.

TABLE 1 Regular Verb Conjugation

Danser (to dance) Choisir (to choose) Rendre (to return)

je dans e je chois is je rend s

tu dans es tu chois is tu rend s

il/elle/on dans e il/elle/on chois it il/elle/on rend

nous dans ons nous choisiss ons nous rend ons

vous dans ez vous choisiss ez vous rend ez

ils/elles dans ent ils/elles choisiss ent ils/elles rend ent

The verb rompre (to break) and other verbs that include rompre in their stems, such as corrompre (to corrupt) and interrompre (to interrupt), add t to the third person singular form: il rompt, il corrompt, il interrompt.

Verbs with Spelling Changes Regular verbs with spelling changes are often referred to as “shoe” verbs because their changes often occur in the je, tu, il, and ils forms, creating the effect of a shoe:

27

The a

• tain a soft sound. In the

up).

re re five categories of verbs that require spelling changes:

Verbs ending in -cer: Change c to ç before a or o to mainpresent, this occurs only in the nous form:

placer (to place): je place, tu places, il place, nous plaçons, vous placez, ils placent

Other -cer verbs include annoncer, avancer, commencer, effacer (to erase), lancer (to throw), menacer, prononcer, remplacer (to replace), and renoncer à (to give

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intain a soft sound. In the present, this occurs only in the nous form:

wim): je nage, tu nages, il nage, nous nageons, vous nagez, ils nagent

, o direct), manger (to eat), obliger, partager (to divide),

plonger (to dive), ranger (to tidy), songer à (to think about), and voyager.

• before silent e in all “shoe” forms:

r (to clean), and renvoyer (to fire).

•

peser (to weigh): je p èse, tu p èses, il p èse, nous pesons, vous pesez, ils p èsent

Other e + consonant + er verbs include acheter (to buy), achever (to finish), amener (to r (to remove), geler

(to freeze), lever (to raise), and promener (to walk).

Two common verbs, appeler (to call) and jeter (to throw), along with any related verbs,

re the infinitive ending in all forms within the “shoe”:

llent

jeter: je je tte, tu je ttes, il je tte, nous jetons, vous jetez, ils je ttent

consonant + er: Change é to è within the “shoe”:

Irregul rIrregulairre la

• Verbs ending in -ger: Insert a silent e between g and a and g and o to ma

nager (to s

Other -ger verbs include arranger, changer, corriger (to correct), déménager (to move)déranger (to disturb), diriger (t

Verbs ending in -yer: Change y to i

envoyer (to send): j'envo ie, tu envo ies, il envo ie, nous envoyons, vous envoyez, ils envo ient

Other -yer verbs include employer, ennuyer (to bother), essuyer (to wipe), nettoye

Verbs that end in -ayer may or may not change the y to i before a silent e. These verbs include essayer (to try) and payer.

Verbs ending in -e + consonant + er: Change the silent e before the infinitive ending to è for all forms within the “shoe”:

bring), élever (to bring up, to raise), emmener (to lead away), enleve

such as rappeler (to recall), rejeter (to reject), projeter (to project), double the consonant befo

appeler: j'appe lle, tu appe lles, il appe lle, nous appelons, vous appelez, ils appe

• Verbs ending in é +

préférer (to prefer): je préf ère, tu préf ères, il préf ère, nous préférons, vous préférez, ils préf èrent

Other é + consonant + er verbs include célébrer, espérer (to hope), posséder (to possess), protéger (to protect), and répéter (to repeat).

a Verbs r verbs follow no rules and, therefore, must be memorized. The most commonly used

gu r verbs include:

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• to sit): j'assieds, tu assieds, il assied, nous asseyons, vous asseyez, ils ass n

o l assoit, nous assoyons, vous

• s avez, ils ont • bat (• boire (t it, nous buvons, vous buvez, ils boivent

isez,

bs like conduire include construire (to construct), inscrire (to register),

• connaî onnais, il connaît, nous

• cra rcraigne

o to reach), éteindre (to extinguish), joindre

royez, ils croient doivent

il dit, nous disons, vous dites, ils disent rmez, ils dorment

s: o feel,

nt

faut

• pen): j'ouvre, tu ouvres, il ouvre, nous ouvrons, vous ouvrez, ils ouvrent • pla (

• pou i t, nous pouvons, vous pouvez, ils peuvent ent

and), urprise).

z, ils reç e

o apercevoir (to notice) and concevoir (to conceive).

ile). t

• aller (to go): je vais, tu vas, il va, nous allons, vous allez, ils vont asseoir (to seat,

eye t asseoir can also be conjugated: j'assois, tu assois, iassoyez, ils assoient

avoir (to have): j'ai, tu as, il a, nous avons, voutre to beat): je bats, tu bats, il bat, nous battons, vous battez, ils battent

o drink): je bois, tu bois, il bo• conduire (to drive): je conduis, tu conduis, il conduit, nous conduisons, vous condu

ils conduisent o Ver

produire (to produce), and traduire (to translate). tre (to know, to be acquainted with): je connais, tu c

connaissons, vous connaissez, ils connaissent o Verbs like connaître include paraître (to appear), disparaître (to disappear), and

reconnaître (to recognize). • courir (to run): je cours, tu cours, il court, nous courons, vous courez, ils courent

ind e (to fear): je crains, tu crains, il craint, nous craignons, vous craignez, ils nt Verbs like craindre include atteindre ((to join), peindre (to paint), and plaindre (to pity).

• croire (to believe): je crois, tu crois, il croit, nous croyons, vous c• devoir (to have to, to owe): je dois, tu dois, il doit, nous devons, vous devez, ils• dire (to say, to tell): je dis, tu dis,• dormir (to sleep): je dors, tu dors, il dort, nous dormons, vous do

o Verbs like dormir keep the consonant before the -ir ending in all plural formendor mir (to put to sleep), men tir (to lie), par tir (to go away), sen tir (tto smell), ser vir , sor tir (to go out).

• écrire (to write): j'ecris, tu écris, il écrit, nous écrivons, vous écrivez, ils écrive• être (to be): je suis, tu es, il est, nous sommes, vous êtes, ils sont • faire (to make, to do): je fais, tu fais, il fait, nous faisons, vous faites, ils font • falloir (to be necessary): il • lire (to read): je lis, tu lis, il lit, nous lisons, vous lisez, ils lisent • mettre (to put [on]): je mets, tu mets, il met, nous mettons, vous mettez, ils mettent

o Verbs like mettre include commettre (to commit), permettre (to permit), promettre (to promise), and remettre (to put back).

• offrir (to offer): j'offre, tu offres, il offre, nous offrons, vous offrez, ils offrent ouvrir (to o

ire to please): je plais, tu plais, il plaît, nous plaisons, vous plaisez, ils plaisent • pleuvoir (to rain): il pleut

vo r (to be able to): je peux, tu peux, il peu• prendre (to take): je prends, tu prends, il prend, nous prenons, vous prenez, ils prenn

o Verbs like prendre include apprendre (to learn), comprendre (to understreprendre (to take back), and surprendre (to s

• recevoir (to receive): je reçois, tu reçois, il reçoit, nous recevons, vous receveoiv nt

Verbs like recevoir include • rire (to laugh): je ris, tu ris, il rit, nous rions, vous riez, ils rient

o A verb like rire is sourire (to sm• savoir (to know [a fact]): je sais, tu sais, il sait, nous savons, vous savez, ils saven

30

• suivre

• ten t s, vous tenez, ils tiennent btain), and

• valoir (to be worth): je vaux, tu vaux, il vaut, nous valons, vous valez, ils valent. Note: il ost common form. viens, tu viens, il vient, nous venons, vous venez, ils viennent

z, ils veulent

A refle subject is performing the action upon itself and, therefore, the sub t itive is identified by the reflexive pronoun se, which is placed before the infinitive. This pronoun may serve as a direct or indirect object pronoun, as in je me lave (I wash myself).

• La cliente s t wonders if she can see today'

• Ne vous y trompez pas, il ne trompe personne. (M take, he doesn't fool anybody.)

Use the pronoun th orrespverbs, verbs with s s, as shown in Table 1

(to follow): je suis, tu suis, il suit, nous suivons, vous suivez, ils suivent o A verb like suivre is poursuivre (to pursue). ir ( o hold): je tiens, tu tiens, il tient, nous tenono Verbs like tenir include appartenir à (to belong to), obtenir (to o

retenir (to retain).

vaut is by far the m• venir (to come): je

o Verbs like venir include devenir (to become) and revenir (to come back). • vivre (to live): je vis, tu vis, il vit, nous vivons, vous vivez, ils vivent

o A verb like vivre is survivre (to survive). • voir (to see): je vois, tu vois, il voit, nous voyons, vous voyez, ils voient • vouloir (to wish, to want): je veux, tu veux, il veut, nous voulons, vous voule

Reflexive Verbs xive verb shows that the

jec and the reflexive pronoun refer to the same person or thing. A reflexive verb infin

Here are a couple examples of reflexive verbs in sentences:

e demande ss menu.)

i elle peut regarder la carte du jour. (The clien

ake no mis

at c onds to the subject and follow the rules for conjugating regular pelling changes, and irregular verb .

E eflexive

ct

TABL 1 Present Tense R Verb Conjugation

Subje Pronoun Example

je me ( m') [myself] je me dépêche

tu te ( t') [yourself] tu te lèves

il/elle/on se ( s') [him/her/itself] il s'appelle

nous nous [ourselves] nous nous couchons

vous vous [yourself/yourselves] vous vous asseyez

ils/elles se ( s') [themselves] ils s'endorment

Common reflexive verbs include:

have a good time) ed) proach)

• s'amuser (have fun, to • s'appeler (to be nam• s'approcher de (to ap

31

im)

)

ress)

) sleep)

g with)

d to) e impatient)

care of)

out) re)

oneself) alk)

call)

ain)

• se réunir (to meet)

• se sauver (to run away)

• s'arrêter de (to stop) • s'asseoir (to sit) • se baigner (to bathe, to sw• se blesser (to hurt) • se bronzer (to tan) • se brosser (to brush) • se brûler (to burn) • se cacher (to hide) • se casser (to break) • se coiffer (to do one's hair) • se conduire (to behave)• se coucher (to go to bed• se couper (to cut) • se décider à (to decide) • se demander (to wonder) • se douter de (to suspect) • se dépêcher (to hurry) • se déshabiller (to und• se détendre (to relax) • s'échapper (to escape) • s'éloigner de (to move away from• s'endormir (to go to• s'entendre (to get alon• s'exprimer (to express) • se fâcher (to get angry)• s'habiller (to dress) • s'habituer à (to get use• s'impatienter (to becom• s'inquiéter de* (to worry about) • se laver (to wash) • se lever* (to get up) • se maquiller (to apply makeup) • se mettre à (to begin) • s'occuper de (to take• se passer (to happen) • se peigner (to comb) • se plaindre de (to complain ab• se préparer (to prepa• se présenter (to introduce • se promener* (to take a w• se rappeler* (to re• se raser (to shave) • se rencontrer (to meet) • se reposer (to rest) • se retrouver (to meet ag

• se réveiller (to wake up)

• se sentir (to feel) • se servir de (to use)

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• se vanter de (to boast)

* denotes a “shoe verb” spelling change within the infinitive

Som v eflexive, depending on whether the pronoun used refers to the sub t

ak to myself.) to them.)

Som verbs are always reflexive:

)

• s'efforcer de (to strive to)

• s'évanouir (to faint) • se fier à (to tr• se méfier de (to distrust) • se moquer • se soucier d ut) • se souvenir de

The meanings of s dep the verb is used reflexively, as shown in Table

• se tromper (to make a mistake) • se trouver (to be)

e erbs may or may not be rjec or to another person:

• Je me parle. (I spe• Je leur parle. (I speak

e

• s'écrier (to exclaim, to cry out• s'écrouler (to collapse)

• s'en aller (to leave, to go away) • s'enfuir (to flee)

ust)

de (to make fun of) e (to care abo

(to remember)

ome verbs may change 2

ending on whether or not .

TABLE 2 Different M

ning

eanings for Reflexive Verbs

Non-Reflexive Mea Reflexive Meaning

agir (to act) s'agir de (to be a question of)

apercevoir (to notice) s'apercevoir de (to realize)

attendre (to wait for) s'attendre à (to expect)

battre (to beat) se battre (to fight)

changer (to change) se changer en (to change into)

demander (to ask) se demander (to wonder)

douter de (to doubt) se douter de (to suspect)

occuper (to occupy) s'occuper de (to take care of)

passer (to spend time) se passer de (to do without)

servir (to serve) se servir de (to use)

tromper (to deceive) se tromper (to make a mistake)

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Ne a negative may or may not include

the word non (no).

Consider the followin

• Je ne danse pa• Il ne chante ja er si

The list below shows on

g tion In French, a negative is generally made up of two parts. The

g examples:

s bien. (I don't dance well.) mais. (He nev ngs.)

the most comm French negatives:

Negative English Translation

ne … aucun(e) no, none

ne … jamais never

ne … guère hardly

ne … ni … ni neither … nor

ne … nulle part nowhere

ne … pas not

ne … pas du tout not at all

ne … personne no one, nobody, anyone, anybody

ne … plus no more, no longer

ne … point not, not at all

ne … que only

ne … rien nothing

e followNote th

• Ne p• Rie ses, ne retains its

pla b

r, are ough infrequently) only with plus or jamais + another negative:

o Il ne voit plus personne. (He no longer sees anybody.) o Elle n othing o Je ne o Tu ne crois jamais personne.o Il n'a ever ac thing.) o Je ne er se ore.)

ing about negatives:

… as is the most frequently used. n and personne may be used as subjects of a verb. In such cace efore the conjugated verb: o Rien ne m'énerve. (Nothing bothers me.) o Personne n'est en retard. (Nobody is late.)

• Double negatives are generally not used in French. Multiple negatives, howeveused (alth

e dit plus rien. (She says n more.) le verrai plus jamais. (I'll never se

(You never believe anyone.) e him anymore.)

ccomplit jamais rien. (He n complishes any le verrai jamais plus. (I'll nev e him anym

34

• Some words used in questions produce a logical negative response, as shown below:

tion onse Words in the Ques Negative Resp

quelqu'un (someone, somebody) ne ne … person

quelquefois (sometimes) ne … jamais

quelque chose (something) ne … rien

quelque part (somewhere) ne … nulle part

quelques (some) ne … aucun(e)

toujours (always) ne … jamais

toujours (still) ne … plus

• Jamais, when used completely alone or with ne and a verb, means “never”; when used with a verb but without ne, jamais means “ever”:

Tu fumes? (Do you smoke?) o

France?)

Fo m

hones quelquefois? (Do you call him/her sometimes?) • Je ne lui téléphone jamais. (I never call him/her.)

ething?) ything.)

her fruits nor vegetables.)

In com ny object pronouns, and the second part of the negative follows the conjugated helping verb (except for personne, nulle

hich follow the past participle when they are used as objects):

• Je n'ai vu personne. (I didn't see anyone.)

• Elle n'a fait aucune faute. (She didn't make any mistakes.)

Que and ni

• bu ni mangé. (He neither drank nor ate.)

o Jamais. (Never.) o Je ne chante jamais. (I never sing.) o As-tu jamais voyagé en France? (Have you ever traveled to

r ing the Negative In simple tenses, ne precedes the conjugated verb and any object pronouns, and the second part of the negative follows the conjugated verb:

• Tu lui télép

• Tu veux manger quelque chose? (Do you want to eat som• Je ne veux rien manger. (I don't want to eat an• Je ne mange ni fruits ni légumes. (I eat neit

pound tenses, ne precedes the conjugated helping verb and a

part, and aucun [always used in the singular], w

• Tu l'as vu? (Did you see him?) • Non, je ne l'ai pas vu. (No, I didn't see him.)

• Il n'est allé nulle part. (He didn't go anywhere.)

… ni precede the word(s) stressed:

• Je ne vais le faire qu'une fois. (I'm only going to do it once.) Il n'a ni

35

• Il n b

Ne or the s n s:

• Ne sser, and oser before an infinitive:

o Elle ne cesse de travailler. (She doesn't stop working.) oici or voilà) … que is followed by a compound

tense: u. (I haven't seen you for a year.)

tive may stand alone: t are you doing?)

o is going to work?)

Som c include:

your life) ou're welcome)

) • ni l'un ni l'autre (neither one or the other)

be exhausted) atter)

matter where) atter when)

As iWa t

Yes or no q s

• oquial d intonation:

• Use the tag n'est-ce pas (isn't that so? right?) at the end of the sentence: 'est-ce pas? (You're coming, right?) hich has no literal translation) at the beginning of the thought.

ed verb and join used more

form conversation:

'a u ni le jus ni l'eau. (He drank neither the juice nor the water.)

eco d part of the negative may be omitted as follow

is often used without pas with pouvoir, savoir, ceo Il ne pouvait le faire. (He couldn't do it.)

• Ne is used without pas when il y a (or v

o Il y a un an que je ne t'ai v• The second part of the nega

o Qu'est-ce que tu fais? (Whao Rien. (Nothing.) o Qui va travailler? (Who Ni lui ni moi. (Neither he nor I.)

e ommon negative expressions

• ça ne fait rien (it doesn't matter) • de rien (you're welcome) • jamais de la vie (not on • il n'y a pas de quoi (y• ni … non plus (not … either

• n'en pouvoir plus (to• n'importe (it doesn't m• n'importe où (no • n'importe quand (no m• n'importe qui (no matter who) • pas du tout (not at all) • pas encore (not yet) • pas maintenant (not now)

k ng Questions ys o ask questions

ue tions can be posed in one of four ways:

Simply raise your voice at the end of the sentence and you have the most collway of asking this type of question. This is calle

o Tu viens? (Are you coming?)

o Tu viens, n• Use est-ce que (w

This is the common conversational way to ask a question: o Est-ce que tu viens? (Are you coming?)

• Change the word order of the subject pronoun and the conjugatthem w ed inversion. Inversion is generallyith a hyphen. This is call

ally, in writing rather than in

36

ing?)

UsingInversi nversion are as follows:

• Avo pt:

• ouns and conjugated

y prepare the meal?)

• Wh a vowel, a - t- is inse e having two vowels

o A-t-elle fini? (Did she finish?) + verb + third

person pronoun (with the verb and pronoun joined by a hyphen). The third person

e? (Is Jeanne a brunette?) o Les livres ne sont-ils pas bons? (Aren't the books good?)

Interrogative adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns Use interrogative adjectives, ad d uns to information.

The interrogative adjective quel what? show le 1

o Viens-tu? (Are you com

ion is the

nversion most complicated way to ask a question. The rules for i

id inverting with je, which is awkward and rarely used exceo ai-je …? (do I have …?) o suis-je …? (am I …?) o dois-je …? (must I …?) o puis-je …? (may I …? [permission])

Inv sier on occurs in all tenses, but only with subject pronverbs:

o Ont-ils préparé le repas? (Did they prepare the meal?) o Travaillez-vous? (Do you work?) o Ont-ils préparé le repas?(Did the

o L'as-tu fini? (Did you finish it?)• Inverted questions can be made negative by putting the first part of the negative

phrase before conjugated verb, and the second part of the negative after the subject pronoun:

k?) o Ne travaillez-vous jamais? (Don't you ever woren the third person singular of the verb ( il, elle, on) ends inrt d between the verb and the subject pronoun to prevent

sounds together: o Travaille-t-il? (Is he working?)

• With a noun subject, a double-subject construction is used: noun

pronoun agrees in number and gender with the corresponding subject noun: o Jeanne est-elle brun

verbs, an prono ask for

(which? ), n in Tab , agrees in number and gender with the noun it modifies.

TABLE 1 Interrogative Adjectives

Number Masculine Feminine

Singular quel quelle

Plural quels quelles

Quel may be followed by est-ce que or inversion:

e prefer?) • Quel genre de film est-ce qu'il préfère? (Which type of film does h

37

)

In c lo d at the end of the phrase to form the question: Tu f

Être is the only verb that may separate quel from its noun:

me?) s? (What's your name and address?)

The interrogative adverbs comment (how?), combien (how much/how many?), quand (when?),

ey are often placed after the verb:

• Combien est-ce que cette jupe coûte?

much does this skirt cost?”

Wit co d quand (but not with pourquoi), a question may be form that has no object:

Qui is used for people, while qu'est-ce qui (the subject of the sentence), and que/quoi (the

• Qu'est-ce qui est tombé? (What fell?)

• Qu'aimes-tu? (What do you love?)

The variable interrogative pronoun lequel ( laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles) must agree in number e noun to which it is referring:

speaking?)

• Quel genre de film préfère-t-il? (Which type of film does he prefer?

ol quial French, quel + a noun may be placepré ères quel genre de film? (Which type of film do you prefer?)

Quel may also be preceded by a preposition:

• De quel film est-ce qu'il parle? (Which film is he talking about?)

• Quel est ton nom? (What's your na• Quelles sont tes coordonnée

où (where?), d'où (from where?), and pourquoi (why?) can be used before est-ce que or inversion to ask questions. In colloquial spoken French, however, th

• Combien cette jupe coûte-t-elle? • Cette jupe coûte combien? • The three examples above all ask, “How

h mbien, comment, où, d'où, aned by inverting a noun subject with a verb

• Combien coûte cette jupe?

object of the sentence) are used for things. The i from qui is never dropped, whereas que becomes qu' before a vowel or vowel sound:

• Qui est tombé? (Who fell?)

• Qui aimes-tu? (Whom do you love?)

• Tu aimes quoi? (What do you love?)

and gender with th

• Laquelle de ces jupes achète-t-elle? (Which of these skirts is she buying?)

Contractions are used with the prepositions à (to) and de (of, from):

• Auxquelles de ces pièces es-tu allé? (To which of these plays have you gone?) • Duquel de ces hommes parle-t-elle? (About which of those men is she

38

The command form is also known as the im rstood subject of a command and is, therefore, “you” in French.) U a n nd or family member. Use vous, the polite command, when speaking formally or when directing the command to more th e

Forming comTo form that would match the pronoun you are dropping, as shown in Table 1

Commands perative. “You” is the unde

is in English. ( Tu and vous are the two ways to say omitted as itse tu, the famili r command, whe speaking to one frie

an one person, no matter what th ir relationship to you.

mands a command, simply drop the subject pronoun and use the proper verb form

.

ar Verb Commands TABLE 1 Regul

Familiar(Tu) Formal (Vous) Suggestion (Nous)

danse (dance) dansez (dance) dansons (let's dance)

finis (finish) finissez (finish) finissons (let's finish)

attends (wait) attendez (wait) attendons (let's wait)

• Regarde cette vue! (Look at that view!)

The bject) may be used to suggest “let's”:

Note that the tu command o s from the conjugated verb in both regular and ir xcept when followed by the adverbial pronouns y (there) and (so f r them).

• Mange du pain. Manges-en. e bread. Eat som .) • Va à l'école. Vas-y. (Go t • Offre-lui une boisson. (O• Ouvre la porte. (Open the door.)

2

• Choisis ton dessert! (Choose your dessert!) • Descendez du bus! (Get off the bus!)

nous form of the verb (without the su

• Allons à la plage! (Let's go to the beach!).

f -er verbs (and verbs conjugated like -er verbs) drops the final - regular veabout,

rbs, erom, it, o en me, of,

(Eat som eo school. Go there.) ffer him/her a drink.)

Three common irregular verb commands are shown in Table .

ular Verb Commands

Avoir Être Savoir

TABLE 2 Irreg

tu aie sois sache

vous ayez soyez sachez

nous ayons soyons sachons

39

• Aie confiance! (Have confidence!) aid!)

be nasty!) • Sache la vérité! (Know the truth!)

• Ne lui parle pas. (Don't speak to him/her.)

at make sentences in any language interesting ns would be limited indeed, and all we would

learn about are the actions of people. Adjectives are used to describe nouns: people, places, ,

Prepositions are words that relate elements in a sentence: nouns to nouns and verbs to verbs. re and after certain nouns and verbs. nd are quite useful when traveling or looking for

Ad eUnlike nouns they modify. It is, therefore, important to know whether a French noun is masculine or feminine and singular or plural.

Fo mThe rules for the formation of singular adjectives in French are:

• The feminine singular ed by adding an -e to the masculine singular form. If the masculine singular form ends in an unpronounced

Il est intelligent. Elle est intelligente.

Here are examples of the irregular commands in sentences:

• N'ayez pas peur! (Don't be afr• Sois gentil! (Be nice!) • Ne soyez pas méchant! (Don't

Negating commands To negate a command, put ne and the negative word around the verb and any pronouns that may precede it:

• Ne parle pas. (Don't speak.)

• N'y va pas. (Don't go there.)

Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions Adjectives and adverbs are the colorful words thand informative. Without them, our conversatio

things, or ideas. Adverbs tell us how an action is performed, and they are used to modify verbsadjectives, or other adverbs. Adjectives, adverbs, and nouns can be used to make comparisons.

They may be modifiers and are often used befoPrepositions may be used to indicate location asomething.

j ctives and Exclamations English, French adjectives agree in number and gender with the

r ing singular adjectives

form of most adjectives is form

consonant, that consonant is pronounced in the feminine form:

40

forms are spelled and pronounced in the same manner:

• Masculine singular adjectives that end in a silent -e do not change in the feminine.Both

Il est sincère. Elle est sincère.

• If the masculine singular adjective ends in an -é, the feminine singular adjective adds another - e:

Il est occupé. Elle est occupée.

• uline singular adjectives ending in -x form the feminine by changing - x to - se:

Il est curieux. Elle est curieuse.

Masc

• ing in -f form the feminine by changing -f to -ve:

s

Masculine singular adjectives end

Il est actif. Elle e t active.

• Masculine singular adjectives ending in -er form the feminine by changing -er to -ère:

Il est fier (proud). Elle est fière.

• Some masculine singu th e by doubling the final consonant before the

ient, old) ne

lar adjectives form e feminin-e ending:

ancien (anc ancien

bas (low) basse

bon (good) bonne

cruel (cruel) cruelle

européen (European) eu ropéenne

gentil (nice, kind) gentille

gros (fat, big) grosse

sot (silly) sotte

• Some adjectives are irregular and follow no rules. They must be memorized:

l) beau (beautifu belle

blanc (white) blanche

complet (complete) complète

41

gentle) doux (sweet, douce

faux (false) fausse

favori (favorite) favorite

fou (crazy) folle

frais (fresh) fraîche

franc (frank) franche

inquiet (worried) inquiète

long (long) longue

mou (soft) molle

nouveau (new) nouvelle

public (public) publique

sec (dry) sèche

secret (secret) secrète

travailleur (hardworking) travailleuse

vieux (old) vieille

The French use special f beau bel fou fol mou mol nouveau nouvel vieux( vi ) adjectiv oun, the regular masculine form is used:

• un bel apparteme• L'appartement es beau. (The apartment is beautiful.)

Forming plural adjectives The l

• Adding -s to the singular of the masculine or feminine adjective forms the plural of most adjectives:

orms of ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and eil before masculine nouns beginning with a vowel or vowel sound. If, however, the

e comes after the n

nt

t (a beautiful apartment):

ru es for the formation of plural adjectives in French are as follows:

Ils sont intelligents. Elles sont intelligentes.

• An adjective modifying t nt genders uses the masculine plural:

wo or more nouns of differe

o Le garçon et la fille sont contents. (The boy and the girl are happy.) • If a masculine singular adjective ends in -s or -x, the singular and plural are

identical:

Il est sérieux. Ils sont sérieux.

42

x in the plural: • Most masculine adjectives ending in -al change the -al to -au

Il est loyal. Ils sont loyaux.

• Both masculine singular formnouvel), and vieux ( vieil) have

s of beau ( bel), fou ( fol), mou ( mol), nouveau ( one and the same plural form:

un beau monument de beaux monuments

un bel hôtel de beaux hôtels

• The adjective tout (all) is irregular in the masculine plural:

tout le sandwich tous les sandwiches

PlUnlike st adjectives in French follow the nouns they modify:

ue sky)

A few short, descriptive adjectives, usually expressing beauty, age, goodness, and size (you can rem m BAGS), generally precede the nouns they modify:

iful, handsome), joli (pretty) new), vieux (old), jeune (young)

of it): bon (good), gentil (nice), mauvais (bad) (large, big), petit (small, little), court (short), long (long), gros (fat , thick),

ategories) include the following:

• chaque (each, every)

• premier(first)

• tout (all, whole, every)

n, tout precedes both the noun and the definite article ( le, la, l', les):

acement of adjectives in English, mo

• une fille heureuse (a happy girl) • un ciel bleu (a bl

ember this with the acrony

• Beauty: beau (beaut• Age: nouveau (• Goodness (or lack• Size: grand

large (wide)

Other common adjectives that precede the noun (but do not fall into the BAGS c

• autre (other)

• dernier (last) • plusieurs (several)

• quelques (a few) • tel (such)

In additio

• tous les hommes (all the men) • toutes les femmes(all the women)

43

• une longue et mauvaise histoire (a long, bad story) • une grande mais

Past participles may be u nd, th ith the nouns they modify:

• C'était une surpr• Ces places sont p are t

The meaning of some ad pend ement of the adjective before or after the noun it modifies. Before a noun, the adj ative sense; after a noun, the adjective is used literally

e n

To use more than one adjective in a description, place each adjective according to its normal position before or after the noun. Two adjectives in the same position are joined by et (and):

on blanche (a big, white house)

sed as adjectives a erefore, must agree w

ise inattendue. (It was an unexpected surprise.) rises. (These seats aken.)

jectives changes de ing on the placective has a figur

:

une tradition ancienn une ancienne traditio

(an old tradition) (a former tradition)

un homme brave un brave homme

(a brave man) (a good man)

une voiture chère e une chère voitur

(an expensive car) (a valued car)

le mois dernier le dernier mois

(last month) (the last month)

une femme honnête une honnête femme

(an honest woman) n) (a virtuous woma

un patron méchant tron un méchant pa

(a mean boss) (a bad boss)

la chose même la même chose

(the very thing) (the same thing)

un homme pauvre un pauvre homme

(a poor man) e man) (an unfortunat

ma maison propre ma propre maison

(my clean house) (my own house)

un chien sale un sale chien

(a dirty dog) (a nasty dog)

une femme seule une seule femme

(a woman alone) (one single woman)

44

un garçon triste un triste garçon

(a sad boy) (a sorry boy)

Ir gre ular adjectives Be careful to use the following irregular adjectives correctly:

• meilleur( e)( s) (better)

and

• mauvais( e)( s) (bad) • mauvais( e)( s) (worse) • le ( la/les) plus mauvai h

Exclamations Use the adjective quel when exclaiming:

belle maison!(What a beautiful house!) • Quelles histoires intéressantes! (What interesting stories!)

• bon( ne)( s) (good)

• le ( la/les) meilleur ( e)( s) (the best)

s( e)( s) (t e worst)

• Quelle

Quel must agree with the noun it modifies, as shown in Table 1 .

TABLE 1 Exclamations

Number Masculine Feminine

Singular quel quelle

Plural quels quelles

Adverbs In French, many adverbs are formed by adding - ment, the equivalent of -ly in English, to the mas l ture and mu ot nouns o ce.

s with a vowel:

cu ine or feminine form of the related adjective. Other adverbs are totally distinct in nast be memorized. Because adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (and nr pr noo uns), they do not agree with any other words in the senten

Forming adverbs To form an adverb:

• Add -ment to the masculine singular form of an adjective that end

45

iderap rapidement

• If the masculine singular form ends in a consonant, add -ment to the feminine singular form o

o sérieux ( érie t

Two exceptions includ ctive form but gentiment (nicely) as an adverb, and bref (brief), which is brève in its feminine adjective form but

• ith a silent -e ending, add -é before -ment:

f the adjective: masc.) becomes s use (fem.) = sérieusemen

e gentil (nice), which is gentille in its feminine adje

brièvement (briefly) as an adverb.

For a few adjectives w

aveugle (blind) aveuglément (blindly)

énorme (enormous) énormément (enormously)

intense (intense) intensément (intensely)

précis (precise) précisément (precisely)

profond (profound) ly) profondément (profound

• Adjectives with -ant and -ent endings have adverbs ending in -amment anemment,

d -ctively. An exception is lent (slow), which becomes lentement (slowly)

in its adverbial form:

constant constamment

respe

(constant) (constantly)

courant ) (everyday) couramment (fluently

différent ) (different) différemment (differently

évident (evident) évidemment (evidently)

récent recent) récemment (recently) (

• Some adverbs have forms that are distinct from adjectives and must be memor

Adverb

ized:

Adjective

bon (good) bien (well)

mauvais (bad) mal (badly)

meilleur (better) mieux (better)

petit (little, small) peu (little)

• Some adverbs are not formed from adjectives: o ainsi (thus, so) o alors (then) o après (afterward)

46

er) )

ide)

row) n)

afterward) ose)

) g time)

etimes) re)

e)

r)

t) o puis (then)

Adv b

o assez (enough) o aujourd'hui (today) o auparavant (before) o aussi (also, too) o beaucoup (much)o bientôt (soon) o cependant (howevo comme (aso davantage (more) o dedans (inso dehors (outside) o déjà (already) o demain (tomoro encore (still, yet, agaio enfin (finally, at last) o ensemble (together) o ensuite (then,o environ (about) o exprès (on purpo hier (yesterday) o ici (here) o là (there) o loin (faro longtemps (a lono maintenant (now) o même (even) o parfois (somo partout (everywheo peut-être (perhaps, maybo plus (more) o plutôt (ratheo près de (near) o presque (almos

o quelquefois (sometimes) o si (so) o souvent (often) o surtout (especially) o tant (so much) o tard (late) o tôt (soon, early) o toujours (always, still) o tout (quite, entirely) o très (very) o trop (too much) o vite (quickly)

Use and placement of adverbs er s are generally placed after the verbs they modify:

47

duit lentement. (He drove slowly.)

In the p erbs ( bien, mal, souvent, toujours, déjà, and encore) pre e

ady read that book.)

Lon r eginning of the sentence:

Note that a few adjectives (in the masculine singular form) are used adverbially in common expressions:

• alle r• coû • par low voice) • par n a loud voice) • pay c• s'ar te• trav ll

Adverbial r e following:

• pre s

e time) usly)

)

• pre so de bon appétit (with a hearty appetite)

par conséquent (consequently) rb

s)

o much the better) 'un) coup (suddenly)

ame) o tout de suite (immediately)

• Elle parle rapidement. (She speaks quickly.) • Il a con

assé composé, small, common advced the past participle:

• Il a bien parlé. (He spoke well.) • J'ai déjà lu ce livre. (I alre

ge adverbs may be placed at the b

• D'habitude nous mangeons tard. (Generally, we eat late.)

r d oit (to go straight ahead) ter cher (to cost a lot) ler bas (to speak in a ler fort/haut (to speak ier her (to cost a lot) rê r net (to stop short) ai er dur (to work hard)

exp essions may be formed by combining th

po ition + noun o à la fin (finally) o à la fois (at the samo à merveille (marveloo à peine (hardly, scarcelyo à présent (now) o à temps (in time) o d'avance (in advance) o de rigueur (required) o par hasard (by chance) po ition + adjective (+ noun)

o de nouveau (again) o

• preposition + adveo à jamais (forever) o d'ailleurs (beside

• preposition + several words o et ainsi de suite (and so on and so forth) o tant mieux (so tout à ( do tout à fait (entirely) o tout de même (just the s

48

re followed by the preposition de (without any other article):

(a lot of) much, how many)

r)

plus de (more) tant de (so much, so many)

uch, too many)

Ir ggular adverbs:

and

st)

Co

Mo

Follow these formulas to make comparisons:

ive (or adverb or noun) + que = more … than

se is smaller than her sister.)

eved.) plus triste que féchée. (I'm more sad than angry.) moins contente qu'avant. (She less happy than before.)

Su e expresses the quality of something or someone at the highest or lowest degree ith a set group.

Adverbs expressing quantity a

• assez de (enough) • autant de (as much, many) • beaucoup de• combien de (how • moins de (less, fewe• peu de (little, few) • • • trop de (too m

re ular adverbs Note the following irre

• bien (well) • mieux (better) • le mieux (the best)

• mal (badly) • plus mal (worse) • le plus mal (the wor

mparisons

re than or less than

• plus + adject• moins + adjective (or adverb or noun) + que = less … than

Here are some examples:

• Louise est plus petite que sa soeur. (Loui• Il court moins vite que moi. (He runs less fast than I do.) • Il est plus sportif que nous croyions. (He is more athletic than we beli• Je suis • Elle est

p rlatives The superlativein comparison w

49

Fol :

is the smallest of the family.) runs the least fast of everybody.)

Eq a use the French expression:

ussi couramment que Luc. (He speaks as fluently as Luke.)

Use e ulas to express “as much” or “as many”:

un + que + noun (or pronoun) • aut

gent que lui. (I have as much money as he does.) • Il tr a

Prepos i noun/pronoun.

Prepositions may contract when followed by an article: à + le = au, à + les + aux, de + le = du, de +

r. (That's my sister's book.)

e's learning to dance.)

She's playing with her dog.)

moi. (He sat next to me.)

The mo ns (or groups of words used as prepositions) are:

low this formula to express the superlative

• le (or la or les) plus (or moins) + adjective (or adverb or noun) + de

For example:

• Louise est la plus petite de la famille. (Louise • Il court le moins vite de tous. (He

u lity To express “as … as”

• aussi + adjective (or adverb) + que: • Elle est aussi intelligente que moi. (She is as intelligent as I am.) • Il parle a

th following form

• autant de + noant que + noun (or pronoun)

• J'ai autant d'arav ille autant que son frère. (He works as much as his brother.)

it ons Prepositions relate elements in a sentence: noun to noun, verb to verb, or verb to

les = des.

• Noun to noun: ma soeuo C'est le livre de

• Verb to verb: o Il apprend à danser. (H

• Verb to noun: o Elle joue avec son chien. (

• Verb to pronoun: o Il s'est assis à côté de

st common prepositio

• à(to) • à cause de(because of) • à côté de (next to) • à demain (see you tomorrow) • à droite (to the right) • à gauche (to the left) • à partir de (beginning with) • à peu près (nearly)

50

ut, concerning) oss, through)

uth) o)

the bottom of) of)

de (below, beneath) over)

/back of) ad of)

middle of) ncerning)

e (around)

f)

)

rly) e)

) of)

posite) pstairs)

own) • entre (between)

by, through) i (among)

• pendant (during)

• près de (near) • sans (without) • sauf (except) • selon (according to) • sous (under) • sur (on) • vers (toward)

• à propos de (abo• à travers (acr• à vrai dire (to tell the tr• afin de (in order t• après (after) • au( en) bas de (at• au bout de (at the end• au-dessous• au-dessus de (above, • au fond de (at the bottom• au lieu de (inste• au milieu de (in the• au sujet de (about, co• autour d• avant (before) • avec (with) • chez (at the house o• contre (against) • d'abord (at first) • d'accord (okay) • d'ailleurs (besides• dans (in) • de (about, from, of) • de bonne heure (ea• depuis (sinc• derrière (behind• devant (in front • en (in) • en bas (downstairs) • en face de (op• en haut (u• en ville (downt

• loin de (far from) • malgré (despite) • par (• parm

• pour (for)

Special use of certain verbs

51

DevoirThe irregular verb v

de oir is a “shoe verb” in the present tense:

je dois nous devons

tu dois vous devez

il (elle, on) doit ils (elles) doivent

Devoir ma x

tpposed to” do

som h Il doit travailler. (He must work or He has to work or He is supposed to

work.) Il devait travailler mais il était malade. (He had to work but he was sick

or He was supposed to work but he was sick.) devoir means “ought to” or “should (have).”

o Elle a dû pleurer. (She must have cried.)

FaThe veaction to be o by the infinitive expressing the actiapp p

• Le f• Elle a f ture.• Je f

Note th

• is w the infinitive and direct

obj ptor come.)

y e press the following:

• Obliga ion o Devoir shows that the subject “must,” “has to,” or “is su

et ing.

• When used in the conditional, o Je devrais le faire. (I should do it or I ought to do it.) o J'aurais dû le faire. (I should have done it or I ought to have done it.)

• Probability or supposition o Elle doit être contente. (She must be happy or She is probably happy.)

• Debt noun: o Devoir means “to owe” when it is followed by a

$100.) Il me doit cent dollars. (He owes me

ire rb faire can be used in a causative construction, which means that the subject causes an

d ne by someone or something else. Faire is followedon t e y particular attention when thinking of an

ro riate English translation, as the following examples show: o b completed. Note that you have to pa

pro fait rire ses élèves. (The teacher makes his students laugh.) ait laver sa voi (She had her car washed.)

ais faire une robe. (I'm having a dress made.)

e fo w

Faire + infinitive forms a unit that is not separated by nouns or pronouns. When thereone obj

llo ing about the causative faire:

ect, it is a direct object. Direct object nouns folloect ronouns precede faire: oo

Il fait venir le médecin. (He has the docIl le fait venir. (He has him come.)

52

the on or thing receiving the action is the indirect object:

parents have the check sent

nts lui font envoyer le chèque. (The parents have the check sent to him.) t to him.)

• The e by par instead of à to avo a f Il fait lire le poème à sa petite amie.

He has his girlfriend read the poem. He has the poem read to his girlfriend.

ing direct object:

A reflexive pronoun (used as an indirect object) can be used in a causative faire

eveux. (She has her hair cut.) cheveux. (She had her hair cut.)

er. (She had it cut.)

The verb fa inecessity. A th s the same idea, falloir is the stronger of the verbs.

“I have to g to can be expressed in any of the following ways:

• Je d sla banque.

• Il m a

:

n

o Il ne faudrait pas faire cela. (One shouldn't do that.) • With the infinitive and a

o Il me faut étudier. studyo Il lui fallait travai

• With que followed by the subjunctive o Il faudra que je parte. (I will have to leave.)

o (I'll need a lot of money.)

• When there are two nouns or pronouns, one is the direct object and the other isindirect object. The pers

o Les parents font envoyer le chèque à leur fils. (Theto their son.)

o Les parents le font envoyer à leur fils. (The parents have it sent to their son.) o Les pareo Les parents le lui font envoyer. (The parents have it sen p rson or thing performing the action can be introduced id mbiguity. Note the two possible meanings o

oo

• BUT o Il fait lire le poème par sa petite amie. (He has his girlfriend read the poem.)

• In compound tenses, the past participle of faire + infinitive does not agree with the preced

o Il a fait danser la fille. (He made the girl dance.) o Il l'a fait danser. (He made her dance.)

• construction.

o Elle se fait couper les cheso Elle s'est fait couper l

o Elle se les est fait coup

Falloir llo r is used only in the third person singular ( il) form. It generally expresses l ough falloir and devoir often expres

o the bank” or “I must go to the bank”

oi aller à la banque. • Il faut que j'aille à

e f ut aller à la banque.

Falloir is used

• With the infinitive o Il faut arriver à l'heure. (It is necessary to arrive on time or One has to arrive o

time or One must arrive on time.)

n indirect object (I have toller. (He [she] had to work.)

.)

• To express need Il me faudra beaucoup d'argent.

53

Po vThe irregul v wo form f

u oir ar present tense and has terb pouvoir (to be able to, can) is a shoe verb in the

s or je. Puis-je is often used in questions:

je peux (puis) nous pouvons

tu peux vous pouvez

il peut ils peuvent

The use

•

ceed or He wasn't able to succeed.)

• Ma x I allowed to go there?)

s?) (He may be able to do it now.)

o cher. (I could come pick you up.)

e.)

o or I might help him [her].)

xhausted.) o n'y pouvoir rien (to be unable to do something about it)

Savoir and Connaître In F nkno e or something. Use the verb connaître when you can substitute the words “to be familiar with”:

• Je connais Luc. (I know Luke [meaning: I am acquainted with Luke].) eaning: I have heard this song before or I

am

Savoir ing by heart, th u expresses the knowledge of f ts

• Je sais

of the verb pouvoir:

Ma xo Je peux cuisiner.y e press ability or success or the lack thereof

(I can cook.) o Il n'a pas pu réussir. (He couldn't suco Pourras-tu conduire? (Will you be able to drive?) y e press possibility or permissibility o Est-ce que je peux y aller? (May I go there? or Amo Puis-je aller au cinéma? (May I go to the movieo Il peut le faire maintenant.

• May express a suggestionJe pourrais venir te cher

• May express obligation when an infinitive is negated o Tu peux ne pas venir. (You don't need to come or You aren't obligated to com

• Expresses “might” or “could” in the conditionalJe pourrais l'aider. (I could help him [her]

• Can be idiomatic o n'en pouvoir plus (to be exhausted) o Je n'en peux plus. (I'm e

o On n'y peut rien. (It can't be helped.) o Je n'y peux rien. (I can't do anything about it.)

re ch, two irregular verbs express “to know”: connaître and savoir. Connaître means “to w” in the sense of being acquainted with someon

• Je connais cette chanson. (I know this song [mfamiliar with this song].)

means “to know” in the sense of knowing how to do something or knowing somethro gh mental ability or through a learning process. Savoir

ac or reasons about certain things:

danser. (I know how to dance.)

54

cette chanson. (I know this song [meaning: I can sing the words].) ton adresse. (I know your address.)

• To express know-how or the lack thereof. o Il sait lire mais il ne s s how to read, but he does not

know how to write.) • In the passé composé to express “to find out” or “to learn about something.”

o Je l'ai su hier. (I found out about it yesterday.) • Idiomatically in the conditional to express “could” or “would.”

e saurait pas cacher son bonheur. (He couldn't hide his happiness or He wouldn't be able to hide his happiness.)

VouloiThe r h,” “to want,” or “ ll

• Je sais• Je sais

Savoir is used:

ait pas écrire. (He know

o Il n

r ir egular verb vouloir is a shoe verb in the present tense. Vouloir means “to wis

wi ”:

je veux nous voulons

tu veux vous voulez

il veut ils veulent

Vouloir

• In the present tense to express strong will o Il veut le faire. (He wants to do it or He will do it.)

't want to follow you or I won't follow you.) ing” or “refusal” to do something

er. (I would like to go with you.) (command) form to express a polite command

tre. (Please shut the window [meaning: Would you shut .)

vouloir bien, which means “to be good enough to”

en m'aider? (Will you be good enough to help me? or Are you

Hab er and demeurer mean “to live” or “to dwe r may not be followed by the preposition à. Vivre means “to live” or “to be alive.”

is used:

o Je ne veux pas te suivre. (I don• In the passé composé to express “try

o Il a voulu le faire. (He tried to do it.) o Il n'a pas voulu le faire. (He refused to do it.)

• In the conditional to express a wish or desire in a more courteous manner o Je voudrais t'accompagn

• In the imperative o Veuillez fermer la fenê

dow?]the win• Idiomatically in the expression

or “to be willing to” o Voulez-vous bi

willing to help me?)

Other Important Irregularities it , demeurer, and vivre all mean “to live.” Habiterll” and are used with a place. Habiter may o

55

• I live in Nice.

Jou m playing a sport or game. When followed by the preposition de or any of its forms, jouer refers

• Nous jouons aux cartes. (We're playing cards.)

Pen r ly in a question that requests an opinion about something.

• Á qui penses-tu? (About whom are you thinking?)

• Je pense à lui. (I'm thinking about him.)

Passer means “to spend time.” Used reflexively, se passer means “to happen” or “to take plac ” ans “to do without.”

• Je vais passer un mois en France. (I'm going to spend a month in France.)

• On ne peut pas se passer d'eau. (One can't do without water.)

Servir mea “ ”

• ouche pour servir de la soupe. (One uses a ladle to serve soup.)

Venir + de e just”; in the imperfect, venir + de + infinitive m n

arrived.) • Elle d.)

There are five ways to express “to leave”: partir, sortir, s'en aller, quitter, and laisser.

• Partir m

• Sor m e,” or “to take something out.”

vent. (He goes out often.) a pièce. (He leaves the room.)

e's going out with me.) He takes out his money.)

• S'en aller means “to go away.” o Je m'en vais. (I'm going away.)

• J'habite (á) Nice. • Je demeure à Nice.

• Je vis à cent à l'heure. • I live in the fast lane.

er eans “to play.” When followed by the preposition á or any of its forms, jouer refers to

to playing a musical instrument.

• Il joue du piano. (He plays the piano.)

se á and penser de mean “to think about,” but penser de is used on

• Je pense à mon fils. (I'm thinking about my son.)

• Que penses-tu de lui? (What do you think of him? or What is your opinion of him?)

e. And the reflexive expression se passer de me

• Qu'est-ce qui s'est passé? (What happened? [meaning: What took place?])

ns to serve,” while se servir de means “to use.

On se sert d'une l

+ infinitive in the present tense means “to havea s “had just.”

• Elle vient d'arriver. (She [has] just venait d'arriver. (She had just arrive

eans “to go away.” o Je pars. (I'm leaving or I'm going away.) tir eans “to go (come) out of a place,” “to go out with someon

o Il sort souo Il sort de lo Il sort avec moi. (Ho Il sort son argent. (

56

)

• Quitter means “to leave a person (or place),” and the person or place must be mentioned.

o Je te quitte. (I'm leaving you.) o Je quitte la maison. (I'm leaving the house.)

• Laisser means “to leave a person (or thing) behind.” o J'ai laissé mes clefs à la maison. (I left my keys at home.

The Infinitives

InThe f h meaning expresses “to” — to sing, to dance, to laugh, and so on. Although the infinitive is a verb form, it may be used

e followed directly by the infinitive, while others require a preposition before the infinitive. Almost all prepositions are followed by an infinitive. Adjectives and nouns that are o infinitive.

ct noun of a verb and may be translated as an English n English infinitive (the to form of the verb):

Not th tre + infinitive. In the following example, the infinitive vouloir foll s

e verb without

but e command is usually seen on signs and in reci s

•

e minutes.)

Infinitive in Interrogatives, Exclamations

phrase expressing deliberation:

finitive as a Subject in initive of the verb is the unconjugated verb form whose Englis

as a subject, as a command, and as part of interrogative and exclamatory phrases. Certain French verbs ar

m dified by an infinitive require a preposition before the

The infinitive may be used as the subjegerund (the -ing form of the verb) or a

• Cuisiner est un art. ( Cooking is an art.) • Voir c'est croire. (Seeing is believing.) • Dire la vérité est important. ( To tell the truth is important.)

e at ce is used before êow c'est:

• Vouloir c'est pouvoir. (To want to is to be able to.)

Infinitive in a Command The typical way to give a command in French is to use the tu or vous form of thusing those subject pronouns (because the subject of a command is understood to be “you”),

th infinitive can also be used. The infinitive pe .

À louer. (For rent.) • Ne pas toucher. (Don't touch.) • Laisser cuire à petit feu. (Simmer.) • Faites bouillir pendant cinq minutes. (Boil for fiv

The infinitive may be used in an interrogative

• Quoi faire? (What are we going to do?) • Quoi lui dire? (What are we going to tell him?)

57

The infinit m

• Oh, être jeune encore! (Oh, to be young again!) •

Infinitive after Certain Verbs The infinit i he complement of another verb. Some verbs are followed immediatel not require a preposition. These may be categorized as follows:

o children playing.)

The verbs most often used this way are:

e)

• Verbs verbs. For example: o ble to come.)

çon. (She denies knowing that boy.)

used this way are:

• Oth eading.) ent. (It is necessary to listen attentively.)

used this way are:

r)

o faire (to make, to do)

• Où aller? (Where shall we go?)

ive ay be used in exclamations:

Oh, être riche! (Oh, to be rich!)

ive s most often used as ty by the infinitive and do

• Ver s ob f motion and perception. For example: o Je le regarde travailler. (I watch him work.) o Nous les entendons crier. (We hear them shouting.)

Elle voit ses enfants jouer. (She sees her

o apercevoir (to notin)

co écouter (to listeo entendre (to hear)o paraître (to appear) o regarder (to watch) o voir (to see)

indicating thought or most declarative Il espère pouvoir venir. (He hopes to be a

o Elle nie connaître ce gar

The verbs most often

o affirmer (to affirm) o croire (to believe)

o espérer (to hope) o nier (to deny) er common verbs:

(I prefer ro Je préfère lire.o Il faut écouter attentivem

The verbs most often

o aimer mieux (to prefeo aller (to go) o compter (to intend) o désirer (to desire) o devoir (to have to) o envoyer (to send)

58

o pouvoir (to be able to)

o valoir mieux (to be worth)

Infinitive after Certain Prepositions The f ch takes the present participle, and après,

ar expresses “by” when followed by the verbs der to” when followed by the infinitive:

inking.) he begins by dancing.) d up laughing.)

r. (It is necessary to suffer to succeed.)

Many verbs require the preposition à before the infinitive. These include verbs showing tend c xample:

expect to win.) is late in arriving.)

The verbs most often used this way are:

stomed to)

)

age)

o falloir (to be necessary) o laisser (to allow, to let) o oser (to dare)

o préférer (to prefer) o savoir (to know) o sembler (to seem) o souhaiter (to wish)

o vouloir (to wish, to want)

in initive is used after all prepositions but en, whiwhich is followed by the past infinitive. Pcommencer or finir. Pour expresses “in or

• chir. (He speaks without thIl parle sans réflé • Elle commence par danser. (S hey en• Ils finissent par rire. (T• Il faut souffrir pour réussi

en . For ey, yearning, and aim

• Je m'attends à gagner. (I • Elle tarde à arriver. (She

• s'accoutumer à (to become accu• aider à (to help) • s'amuser à (to have fun by)

• apprendre à (to teach) in• arriver à (to succeed

• s'attendre à (to expect) rize) • autoriser à (to autho

• avoir à (to have to) • chercher à (to seek) • commencer à (to begin) • consentir à (to consent) • continuer à (to continue) • se décider à (to decide)

osed) • se disposer à (to be disp• encourager à (to encour• enseigner à (to teach) • s'habituer à (to become accustomed to) • hésiter à (to hesitate) • inciter à (to incite) • s'intéresser à (to be interested in)

59

• se mettre à (to begin)

• renoncer à (to renounce)

e late in)

Mo v finitive. These include verbs of asking, per tt mple:

phoner. (She forgot to call me.) (They refuse to work.)

Ver m ay are:

) n of)

ent) itting)

urry)

)

of)

)

• persuader de (to persuade)

• rappeler de (to remind)

• inviter à (to invite)

• persister à (to persist)

• réussir à (to succeed in)• songer à (to think about) • tarder à (to delay, to b• tenir à (to be anxious)

st erbs require the preposition de before the inmi ing, and forbidding. For exa

• Elle a oublié de me télé• Ils refusent de travailler.

bs ost commonly used this w

• accuser de (to accuse• s'agir de (to be a questio• s'arrêter de (to stop) • blâmer de (to blame) • cesser de (to stop) • complimenter de (to complim• convenir de (to be f• craindre de (to fear) • décider de (to decide) • défendre de (to forbid) • demander de (to ask) • se dépêcher de (to h• dire de (to tell) • écrire de (to write) • s'efforcer de (to strive) • empêcher de (to prevent) • essayer de (to try to) • éviter de (to avoid) • féliciter de (to congratulate• finir de (to finish) • menacer de (to threaten) • mériter de (to deserve)• négliger de (to neglect) • s'occuper de (to take care• offrir de (to offer) • ordonner de (to order• oublier de (to forget to) • parler de (to speak about)• permettre de (to permit)

• promettre de (to promise) • proposer de (to propose)

60

• regretter de (to regret)

• reprocher de (to reproach)

mber) st)

t)

Som v elqu'un) de before an infinitive where quelqu'un can be replaced by the m , or a pronoun which refers to a person. For example:

e laver la voiture. (He asks his son to wash the car.) garder son secret. (I promise my friend to keep her secret.)

The most common verbs of this type are:

• commander (to order)

) • demander (to ask)

• ordonner (to order)

• promettre (to promise)

Infinitive Preceded by Adjectives and Nouns

In the majority of cases, adjectives and nouns that are modified by an infinitive are followed by de b o

• Je n i

•

De + infini e

read rather than to watch tele i

The preposition à is used in the following instances:

• If the infinitive conveys a passive meaning (the subject is acted upon): en].)

letter to write [to be written].)

• recommander de (to recommend) • refuser de (to refuse)

• remercier de (to thank)

• rêver de (to dream) • se souvenir de (to reme• suggérer de (to sugge• venir de (to have jus

e erbs require à ( quna e of a person, a noun

• Il demande à son fils d• Je promets à mon amie de

• conseiller (to advise) • défendre (to forbid

• dire (to tell) • écrire (to write) • interdire (to forbid)

• permettre (to permit)

• suggérer (to suggest)

ef re the infinitive:

'a pas le temps de t'attendre. (I don't have the time to wait for you.)• Je suis ravi de vous revoir. (I'm delighted to see you again.)

Est-il capable de le faire? (Is he capable of doing it?)

tiv is used after que in the second part of a comparison:

• Je préfère lire que de regarder la télévision. (I prefer to vis on.)

o Donnez-moi quelque chose à manger. (Give me something to eat [to be eato J'ai une lettre à écrire. (I have a

61

• After lnum r showing tendency, fitness, and purpose, such

the first to leave.)

• With certain nouns to express purpose or function: curling iron)

o (a bedroom)

re de before the

o or To understand g] is difficult.)

être + adjective + à + infinitive, ce ( ceci, cela) is the subject of the infinitive and conveys a passive meaning:

Negating an Infinitive

A present i n

• Il a c• Ne p s

initive y using the correct helping verb ( avoir or être) in its infinitive

f the verb showing the action. The past infinitive is used:

s: o Après être rentrée, je me reposerai. (After returning [having returned] home, I'll

o Je te téléphonerai après avoir mangé. (I'll call you after eating [having eaten].)

e dernier (the last), le seul (the only), le premier (the first), and other e als, and after a few adjectives

as habile (skillful), lent (slow), prêt (ready): o Elle était la première à partir. (She waso Nous sommes prêts à commencer. (We are ready to begin.)

o un fer à friser (a une chambre à coucher

Note the following:

• Impersonal expressions beginning with il + être + adjective requiinfinitive, which is really the subject:

Il est difficile de comprendre. (It is difficult to understand [Understandin

• In the construction ce +

o C'est difficile à comprendre. (It is difficult to understand.)

nfi itive is negated by putting the entire negative expression before the infinitive:

• Je lui ai dit de ne pas fumer. (I told him not to smoke.) dé idé de ne rien manger. (He decided not to eat anything.)

a marcher sur le gazon. (Don't walk on the grass.)

The Past InfThe past infinitive is formed bform and the past participle o

• To express a previous action regardless of the English translation: o Il est parti sans avoir dit “au revoir.” (He left without saying goodbye.) o Elle a été renvoyée pour avoir menti. (She was fired for lying [having lied].)

• After the preposition aprè

relax.)

Participles

Present Participles In French, the present participle of a verb (the -ing form) may be used with the preposition en (while, on, upon, by, in, when) to form a ge -ing). When used without en, the prese o used to express the - ing form of the glish.

rund (a noun that, in English, ends in may act as an adjective and is alsnt participle

verb in En

62

The present pa ll French nt, the English equivalent of -ing.

Forming t ParThe present pa st Fren lar and irre by dropping the -ons ending from rm of the present tense and simp 1

rticiple of a verbs ends in -a

he Present ticiple rticiple of mo

the nous foch verbs (regu gular) is formed

ly adding -ant, as shown in Table . The line throu of th dicates tha orm the present participle.

BLE 1 Present P

Present

gh the -ons part e nous form in t it is removed to f

TA Forming the articiple

Infinitive Nous Form of Present Participle

(to speak) nous parl ons parlant (speaking)

obéir (to obey) snous obéiss no g) obéissant (obeyin

perdre (to lose) nous perd ons perdant (losing)

aller (to go) nous all ons allant (going)

boire (to d v rink) nous bu ons buvant (drinking)

dire (to sa is oy, to tell) nous d ns disant (saying)

faire (to d fais o) nous ons faisant (doing)

sortir (to g rt o out) nous so ons sortant (going out)

venir (to come) nous ven ons venant (coming)

voir (to see) nous voy ons voyant (seeing)

Note how this affects spelling-change and shoe verbs:

c → ç placer (to place) nous plaçons plaçant (placing)

g → ge nger (to eat a eating) ma ) nous m ngeons mangeant (

y remains ) y paying) payer (to pay nous pa ons payant (

no accent o buy nt (buying) acheter (t ) nous achetons acheta

single le lling) tter appeler (to call) nous appelons appelant (ca

single letter jeter (to throw) nous jetons jetant (throwing)

double é préférer (to prefer) nous préférons préférant (prefering)

The a les in French:

Form Present Participle

re re only three irregular present particip

Verb Nous

avoir (to have) nous avons ayant (having)

être (to be) nous sommes étant (being)

63

wing) savoir (to know) nous savons sachant (kno

English uses mless in French and is often re

• • Dan r

UsinThe present participle is primarily used:

• Wi ting.)

Elle est arrivée en courant. (She arrived running.) Il est tombé en dansant. (He fell [while, when, upon, on, as he was] dancing.)

Tou

here is no direct object:

BUT:

Il finit l'histoire en riant. (He finishes the story by laughing.)

ately before the action of the main verb. When used as a verb, the pres t of the present particip

Il étudie en écoutant la radio. (He studies while listening to the radio.) d screaming.)

In a i

• Some present participles may be used as adjectives and must, therefore, agree in num e they modify. They generally follow

e amusing films.)

any more gerunds than French; therefore, the present participle is used much placed with an infinitive:

J'adore le cyclisme. (I love cycling.) se me plaît beaucoup. (Dancing gives me great pleasure.)

g the Present Participle

th he preposition en to imply simultaneous actions: o Il parle en mangeant. (He speaks while eatoo

t may be used before en to add emphasis:

o Elle pleure tout en souriant. (She cries even while smiling.)

En + present participle may mean “by.” With the verbs commencer and finir, par + infinitive is used, provided t

o Il gagne beaucoup en travaillant. (He earns a lot by working.) o Il commence par chanter. (He begins by singing.) o Il finit par danser. (He ends by dancing.)

o• Without the preposition en to show a cause, a reason, a motive, a condition, a

result, an incidental circumstance, or an action that took place at the same moment as or immedi

ent participle is invariable—meaning that there is no agreemenle with the subject:

o Étant occupé, je l'ai ignoré. (Being busy, I ignored him.) o Elle est partie, oubliant ses clefs. (She left, forgetting her keys.) o Regardant la télé, je me suis endormi. (Watching TV, I fell asleep.) o o Il est entré criant. (He arrive

dd tion, the present participle can be used as follows:

b r and gender with the nouns or pronounsthe noun or pronoun:

o Je trouve ces filles charmantes. (I find those girls charming.) o Ce sont des films amusants. (They ar

64

• The r e a relative clause ( qui + verb): eople who are carrying bags.)

s.)

NNOT be used:

e is sleeping.) noun ending in -ing). A French present participle

can only be used as a verb and not as a noun. The following examples show you some

o Je préfère la natation. (I prefer swimming.) o La pâtio Je le ferai s

Past ParticiplesThe past participle serves to form co ve may also serve as an adjective. If the past participle is used as an epithet or attribute, it follows the noun it describes.

Forming the Past Participle The past participle of regu o

Verb Family Past Participle

p esent participle can, but rarely does, replaco Je vois des gens qui portent des sacs. (I see some po Je vois des gens portant des sacs. (I see some people carrying bag

The present participle CA

• To express “to be” + present participle (the English progressive form). To express that an action is in progress, use the present tense or être en train de + infinitive:

o Il dort. (He is sleeping.) o Il est en train de dormir. (H

• To replace an English gerund (a

correct ways to replace an English gerund:

sserie est un arans qu'il le s

t. (Pastry mache. (I'll do it without his knowing it.)

aking is an art.)

mpound rb tenses, but it

lar verbs is formed as foll ws:

Infinitive

-er par e or spoken) parler lé (spok

- ir ifinir fin (finished)

- re vendvendre u (sold)

Some verbs that are irregu participles:

lar in the present form have regular past

Infinitive Past Participle

accueillir (to welcome) accueilli

aller (to go) allé

battre (to beat) battu

convaincre (to convince) convaincu

cueillir (to pick) cueilli

dormir (to sleep) dormi

interrompre (to interrupt) interrompu

mentir (to lie) menti

65

parti partir (to leave)

rompre (to break) rompu

sentir (to feel, to smell) senti

servir (to serve) servi

sortir (to go out) sorti

vaincre (to vanquish) vaincu

Irregula ollowing groups:

• Tho

• Tho

s • Tho

construit

ruit

it

• Tho erçu

r past participles may be placed in the f

se ending in -i: rire (to laugh) → ri o re (to suffice) → s o suffi uffi o suivre (to follow) → suivi

se ending in -is: o acquérir (to acquire) → acquis

asseoir (to seat) → assis o to co conquérir ( onquer) → conquis o mettre (to put) → mis o prendre (to take) → pri

se ending in -it: conduire (to drive) → conduit o uire (to construo constr ct) → o cuire (to cook) → cuit → déto détruire (to destroy) o dire (to say, to tell) → dit écrire (to write) → écrit o (to produce) → produito produire o traduire (to translate) → tradu

se ending in -u: o apercevoir (to notice) → ap avoir (to have) → eu o (to drink) → bu o boire nnuo connaître (to know) → co o courir (to run) → couru o croire (to believe) → cru

devoir (to have to) → dû o read) → o lire (to lu ruo paraître (to appear) → pa o plaire (to please) → plu

ble to) → pu o pouvoir (to be a recevoir (to receo ive) → reçu know) → so savoir (to u o se taire (to be quiet) → tu o tenir (to hold) → tenu o valoir (to be worth) → valu venir (to come) → venu o

o vivre (to live) → vécu

66

voulu • Tho

frir • Those ending in -int:

o craindre (to fear) → craint o éteindre (to e o joindre (to join) o peindre (to po plaindre (to p

• Those totally irreguo être (to be) →o faire (to mako mourir (to dio naître (to be

Any related infinitive forms ng bove, for example:

smile) souri

o vouloir (to want) →se ending in -ert: o ouvrir (to open) → ouvert o offrir (to offer) → offert o souffrir (to suffer) → souf

o atteindre (to attain) → atteint

xtinguish) → éteint→ joint

aint) → peint ity) → plaint lar: été

e, to do) → fait e) → mort born) → né

its past participle accordi to the list a

sourire (to

promettre (to promise) promis

apprendre (to learn) appris

reconstruire (reconstruct) reconstruit

reconnaître (to recognize) reconnu

retenir (to retain) retenu

découvrir (to discover) découvert

Using tThe pa

• Wit und tenses: o J'ai fait de mon mieux. (I did my best.)

is work.) o Il était rentré tard. (He had arrived home late.)

o Elle aura attendu longtemps. (She will have waited a long time.) ie avant lui. (She will have left before him.) h, therefore, must agree in number and gender with the noun or

he Past Participle st participle is used:

h a preceding helping (auxiliary) verb ( avoir or être) to form compo

o Je suis allée en ville. (I went downtown.) o Il avait fini son travail. (He had finished h

o Nous aurions gagné. (We would have won.) o Nous serions sortis. (We would have gone out.)

o Elle sera part• As an adjective, whic

pronoun it modifies: o Elle est épuisée. (She is exhausted.) o Ils sont des hommes distingués. (They are distinguished men.)

67

In the p ber and gender with a preceding direct object noun or pronoun:

• Voici la lettre qu'elle a écrite. (Here is the letter that she wrote.) m on Monday.)

Perfeormed by using the present participle of the appropriate helping verb (

avoir = ayant, être = étant) and then adding the past participle. The perfect participle shows er action took place:

e heure, il est arrivé à l'heure.

assé composé, past participles that use avoir as their helping verb agree in num

• Les filles? Je les ai vues lundi. (The girls? I saw the

ct Participles The perfect participle is f

that one action was completed before anoth

• Ayant fini mon travail, je me suis détendue.

Having finished my work, I relaxed.

• Étant parti de bonn

Having left early, he arrived on time.

Past Tenses

Introduction to Past Tenses The passé composé (compound past tense) is used to refer to an action or event that began and was completed at a particular moment of time in the past. Two elements are required to form the passé composé: a helping verb (either avoir or être) and a past participle (usually the -ed

The passé simple is a literary past tense, most often used in writing, and also refers to an action

simple of the correct helping verb is followed by the past participle of the verb indicating the action.)

tions, situations, or events in the past. The plus-que-parfait is the compound form of the imperfect (the imperfect of the correct helping verb is followed by

n) and indicates what had been going on in the

The passé composé (compound past tense), also referred to as the past indefinite, is made up of two ar

It is r voir ( j'ai, tu as, il/elle a, nous avons, vous avez, ils/elles ont) or être ( je suis, tu es, il/elle est, nous sommes, vous êtes, ils/elles sont) and adding a past participle.

form of an English verb).

or event that was completed in the past. The passé anterieur, which is very limited in use, is the compound form of the passé simple. (The passé

The imperfect ( l'imparfait) is a simple tense used to refer to an ongoing or habitual action in the past and describes incomplete ac

the past participle of the verb indicating the actiopast.

The Passé Composé

p ts, a helping verb and a past participle.

fo med by using the present tense of the helping verb a

68

bs, and u for -re verbs. The past participles of irregular verbs must be mem r

• endu leur maison. (They sold their house.)

helping verb agree in number and gender with a preceding direct-object noun or pronoun. This is done by adding an -e to indicate a feminine

• La mousse Je l'ai préparée hier. (The mousse? I prepared it yesterday.) n fils a reçus. (Here are the trophies that my son received.)

as les bus que nous avons pris. (I don't remember the buses we

The passé composé with être Onl 1 eir helping verb. These verbs generally, but not always, express motion or a change of place, state, or condition, such as going up, going down, going in, going out r re:

wn)

)

The passé composé with avoir The past participle of regular verbs is formed by dropping the infinitive ending and adding -é for -er verbs, i for -ir ver

o ized.

• J'ai travaillé hier. (I worked yesterday.) • Il a choisi un bon livre. (He chose a good book.)

Ils ont v

Past participles of verbs that use avoir as their

noun or pronoun and an -s to indicate a plural noun or pronoun. No -s is added to a participlethat already ends in -s:

• Voici les trophées que mo• Je ne me rappelle p

took.)

y 7 verbs use être as th

, o remaining. The verbs a

• descendre (to go do• rester (to remain)

) • mourir (to die• retourner (to return

• sortir (to go out) • venir (to come) • arriver (to arrive) • naître (to be born) • devenir (to become) • entrer (to enter) • rentrer (to return) • tomber (to fall) • revenir (to come back) • aller (to go) • monter (to go up) • partir (to leave) • passer (to pass by)

When être is the helping verb, the past participle must agree in number and gender with the subject; this is done by adding -e for a feminine subject and -s for a plural subject:

• Il est rentré. (He returned home.) • Elle est née en juin. (She was born in June.)

69

ack yesterday.)

Ve bThe e to pass by), rentrer (to return hom e être as their helping verb. They m ject. In these cases, their meaning chan e sser (to spend time), rentrer (to brin in

n.)

t in the dog.) •

e verbs

e pronoun. When the reflexive pronoun is the indirect object (and, thus ent of the pas a

Negating in the passé composé

• t finished my dinner.) .)

e.) ever put on makeup.)

Qu ti

• Nous sommes revenus hier. (We came b• Elles sont tombées. (They fell.)

r s that use être or avoir v rbs descendre (to go down), monter (to go up), passer (

erally use), retourner (to return), and sortir (to go out) genay use avoir when the sentence contains a direct ob

g as: descendre (to take down), monter (to take up), pg ), retourner (to turn over), and sortir (to take out):

• Je suis descendu. (I went downstairs.) • Je suis descendu du train. (I got off the train.) • J'ai descendu le livre. (I took the book dow• Il est monté. (He went upstairs.) • Il a monté ses bagages. (He took his luggage upstairs.) • Il est passé par l'école. (He passed by the school.) • Il a passé une heure là-bas. (He spent an hour there.) • Ils sont rentrés tard. (They came home late.) • Ils ont rentré le chien. (They brough Elle est retournée ` Nice. (She returned to Nice.) • Elle a retourné la lettre. (She turned over the letter.)• Je suis sortie. (I went out.) • J'ai sorti mon argent. (I took out my money.)

The passé composé with reflexiv

Reflexive verbs use être as their helping verb. When the reflexive pronoun is also the direct object, the past participle agrees with the reflexiv

, the direct object comes after the verb), there is no agreemt p rticiple with the reflexive pronoun.

• Il s'est levé à six heures. (He got up at six o'clock.) • Elle s'est lavée. (She washed herself.) • Elle s'est lavé la figure. (She washed her face.)

To negate a sentence in the passé composé, put the negative expression around the conjugatedhelping verb and any pronouns that precede it:

Je n'ai pas fini mon dîner. (I haven'• Il n'a rien découvert. (He discovered nothing• Elle n'y est pas restée longtemps. (She didn't stay there a long tim• Elles ne se sont jamais maquillées. (They n

es ons in the passé composé

70

sé composé, invert the conjugated helping verb (with any ng it) with the subject pronoun, and add a hyphen. In general,

im?) re?)

rselves]?)

The Passé Simple

To form a question in the paspronouns related to it precediavoid inverting with je; instead, use est-ce que to form the question. With avoir, a -t- must be added when the subject is il or elle. Negatives surround the hyphenated inverted forms:

• As-tu oublié? (Did you forget?) • Lui a-t-elle parlé? (Did she speak to h• Y est-elle arrivée? (Did she arrive the• Est-ce que j'ai tort? (Am I wrong?) • N'a-t-il pas vu ce film? (Hasn't he seen this movie?) • Vous êtes-vous préparé( e)( s) ? (Did you prepare yourself [you• Ne s'est-elle pas levée? (Didn't she get up?)

ly in formal, literary, and historical writings to

express a completed past action, mal writing, the passé composé is used

Here are two examples of the passé simple.

• Il aida les pauvres. poo• Les soldats perdirent la bataille. e soldiers lost the b )

The passé simpleThe passé simple of regula endings ( -er, -ir, -re) and adding the endings ill

The passé simple (past definite) is used primarievent, or situation. In convers

instead of thation and infor

e passé simple to express the past.

(He helped the (Th

r.) attle.

of regular verbs r verbs is formed by dropping the infinitive

ustrated in Table 1 .

TABLE 1

Verbs

The Passé Simple of Regular Verbs

-er Verbs -ir Verbs -re

aid er fin ir défend re

je ( j') aid ai fin is défend is

tu aid as fin is défend is

il aid a fin it défend it

nous aid âmes fin îmes défend îmes

vous aid âtes fin îtes défend îtes

ils aid èrent fin irent défend irent

The following spelling changes occur in the passé simple:

• Verbs ending in -cer change intain the sound of soft c: o avancer: j'avançai, tu s ous avançâmes, vous avançâtes, ils

avancèrent

c to ç before a to maavança , il avança, n

71

• Verbs ending in -ger change g or maintain the sound of soft g: o voyager: je voyageai, tu voyageas

voyageâtes, ils voyagèrent

The pVerbs w erally end in -i or -u and have the following endings:

-g to - e bef, il voyagea, nous voyageâmes, vous

e -a to

assé simple of irregular verbs ith irregular stems in the passé simple gen

je: -s nous: -ˆmes

tu: -s vous: -ˆtes

il: -t ils: -rent

For example:

• Jeanne d'Arc naquit en 1412 à Domrémy. (Joan of Arc was born in 1412 in Domrémy.) • En 1066 Guillau int ro gleterre. (In 1066, William the

Conqueror becam .)

Table 2

me le Conquérant dev i de l'Ane the king of England

lists the most co verbs in th imple and their stems. Note that many of these stems are ely res past participle of the verb.

T ple Irregular Verb Stems

Simple Stem

mmon irregular e passé s the same as, or clos emble, the

ABLE 2 Passé Sim

Verb Infinitive Passé

avoir (to have) eu-

boire (to drink) bu-

connaître (to know) u- conn

construire (to build) truis- cons

courir (to run) couru-

craindre (to fear) ni- craig

croire (to believe) cru-

devoir (to have to) du-

dire (to say, to tell) di-

écrire (to write) écrivi-

être (to be) fu-

faire (to do) fi-

joindre (to join) joigni-

lire (to read) lu-

mettre (to put) mi-

72

mourir (to die) mouru-

naître (to be born) i- naqu

ouvrir (to open) - ouvri

peindre (to paint) peigni-

plaire (to please) plu-

pouvoir (to be able to) pu

prendre (to take) pri-

recevoir (to receive) - reçu

rompre (to break) rompu-

savoir (to know) su-

tenir (to hold) tin-

traduire (to translate) traduisi-

vaincre (to vanquish) vainqui-

venir (to come) vin-

vivre (to live) vécu-

voir (to see) vi-

vouloir (to wish, to want) voulu-

The PThe pa e and dès que (as soon as),

après que (after) — to show that an action was completed xpressed by the passé simple) took place.

assé

• Aussitôt que le président eut signé le document, sa secrétaire l'emporta. (As soon as the

i la France, Napoléon se retira à Elbe. (As soon as his enemies had invaded France, Napoleon retired to Elba.)

The Imparfait

assé Antérieur ssé antérieur is used after conjunctions of time — aussitôt qu

quand and lorsque (when), and before another action (e

The passé antérieur is the compound form of the passé simple and is formed by using the psimple of the appropriate helping verb ( avoir or être) + the past participle of the verb. Just like the passé simple, the passé antérieur is primarily used in formal and literary writings. Its English equivalent is “had” + past participle:

president had signed the document, his secretary took it away.) • Dès que ses ennemis eurent envah

The imperfect ( l'imparfait) express r oincomplete actions, situations, or ev nts in the past. The imperfect describes what was going on

appen. The imperfect can be translated by

ees or desc ibes c ntinued, repeated, habitual actions or

at an indefinite time in the past or what used to h

73

se that does not require a helping verb.

The imperfect is formed by dropping the -ons ending from the present tense nous form of the verb and adding the follo ings:

je: -io

“would” when it implies “used to.” The imperfect is a simple ten

wing end

-ais nous: ns

tu: -ie -ais vous: z

il: -a-ait ils: ient

The imparfait ofTable 1

regular verbs shows how the im m r

TABLE 1 Forming the Imparfait

Jouer Finir Vendre

parfait is for ed with regula verbs.

nous jou ons nous finiss ons nous vend ons

je jouais je finissais je vendais

tu jouais tu finissais tu vendais

il jouait il finissait il vendait

nous jouions nous finissions nous vendions

vous jouiez vous finissiez vous vendiez

ils jouaient ils finissaient ils vendaient

Here are two examples:

• Pendant mon enfance, je lisais beaucoup. (During my childhood I read [used to read, would read] a lot.)

• Je r a e

Verbs s ), sourire (to smile), and vérifier (to check) already end in necessary in the nous and vous forms:

ere studying for hours.) uch.)

• Verbs ending in -cer change -c to -ç before -a to maintain the soft c sound in the je,

ntement. (The car was advancing slowly.)

eg rdais la télé quand le téléphone a sonné. (I was watching TV when the phonrang.)

uch as étudier (to study), rire (to laugh-ions in the present. In the imperfect, an extra i is

• Nous étudiions pendant des heures. (We w• Vous riiez trop. (You were laughing too m

The following verbs have spelling changes in the imperfect:

tu, il, and ils forms: o La voiture avançait le

74

s inquiéter? (Were you beginning to get worried?) between -g and -a to maintain the soft g

o Il mangeait si vite. (He was eating so quickly.) o Nous mangions toujours dans ce restaurant. (We always ate at that restaurant.)

The imparfait of irregular verbs Irregular verbs follow the same rules for the formation of the imperfect as do regular verbs. The following is a list of the nous form of the most common irregular verbs. To form the imperfect, simply drop the -ons and add the imperfect endings given earlier:

• aller (to go): nous allons • avoir (to have): nous avons • boire (to drink): nous buvons • conduire (to drive): nous conduisons • connaître (to know): nous connaissons • courir (to run): nous courons • craindre (to fear): nous craignons • croire (to believe): nous croyons • devoir (to have to): nous devons • dire (to say, to tell): nous disons • dormir (to sleep): nous dormons • écrire (to write): nous écrivons • faire (to make, to do): nous faisons • lire (to read): nous lisons • mettre (to put): nous mettons • offrir (to offer): nous offrons • ouvrir (to open): nous ouvrons • plaire (to please): nous plaisons • pouvoir (to be able to): nous pouvons • prendre (to take): nous prenons • recevoir (to receive): nous recevons • savoir (to know): nous savons • suivre (to follow): nous suivons • tenir (to hold): nous tenons • valoir (to be worth): nous valons • venir (to come): nous venons • vivre (to live): nous vivons • voir (to see): nous voyons • vouloir (to wish, to want): nous voulons

Note: Falloir (to be necessary) and pleuvoir (to rain) are used only in the il form: il fallait (it was necessary) and il pleuvait (it was raining).

Note: The only verb that does not follow the rule for the formation of the imperfect is être (to be), whose imperfect stem is ét-: j'étais, tu étais, il était, nous étions, vous étiez, ils étaient.

The Plus�Que�Parfait

o Commenciez-vous à vou• Verbs ending in -ger insert a silent -e

sound in the je, tu, il, and ils forms:

75

The plus-que-parfait (the pluperfect) indicates that an action had taken place and had been completed before another past action took place. The plus-que-parfait is the compound form of the imperfect and is formed by using the imperfect of the appropriate helping verb ( avoir or être) + the past participle of the verb. Its English equivalent is “had” + past participle:

• J'avais mal à l'estomac parce que j'avais trop mangé. (I had a stomachache because I had eaten too much.)

• Il marchait avec peine parce qu'il était tombé. (He walked with difficulty because he had fallen.)

• Elle s'était préparée avant de donner sa présentation. (She had prepared herself before giving her presentation.)

Remember that the past participle must agree in number and gender with a preceding direct-object noun or pronoun:

• Voici les livres que j'avais écrits il y a longtemps. (Here are the books I had written a long time ago.)

• Cette robe? Elle l'avait achetée quand elle était à Paris. (That dress? She had bought it when she was in Paris.)

Using the Correct Form of the Past Tense You can discover when to use the various past tenses by taking a look at the following information.

Passé composé Use the passé composé:

• To express specific actions or events that were started and completed at a definite time in the past (even if the time isn't mentioned):

o Je suis allé au centre commercial. (I went to the mall.) • To express a specific action or event that occurred at a specific point in past time:

o Je suis allé au centre commercial hier. (I went to the mall yesterday.) • To express a specific action or event that was repeated for a stated number of

times: o Je suis allé au centre commercial deux fois. (I went to the mall twice.)

The following words and expressions often require the use of the passé composé because they specify a definite past time:

• l'année passée (last year) • avant-hier (the day before yesterday) • d'abord (at first) • enfin (finally) • ensuite (then, next) • l'été passé/l'hiver passé (last summer/last winter) • finalement (finally) • une fois (one time)

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• hier (yesterday) • hier soir (last night) • l'autre jour (the other day) • ce jour-là (that day) • un jour (one day) • le mois passé ( dernier) (last month) • la semaine passée ( dernière) (last week) • soudain (suddenly) • tout à coup (suddenly)

Passé simple The passé simple is used in the same manner as the passé composé; however, it is not used conversationally or in informal writing.

Imparfait Use the imparfait:

• To describe continuous, ongoing, habitual, or repeated actions or events in the past (which may or may not have been completed):

o J'allais au centre commercial tous les jours. (I used to [would] go to the mall every day.)

• To describe what was going on when something else happened: o J'allais au centre commercial quand Marie m'a téléphoné. (I was going to the

mall when Marie called me.) • To describe a person, place, thing, or state of mind:

o Le centre commercial était magnifique. (The mall was magnificent.) • To express the day, the month, or the time of day:

o C'était vendredi. (It was Friday.) o C'était le mois de juin. (It was June.) o Il était midi. (It was noon.)

• With depuis + an expression of time to describe an action or event that began in the past and continued for some time in the past:

o Depuis combien de temps habitait-il à Paris avant son mariage? (How long had he been living in Paris before his marriage?)

o Il y habitait depuis deux ans. (He had been living there for two years.) • With il y avait (or cela [ça] faisait … que) + expression of time + que to describe an

action or event that began in the past and continued for some time in the past: o Combien de temps y avait-il qu'il habitait à Paris avant son mariage? o Ça faisait combien de temps qu'il habitait à Paris avant son mariage? o How long had he been living in Paris before his marriage? o Il y avait deux ans qu'il y habitait. o Ça faisait deux ans qu'il y habitait. o He had been living there for two years.

The following words and expressions often require the use of the imperfect because they usually imply repetitious or habitual past actions:

77

• autrefois (formerly) • chaque jour ( semaine, mois, année) (each [every] day [week, month, year]) • de temps à autre (from time to time) • de temps en temps (from time to time) • d'habitude (usually) • d'ordinaire (usually, generally) • en ce temps-là (at that time) • en général (generally) • fréquemment (frequently) • généralement (generally) • habituellement (habitually) • parfois (sometimes) • quelquefois (sometimes) • souvent (often) • toujours (always) • tous les jours (mois) (every day [month]) • tout le temps (all the time)

Verbs that indicate a state of mind in the past are generally used in the imperfect. When the state of mind occurred at a specific time in the past, however, the passé composé is used:

• aimer (to like, to love) • croire (to believe) • désirer (to desire) • espérer (to hope) • être (to be) • penser (to think) • pouvoir (to be able to) • préférer (to prefer) • regretter (to regret, to be sorry) • savoir (to know [how]) • vouloir (to want)

Here are two examples of the imparfait used correctly:

• Je ne voulais pas aller au gymnase. (I didn't want to go to the gym.) • Je n'ai pas voulu aller au gymnase hier soir. (I didn't want to go to the gym last night.)

Passé antérieur and plus-que-parfait The passé antérieur and the plus-que-parfait both express “had” + past participle. Remember that the passé antérieur is seen only in formal writing and is never used conversationally. Normally, it may not be used with any tense other than the passé simple. The passé antérieur indicates that an action has taken place and was completed once or a specific number of times. The plus-que-parfait is used when an action has recurred an unspecified number of times or may be considered habitual:

One particular occurrence:

78

• Aussitôt que le président eut signé le document, sa secrétaire l'emporta. (As soon as the president had signed the document, his secretary took it away.)

A customary occurrence:

• Aussitôt que le président avait signé un document, sa secrétaire l'emportait. (As soon as the president had signed a document, his secretary would take it away.)

Future Tenses

Introduction to Future Tenses

The near future expresses what is going to take place or what the subject is going to do in the not-too-distant future. In some instances, the present tense is used to imply a near future event or action. In other instances, the verb aller (to go) is used to speak about something that will happen soon.

The future tense expresses what will happen or what the subject will do at some time in the future. The future tense is also used after conjunctions of time to refer to future actions.

The futur antérieur is the compound form of the future tense and expresses what shall or will have been entirely completed at a given time or what will have been completed before another future action takes place.

The Near Future Events or actions that will take place in the immediate future may be expressed in the following manner:

• By using the present: o Je te rappelle dans cinq minutes. (I'll call you back in five minutes.)

• By using the conjugated form of the verb aller (je vais, tu vas, il va, nous allons, vous allez, ils vont) + an infinitive to express what the subject is going to do:

o Je vais te téléphoner à huit heures. (I am going to call you at eight o'clock.)

Negating the near future In a negative sentence, put the negative expression around the conjugated form of aller:

• Ils ne vont pas nous attendre. (They aren't going to wait for us.) • Je ne vais jamais fumer. (I'm never going to smoke.)

Questions in the near future In an inverted question, invert the conjugated form of aller and the subject pronoun and join them with a hyphen:

• Vas-tu sortir ce soir? (Are you going out tonight?)

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• Vont-ils aller au musée? (Are they going to go to the museum?)

To negate an inverted question, put the negative expression around the entire inverted form:

• Ne vas-tu jamais visiter la France? (Aren't you ever going to visit France?)

The Future Tense The future tense is used to express a future action or state, that is, what will happen in a future time.

Future tense of regular verbs The future tense of regular verbs is formed by adding the endings shown in Table 1 .

TABLE 1 The Future of Regular Verbs

Subject Ending -er Verbs -ir Verbs -re Verbs

je -ai jouerai finirai rendrai

tu -as joueras finiras rendras

il/elle/on -a jouera finira rendra

nous -ons jouerons finirons rendrons

vous -ez jouerez finirez rendrez

ils/elles/on -ont joueront finiront rendront Note that the ending for the je, tu, il, and ils form is the present tense of avoir. The nous form is formed by adding -ons; the vous form is formed by adding -ez.

Note the following about forming the future tense of regular verbs:

• Endings are added to the complete infinitive of -er and -ir verbs. • For -re verbs, drop the final e before adding the appropriate future ending:

o rendre: ils rendront • For -er verbs, if the stem has two consecutive pronounced consonants before -er,

the e of the -er infinitive ending is pronounced: o parler: il parlera

• If the stem has one pronounced consonant before -er, the e of the -er infinitive is silent:

o diner: nous dînerons

Spelling changes in the future tense All verbs that require spelling changes form the future in the same way as regular verbs: infinitive + future ending. The following are exceptions to this rule:

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• For verbs ending in -yer (except envoyer, which is irregular and has enverr- as its stem), change y to i in all forms of the future tense. Verbs ending in -ayer may or may not make this change:

o je netto ierai, nous netto ierons (I will clean, we will clean) o j'essa ierai or j'essa yerai (I will try)

• For verbs ending in e + consonant + - er (but not é + consonant + -er), change the silent e before the infinitive ending to é in all forms of the future tense:

o tu am éneras, vous am énerez (you will bring) • With appeler and jeter, double the consonant in the future tense:

o vous appellerez (you will call) o vous jetterez (you will throw)

Future Tense of Irregular Verbs Verbs that are irregular in the future (and the derivatives of these verbs) have future stems (verb forms to which endings are added) ending in -r or -rr. Add the future endings to these stems to get the correct future form, as shown in the following list.

Infinitive Future Stem

aller (to go) ir-

apercevoir (to notice) apercevr-

asseoir (to seat) assiér- or assoir-

avoir (to have) aur-

courir (to run) courr-

cueillir (to pick) cueiller-

devoir (to have to) devr-

envoyer (to send) enverr-

ětre (to be) ser-

faire (to make, to do) fer-

falloir (to be necessary) faudr-

mourir (to die) mourr-

pleuvoir (to rain) pleuvr-

pouvoir (to be able to) pourr-

recevoir (to receive) recevr-

savoir (to know) saur-

tenir (to hold) tiendr-

valoir (to be worth) vaudr-

venir (to come) viendr-

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voir (to see) verr-

vouloir (to wish, to want) voudr-

For example:

• J'irai en ville cet après-midi. (I'll go downtown this afternoon.) • Tu recevras une surprise. (You'll receive a surprise.)

Irregularities in the future also occur in related verbs:

• Je te reverrai demain. (I'll see you tomorrow.)

Negating in the future tense To negate a sentence in the future, simply put ne and the negative word around the conjugated verb:

• Nous ne saurons pas tout de suite les résultats. (We won't know the results immediately.)

• Il ne fera rien demain. (He won't do anything tomorrow.)

Remember that pronouns remain before the conjugated verb:

• Elle ne t'enverra pas le paquet avant mercredi. (She won't send you the package before Wednesday.)

Questions in the future To form a question using inversion, reverse the order of the subject pronoun and the verb and join them with a hyphen:

• Fera-t-il une partie de tennis ce matin? (Will he play a game of tennis this morning?) • Travaillerez-vous pendant le week-end? (Will you work on the weekend?)

To negate an inverted question, put ne and the negative expression around the inverted form. Remember that all object and adverbial pronouns must remain before the conjugated form of the verb:

• Ne lui direz-vous pas la vérité? (Won't you tell him [her] the truth?) • N'y iront-elles pas? (Won't they go there?)

Uses of the future Note the following about when and when not to use the future in French:

• Be careful to distinguish “will” as used to form the future and the verb vouloir (to wish, to want), which translates as “will” when it expresses “willingness”:

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o Je t'aiderai. (I will help you.) o Veux-tu m'aider? (Will you [do you wish, are you willing to] help me?)

• The future tense is NOT used in French in a subordinate clause requiring the subjunctive:

o Je doute qu'il réussisse. (I doubt he will succeed.) • When the main clause is in the present tense, the future or the present may be used

after croire que (to believe that), penser que (to think that), savoir que (to know that), espérer que (to hope that), and ne pas savoir si (to not know if) to express a future action:

o Je pense qu'il vient. o Je pense qu'il viendra. o I think he is coming (is going to come, will come).

• The future may be used conversationally to express probability or supposition, especially with avoir and ětre:

o Elle ne mange rien. Elle sera malade. (She isn't eating anything. She must be sick.)

o Il crie de toutes ses forces. Il aura peur. (He's screaming at the top of his lungs. He must be afraid.)

• The future tense is used after the following conjunctions of time when the verb in the main clause is in the future tense, even if the present tense is used in English:

quand, lorsque, au moment où (when)

o Je lui parlerai quand ( lorsque, au moment où) il arrivera. (I will speak to him when he arrives.)

dès que, aussitôt que (as soon as)

o Dès que ( Aussitôt que) tu me téléphoneras, je viendrai te chercher. (As soon as you call me, I'll come get you.)

pendant que, tandis que (while)

o Je lirai pendant que ( tandis que) mon mari jouera au golf. (I'll read while my husband is playing golf.)

The Futur Antérieur The futur antérieur (future perfect) is used to express a future action or event that will be completed before another future action or to describe a future action or event that will have been completed in the future.

Forming the futur antérieur The futur antérieur is formed by using the future tense of the helping verb ( avoir or ětre) + the past participle of the action being performed. The futur antérieur tells what the subject will or shall have done:

• Ils auront fini avant mon départ. (They will have finished before my departure.)

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• Nous serons déjà partis quand vous arriverez. (We will have already left when you arrive.)

• Les enfants se seront déjà couchés quand leurs parents reviendront. (The children will have already gone to bed when their parents return.)

• Demain à cette heure, il sera revenu de son voyage. (Tomorrow at this time, he will have come back from his trip.)

Negating the futur antérieur To negate a sentence in the futur antérieur, simply put ne and the negative word around the conjugated helping verb:

• Je n'aurai pas fini mon travail avant minuit. (I will not have finished my work before midnight.)

• Il n'aura rien accompli. (He will have accomplished nothing.)

Remember that pronouns remain before the conjugated verb:

• Je n'y serai pas allé avant lundi. (I will not have gone there before Monday.)

Questions in the futur antérieur To form a question using inversion, reverse the order of the subject pronoun and the verb and join them with a hyphen. Use -t- to link two vowels:

• Sera-t-elle revenue avant la fin de mai? (Will she have returned before the end of May?)

To negate an inverted question, put ne and the negative expression around the inverted form. Remember that all object and adverbial pronouns must remain before the conjugated form of the verb:

• N'aura-t-il pas fini le travail? (Won't he have finished the work?) • Ne l'aura-t-il pas fini? (Won't he have finished it?)

Uses of the futur antérieur The futur antérieur is used after the conjunctions quand (when), lorsque (when), aussitôt que (as soon as), dès que (as soon as), and après que (after) when the future is used in the main clause:

• Après que nos invités seront partis, nous nous coucherons. (As soon as our guests have left, we will go to bed.)

The futur antérieur is also used to express probability or supposition in the past:

• Il n'est pas venu. Il aura oublié notre rendez-vous. (He didn't come. He must have forgotten our appointment.)

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• Elle est en retard. Il sera arrivé quelque chose. (She's late. Something must have happened.)

The Conditional The conditional is used to express what would happen given certain events or actions.

Forming the conditional of regular verbs

The conditional of regular verbs is formed using the same stem (the infinitive) that is used for the future tense and by adding the imperfect endings shown in Table 1 . Note that for - re regular verbs, the final -e from the infinitive ending is dropped before adding the conditional ending.

TABLE 1 The Conditional of Regular Verbs

Subject Ending -er Verbs -ir Verbs -re Verbs

je -ais jouerais finirais rendrais

tu -ais jouerais finirais rendrais

il/elle/on -ait jouerait finirait rendrait

nous -ions jouerions finirions rendrions

vous -iez joueriez finiriez rendriez

ils/elles/on -aient joueraient finiraient rendraient

Forming the conditional of irregular verbs For irregular verbs and verbs with spelling changes, you simply add conditional endings to the stems used for the future, as shown in the following list.

Infinitive Future Stem

acheter (to buy) achèter-

aller (to go) ir-

apercevoir (to notice) apercevr-

appeler (to call) appeller-

asseoir (to seat) assiér- or assoir-

avoir (to have) aur-

courir (to run) courr-

cueillir (to pick) cueiller-

devoir (to have to) devr-

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ennuyer (to bother) ennuier-

envoyer (to send) enverr-

être (to be) ser-

faire (to make, to do) fer-

falloir (to be necessary) faudr-

jeter (to throw) jetter-

mourir (to die) mourr-

payer (to pay) paier- or payer-

pleuvoir (to rain) pleuvr-

pouvoir (to be able to) pourr-

recevoir (to receive) recevr-

savoir (to know) saur-

tenir (to hold) tiendr-

valoir (to be worth) vaudr-

venir (to come) viendr-

voir (to see) verr-

vouloir (to wish, to want) voudr-

Irregularities in the conditional also occur in verbs derived from the ones listed above:

• Je le rappellerais. I would call him back.

Negating in the conditional To negate a sentence in the conditional, simply put ne and the negative word around the conjugated verb:

• Je ne défendrais pas cet homme. (I wouldn't defend that man.) • Il ne ferait jamais ce travail. (He would never do that work.)

Remember that pronouns remain before the conjugated verb:

• Elle ne le verrait plus. (She would never see him again.)

Questions in the conditional To form a question using inversion, reverse the order of the subject pronoun and the verb, and join them with a hyphen:

• Visiterais-tu la Chine? (Would you visit China?)

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To negate an inverted question, put ne and the negative expression around the inverted form. Remember that all object and adverbial pronouns must remain before the conjugated form of the verb:

• N'y travailleriez-vous pas? (Wouldn't you work there?) • Ne la consulterait-il pas? (Wouldn't he consult her?)

Uses of the conditional Note the following about when and when not to use the conditional in French:

• Be careful to distinguish between “would” as used in the conditional and “would” as used in the imperfect to express “used to”:

o J'irais à Paris. (I would go to Paris.) o J'allais fréquemment à Paris. (I would [used to] go to Paris frequently.)

• Be careful to distinguish between “would” as used to form the conditional and the verb vouloir in the imperfect or in the passé composé to express “would” in the sense of “to be willing”:

o Sous ces conditions, il signerait le contrat. (Under those conditions, he would sign the contract.)

o Il ne voulait pas signer le contrat or Il n'a pas voulu signer le contrat. (He wouldn't [wasn't willing to] sign the contract.)

• The conditional of the verb pouvoir (to be able to) is used when “could” means “should be able to”:

o Il pourrait gagner. (He could [should be able to] win.) Il ne pouvait pas gagner or Il n'a pas pu gagner. (He couldn't [wasn't

able] to win.) • The conditional is used after the following conjunctions of time when the verb in the

main clause is in the conditional, even if English uses the past tense: o quand, lorsque, au moment où (when) o dès que, aussitôt que (as soon as) o pendant que, tandis que (while) o Elle lirait l'article lorsqu' ( quand, au moment où) elle aurait le temps. (She

would read the article when she had the time.) o Dès que ( Aussitôt que) vous le lui expliqueriez, elle le comprendrait. (As soon

as you explained it to her, she would understand it.) • The conditional is used after au cas où (in case) even if English uses the present:

o Je ne sortirai pas au cas où il téléphonerait. (I won't go out in case he calls.) • The conditional is used to soften a request, a desire, or a demand:

o Pourrais-tu m'aider? (Could you help me?) o J'aimerais voyager. (I would like to travel.) o Je voudrais vous parler. (I would like to speak to you.)

• The conditional is used to express a possible action or condition in the present: o Quel temps ferait-il? Il ferait froid. (What could the weather be like? It could be

cold.) • The conditional may be used by reporters and journalists to describe an action that is

unsure or not known to be true: o Le président voyagerait en Afrique. (It is rumored [alleged, said] that the

president will travel to Africa.)

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The Conditionnel Passé The conditionnel passé (past conditional) is used to express what would have taken place in the past had some other action, event, or situation occurred.

Forming the conditionnel passé The conditionnel passé is formed by using the conditional of the helping verb ( avoir or être) + the past participle of the action being performed. Conditionnel passé observes the same rules of agreement as the passé composé. The past conditional tells what the subject would have done:

• Je l'aurais salué, mais je ne l'ai pas vu. (I would have greeted him, but I didn't see him.) • Elles seraient arrivées à l'heure, mais leur voiture était en panne. (They would have

arrived on time, but their car broke down.) • Anne se serait déjà réveillée, mais son réveil n'a pas marché. (Anne would have already

awakened, but her alarm clock didn't work.)

Negating the conditionnel passé To negate a sentence in the conditionnel passé, simply put ne and the negative word around the conjugated helping verb:

• Même avec plus de temps, il n'aurait jamais fini cet examen. (Even with more time, he would never have finished that test.)

• Je n'aurais plus dansé parce que j'avais mal aux pieds. (I wouldn't have danced any more because my feet hurt.)

Remember that pronouns remain before the conjugated verb:

• Ces chaussures? Il ne les aurait jamais achetées. (Those shoes? He never would have bought them.)

Questions in the conditionnel passé To form a question using inversion, reverse the order of the subject pronoun and the verb, and join them with a hyphen:

• Serait-elle venue sans son mari? (Would she have come without her husband?)

To negate an inverted question, put ne and the negative expression around the inverted form. Remember that all object and adverbial pronouns must remain before the conjugated form of the verb:

• N'auriez-vous pas aidé ces gens? (Wouldn't you have helped those people?)

Uses of the conditionnel passé

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Like the conditional, the conditionnel passé is used to express a possible action in the past:

• Serait-il arrivé pendant mon absence? (Could he have arrived during my absence?)

Also like the conditional, the conditionnel passé is used by reporters and journalists to describe an action that is unsure:

• Deux accidents de voiture auraient eu lieu hier. (It is reported [alleged, rumored, said] that two car accidents took place yesterday.)

Conditional Sentences A conditional sentence is made up of a si clause (also known as a condition clause) and a result, or main, clause. Only four tenses of the indicative mood (the mood that states a fact) may normally be used in French in the si clause: the present, the passé composé, the imperfect, and the plus-que-parfait. The tense used in the main clause is the same in both French and English. In a conditional sentence, si generally means “if.”

Real conditions A condition that describes what is possible or likely in the present or past is called a “real” condition:

• Si tu me téléphones, je te parlerai. (If you call me, I will speak to you.)

The sequence of tenses for a real condition is shown in Table 1 .

TABLE 1 Sequence of Tenses for Real Conditions

The Condition The Tense in the Si Clause

The Tense/Mood in the Main Clause

A real possibility in the present or future Present

Present Future (perfect) Imperative (command)

A real possibility in the past Passé composé The same tense as one would use in English

In the examples below, note that either clause may begin the sentence, but in the si clause, the subject must be followed by the present or the passé composé. Note that si elides with il or ils to become s'il and s'ils, respectively, but does not elide with elle ( si elle) or elles ( si elles). Si followed by the present:

• Si j'ai soif, je bois de l'eau. (If I'm thirsty, I drink water.) • Tu réussiras, si tu étudies beaucoup. (You will succeed, if you study a lot.) • S'il ne commence pas immédiatement, il n'aura pas fini avant midi. (If he doesn't start

immediately, he will not have finished before noon.) • Si je suis en retard, attends-moi. (If I'm late, wait for me.)

Si followed by the passé composé:

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• Le vol n'est pas encore arrivé, si j'ai bien entendu. (The flight hasn't arrived yet, if I heard correctly.)

• Si j'ai bien compris, elle a changé d'avis. (If I understood correctly, she changed her mind.)

• S'il s'est trompé, il perdra beaucoup d'argent. (If he made a mistake, he will lose a lot of money.)

• Elle ne savait pas les détails, si elle vous a dit cela. (She didn't know the details, if she told you that.)

• Si tu l'as appris, n'en dis rien. (If you heard about it, don't say anything.)

Contrary-to-fact conditions

A conditional sentence that describes a situation or event that is unlikely is called “contrary-to-fact” or “unreal”:

You might say the following if you're not expecting snow:

• S'il neigeait, je ne sortirais pas. (If it snowed, I wouldn't go out.)

The sequence of tenses for a contrary-to-fact condition is shown in Table 2 .

TABLE 2 Sequence of Tenses for Contrary-to-Fact Conditions

The Condition The Tense in the Si Clause The Tense/Mood in the Main Clause

Unrealized, unreal, contrary-to-fact, or unlikely in the present or future Imperfect

Generally the conditional, but may be the same as in English

Unrealized, unreal, contrary-to-fact, or unlikely in the past Plus-que-parfait

Generally the past conditional, but may be the same as the tense used in English

Once again, either clause may begin the sentence, but in the si clause, the subject must be followed by the imperfect or the plus-que-parfait.

Si followed by the imperfect:

• Si j'étais riche, je m'achèterais un château. (If I were rich, I'd buy myself a castle.) • Je t'enverrais de l'argent, si tu en avais besoin. (I would send you money, if you needed

some.) • S'il avait eu le temps, il t'aurait aidé. (If he had had the time, he would have helped

you.) • J'aurais fait un gâteau, si j'avais su que tu venais. (I would have baked a cake, if I had

known you were coming.)

In conditional sentences, si always means “if.” When si means “whether,” it may be followed by any tense, just as in English:

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• Savez-vous si elle travaillera demain? (Do you know if she will work tomorrow?) • Je ne savais pas s'il le ferait. (I didn't know whether he would do it.)

The Subjunctive

Introduction to the Subjunctive

The subjunctive is an indispensable means of expression in French. Its use is much more prevalent in French than in English, where an infinitive is often used instead. The subjunctive is a mood used to express an action that is dependent on a subjective idea, opinion, or condition.

The subjunctive is used after verbs and impersonal expressions showing opinion, doubt, need, want, emotion, denial, disbelief, preference, desire, permission, prohibition; after a request or a command; after certain conjunctions; after superlative expressions; after certain indefinites; in relative clauses; and in third-person commands.

The present subjunctive is used to express both present and future time, while the past or perfect subjunctive is used to express an action that has already taken place. Although the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive do exist, they have disappeared from the spoken language and are used and seen only in very formal writing.

The Present Subjunctive The present subjunctive is used much more frequently in French than in English (where it has been largely replaced by the indicative) and, therefore, needs special attention.

Note: Here are a few examples of the subjunctive in English:

• I demand that he see a doctor. • If the apple were ripe, it would be delicious. • She looks as if she were sick.

Forming the present subjunctive The present subjunctive of regular verbs and of many irregular verbs is formed by dropping the - ent from the third person plural ( ils/ elles) form of the present tense and adding the endings shown in Table 1 .

TABLE 1 The Present Subjunctive of Regular Verbs

Subject Ending -er Verbs -ir Verbs -re Verbs

parl ent finiss ent vend ent

je -e parl e finiss e vend e

tu -es parl es finiss es vend es

il/elle/on -e parl e finiss e vend e

nous -ions parl ions finiss ions vend ions

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vous -iez parl iez finiss iez vend iez

ils/elles -ent parl ent finiss ent vend ent

Some irregular verbs and some verbs with spelling changes use two different stems (the verb form to which endings are added) to form the present subjunctive:

• The ils stem of the present tense for je, tu, il/elle/on, ils/elles. • The nous form of the present tense for nous and vous.

The following list gives examples of verbs that use two different stems:

Verb Ils Stem Nous Stem

apercevoir aperçoiv- apercev-

appeler appell- appel-

acheter achèt- achet-

boire boiv- buv-

croire croi- croy-

devoir doiv- dev-

ennuyer ennui- ennuy-

jeter jett- jet-

manger mange- mang-

mourir meur- mour-

préférer préfèr- préfér-

prendre prenn- pren-

recevoir reçoiv- recev-

tenir tienn- ten-

venir vienn- ven-

voir voi- voy-

The following verbs are completely irregular and must be memorized:

• Verbs with one stem: o faire: je fasse, tu fasses, il fasse, nous fassions, vous fassiez, ils fassent o falloir: il faille o pleuvoir: il pleuve o pouvoir: je puisse, tu puisses, il puisse, nous puissions, vous puissiez, ils

puissent o savoir: je sache, tu saches, il sache, nous sachions, vous sachiez, ils sachent

• Verbs with two stems: o aller: j'aille, tu ailles, il aille, nous allions, vous alliez, il aillent

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o avoir: j'aie, tu aies, il ait, nous ayons, vous ayez, ils aient o être: je sois, tu sois, il soit, nous soyons, vous soyez, ils soient o valoir: je vaille, tu vailles, il vaille, nous valions, vous valiez, ils vaillent o vouloir: je veuille, tu veuilles, il veuille, nous voulions, vous vouliez, ils veuillent

Using the present subjunctive The present subjunctive refers to actions in the present or the future. For example:

• Il est nécessaire que je finisse mon travail. (It's necessary that I finish my work.)

The subjunctive is needed when all of the following conditions are met:

• The sentence contains two different clauses (a dependent and a main clause) with two different subjects.

• The clauses are joined by que (that) or, in special instances, by qui (who). • One of the clauses shows a wish, want, need, necessity, emotion, doubt, or denial, or

one of the clauses requires the subjunctive in some other respect (see the corresponding sections below).

After impersonal expressions The subjunctive is used after impersonal expressions that show doubt, emotion, need, or opinion:

• Il faut que tu ailles chez le docteur. (It is necessary that you go to the doctor.)

The expressions below are all followed by que and require the subjunctive in the clause that follows:

• il est absurde (it is absurd) • il est amusant (it is amusing) • il est bon (it is good) • il est curieux (it is curious) • il est dommage (it is a pity) • il est douteux (it is doubtful) • il est essentiel (it is essential) • il est étonnant (it is amazing) • il est étrange (it is strange) • il est gentil (it is nice) • il est impératif (it is imperative) • il est important (it is important) • il est impossible (it is impossible) • il est indispensable (it is indispensable) • il est injuste (it is unfair) • il est intéressant (it is interesting) • il est ironique (it is ironic) • il est juste (it is fair) • il est naturel (it is natural)

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• il est nécessaire (it is necessary) • il est normal (it is normal) • il est possible (it is possible) • il est préférable (it is preferable) • il est rare (it is rare) • il est regrettable (it is regrettable) • il est surprenant (it is surprising) • il est temps (it is time) • il est urgent (it is urgent) • il est utile (it is useful) • il convient (it is fitting) • il faut (it is necessary) • il semble (it seems) • il suffit (it is enough) • il vaut mieux (it is better)

For many impersonal expressions, c'est may be used in place of il est: C'est étrange qu'il ne vienne pas. (It's strange that he isn't coming.)

After verbs and expressions of doubt, denial, and disbelief

The subjunctive is used after verbs and expressions of doubt, denial, and disbelief. When doubt is negated, certainty or probability exists and the indicative tenses (present, passé composé, imperfect, future) are used. Many verbs and expressions show certainty and probability. When these verbs and expressions, shown in Table 2 , are used in the negative or the interrogative, they imply uncertainty or doubt and require the subjunctive.

TABLE 2 The Subjunctive and the Indicative after Impersonal Expressions

Expressions of Certainty: Use the Subjunctive after Them

Expressions of Uncertainty: Use the Indicative after Them

je sais (I know) je doute (I doubt)

je ne sais pas (I do not know)

je suis sûr( e) (I am sure) je ne suis pas sûr( e) (I am not sure)

je suis certain( e) (I am certain) je ne suis pas certain( e) (I am not certain)

il est certain (it is certain) il n'est pas certain (it is not certain)

il est douteux (it is doubtful)

il est clair (it is clear) il n'est pas clair (it is not clear)

il est évident (it is evident) il n'est pas évident (it is not evident)

il est exact (it is exact) il n'est pas exact (it is not exact)

il paraît (it appears) il semble (it seems)

il est vrai (it is true) il n'est pas vrai (it is not true)

il est sûr (it is sure) il n'est pas sûr (it is not sure)

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il est probable (it is probable) il est improbable (it is improbable)

il est possible (it is possible)

il est impossible (it is impossible) il se peut (it is possible)

• Subjunctive is used: Je ne suis pas sûre qu'elle parte en vacances. (I'm not sure that she will be going away on vacation.)

• Future tense is used: Je suis sûre qu'elle partira en vacances. (I'm sure that she will be going away on vacation.)

The subjunctive expresses a potential action whose realization is in doubt or is uncertain. The desired purpose or end may never be met. There is a distinct difference in mental outlook between the indicative il est probable (it is probable) and the subjunctive il est possible (it is possible):

• Il est probable qu'il vendra sa voiture. (It is probable that he will sell his car.) • Il est possible qu'il vende sa voiture. (It is possible that he will sell his car.)

That same difference exists between the indicative il paraît (it appears) and the subjunctive il semble (it seems):

• Il paraît que tu sais la réponse. (It appears that you know the answer.) • Il semble que tu saches la réponse. (It seems that you know the answer.)

After declarative verbs or verbs of opinion or knowledge—such as penser (to think), croire (to believe), espérer (to hope), affirmer (to affirm), assurer (to assure), remarquer (to notice), and estimer (to esteem)—the indicative or the subjunctive is selected depending on the degree of certainty or uncertainty that the speaker wishes to convey or on the speaker's attitude toward the statement contained in the clause: If the action is viewed as potentially happening, use the subjunctive, and if it is an accomplished fact, use the indicative.

Used affirmatively, these verbs of opinion or knowledge usually require the indicative because they show belief, conviction, or knowledge on the part of the speaker: Je crois qu'elle recevra le prix (I believe she'll receive the prize). Used negatively or interrogatively, these verbs usually (but not always) take the subjunctive because they convey doubt or uncertainty:

• The speaker has no doubt, so the indicative is used: Pensez-vous qu'elle peut réussir? (Do you think she can succeed?)

• The speaker has doubts, so the subjunctive is used: Pensez-vous qu'elle puisse réussir? (Do you think she can succeed?)

After a wish or a command The subjunctive is used in the clause following verbs that express a wish, request, command, permission, prohibition, preference, or desire. For example:

• Mon père défend que nous allions voir ce film. (My father forbids us to see that film.) • Il préfère que nous fassions nos devoirs. (He prefers that we do our homework.)

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Here is a list of such verbs:

• aimer mieux (to prefer) • commander (to order) • conseiller (to advise) • consentir (to consent) • demander (to ask) • défendre (to forbid) • désirer (to desire) • empêcher (to prevent) • exiger (to demand) • insister (to insist) • interdire (to forbid) • ordonner (to order) • permettre (to permit) • préférer (to prefer) • souhaiter (to wish) • suggérer (to suggest) • vouloir (to want)

After adjectives, nouns, verbs, and expressions of emotion and feeling

The subjunctive is used after adjectives, nouns, verbs, and expressions of emotion and feeling.

To express emotions using adjectives, use the subject pronoun + être (conjugated) + adjective + que + the subjunctive:

• Il est ravi que vous veniez le voir. (He is delighted that you are coming to see him.)

The following adjectives follow the verb être (to be):

• content ( e) (content) • désolé ( e) (sorry) • embarrassé (embarrassed) • enchanté ( e) , ravi( e) (delighted) • ennuyé ( e) (annoyed) • étonné ( e) (astonished) • fâché ( e) (angry) • fier ( fière) (proud) • flatté ( e) (flattered) • furieux ( euse) (furious) • gêné ( e) (bothered) • heureux ( euse) (happy) • irrité ( e) , énervé( e) (irritated) • malheureux ( euse) (unhappy) • mécontent ( e) (displeased) • surpris ( e) (surprised) • triste (sad)

The following nouns follow the verb avoir (to have):

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• honte (shame) • peur (afraid)

For example:

• Il a peur qu'elle le laisse. (He is afraid she will leave him.)

The following verbs require the subjunctive:

• craindre (to fear) • regretter (to be sorry) • s'étonner (to be astonished, to be surprised) • se fâcher (to become angry) • se réjouir (to rejoice, to be happy)

For example:

• Elle s'étonne qu'il soit si intelligent. (She is astonished that he is so intelligent.)

After certain conjunctions Conjunctions are words that connect and relate words, phrases, and clauses within a sentence. Conjunctions are invariable—their spelling never changes. The subjunctive is used after conjunctions that express the following:

• Time: jusqu'à ce que (until), avant que (before), en attendant que (until), aussi loin que (far from)

o Tu partiras avant que je puisse te dire “au revoir.” (You're going to leave before I can say goodbye to you.)

• Purpose or result: pour que (in order that), afin que (in order that), de manière que (so that), de sorte que (so that), de façon que (so that)

o Il crie pour que tu l'entendes. (He screams so that you can hear him.) • Concession: bien que (although), quoique (although), encore que (although), malgré

que (although) o Quoiqu'elle soit à la maison, elle ne répond pas au téléphone. (Although she's at

home, she doesn't answer the phone.) • Condition: à condition que (provided that), pourvu que (provided that), à moins que

(unless) o Je t'aiderai à condition que tu fasses attention. (I'll help you provided that you

pay attention.) • Fear: de crainte que (for fear that), de peur que (for fear that)

o Le bébé pleure de crainte que le docteur ne lui fasse mal. (The baby cries for fear that the doctor will hurt him.)

• Negation: sans que (without) o Il est arrivé sans qu'elle le sache. (He arrived without her knowing it.)

The conjunctions à moins que, avant que, de peur que, de crainte que, de manière que, and de sorte que may be followed by ne before the verb in an affirmative sentence. Ne + another negative word are used in the negative:

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• Il court vite de peur que l' homme ne le batte. (He runs quickly for fear that the man will beat him.)

The following conjunctions take the indicative:

• après que (after) • aussitôt que (as soon as) • dès que (as soon as) • parce que (because) • pendant que (while) • peut-être que (perhaps) • puisque (since) • tandis que (while, whereas)

For example:

• Je l'aime parce qu'il est très gentil. (I like him because he is very nice.)

After superlative expressions The subjunctive is used after superlative expressions and l'unique (the only), le seul (the only), le premier (the first), le dernier (the last), and ne … que (only) when these expressions show opinion, emotion, or exaggeration:

• C'est la meilleure pièce qu'on puisse voir. (That's the best play you can see.) • Il n'y a qu'une personne qui sache jouer de la clarinette. (There is only one person who

knows how to play the clarinet.)

After certain indefinites The subjunctive is used after certain indefinite words:

• de quelque manière que (however) • où que (wherever) • quel ( le)( s) que (whatever) • quelque … que (however) • qui que (whoever) • quoi que (whatever) • si … que (however) • soit que … soit que (whether … or)

For example:

• Soit que tu viennes, soit que tu ne viennes pas, j'irai. (Whether or not you come, I'll go.) • Quelles que soient vos intentions, il les ignorera. (Whatever your intentions may be, he

will ignore them.)

In relative clauses

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The subjunctive is used in relative clauses if the person or thing mentioned in the main clause is indefinite, nonexistent, or desired but not yet found. Compare the following sentences:

• Je cherche un mari qui soit patient. (I'm looking for a patient husband). [I may never find one.]

• J'ai un mari qui est patient. (I have a husband who is patient.) [He exists.] • Connaissez-vous quelqu'un qui sache parler grec? (Do you know someone who speaks

Greek?) [There may not be anyone.] • Elle connaît quelqu'un qui sait parler grec. (She knows someone who knows how to

speak Greek.) [There is such a person.]

In third-person commands The subjunctive is used in third-person ( il, elle, ils, elles) commands or wishes:

• Vive le président! (Long live the president!) • Qu'elle entre! (Let her come in!) • Qu'ils aient de la chance! (May they be lucky!)

The Past Subjunctive The past subjunctive is formed by using the subjunctive of the helping verb ( avoir or être) + the past participle of the action being performed. The past subjunctive is used like the passé composé to express an action that has already taken place in the past:

• Il est regrettable qu'il n'ait pas réussi. (It is a shame that he didn't succeed.) • Il est douteux qu'ils soient partis. (It is doubtful that they left.) • Il est important qu'elles se soient bien amusées. (It is important that they had a very

good time.)

Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Although these tenses are not used in speaking, it is possible that they will appear in literature.

The imperfect subjunctive is formed by dropping the final letter of the je form of the passé simple and adding the endings shown in Table 1 .

TABLE 1 The Imperfect Subjunctive

Subject Ending -er Verbs -ir Verbs -re Verbs

parl ai fin is vend is

je -sse parl asse fin isse vend isse

tu -sses parla sses fin isses vend isses

il -ˆ t parl ât fin ît vend ît

nous -ssions parl assions fin issions vend issions

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vous -ssiez parl assiez fin issiez vend issiez

ils -ssent parl assent fin issent vend issent

The pluperfect subjunctive is formed by combining the imperfect subjunctive of the helping verb ( avoir [ eusse, eusses, eût, eussions, eussiez, eussent]) or être [ fusse, fusses, fût, fussions, fussiez, fussent]) + the past participle of the verb denoting the action. The pluperfect subjunctive is used in literature only when the main clause is in any other time but the present:

• Je ne croyais pas qu'il fût revenu. (I didn't think he had come back.)

Avoiding the Subjunctive The subjunctive may be avoided in the following ways:

• If the subjects of both clauses in the sentence are exactly the same in meaning, que is omitted and the subjunctive is replaced by the infinitive:

o J'aimerais faire du shopping. (I would like to go shopping.)

BUT:

o J'aimerais que nous fassions du shopping. (I would like for us to go shopping.)

Note that the same subject pronoun can indicate different subjects and il can be impersonal:

o Il faut qu'il vienne. (He must come.) o Il doute qu'il vienne. (He [Pierre] doubts that he [Marc] will come.)

BUT:

o Il doute qu'il viendra. (He [Marc] doubts that he [Marc] will come.) • When conjunctions are used, if the subjects of the two clauses are the same, an

infinitive construction is used: o Je lui téléphonerai avant de partir. (I'll call him before leaving.)

BUT:

o Je lui téléphonerai avant que tu partes. (I'll call him before you leave.) • A clause can be replaced with a noun:

o Tu me verras avant que je ne parte. (You will see me before I leave.) o Tu me verras avant mon départ. (You will see me before my departure.)

• Que + clause can be replaced with à + person + de + infinitive with verbs indicating a command, permission, or refusal of permission:

o Il permet que le garçon sorte. (He permits the boy to leave.) o Il permet au garçon de sortir. (He permits the boy to leave.)

Indefinite Adjectives

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The most commonly used indefinite adjectives are shown in the following list.

Adjective Meaning

aucun(e) any, no

autre(s) other

certain(e)(s) certain, some

chaque each, every

différent(e)(s) several, various

divers(e)(es) several, various

maint(e)(s) several, various

le (la/les) même(s) the same

n'importe no matter

plusieurs several

quelconque(s) just any

quelque(s) a little, some, a few

tel(le)(s) such, such a, like, as

tout(e)(s), tous all, every

Aucun(e) Aucun(e) is used only in the singular and has a masculine and feminine singular form. It is used with a noun to emphasize a negative:

• Il a travaillé sans aucun effort. (He worked without any effort.) • Elle a accepté l'invitation sans aucune hésitation. (She accepted the invitation without

any hesitation.) • Il n'y a aucun problème. (There is no problem.)

Autre(s) Unlike most French adjectives, autre comes before the noun it describes, and may or may not be used with a definite or indefinite article:

• Donnez-moi une autre tranche de gâteau, s'il vous plaît. (Give me another piece of cake, please.)

• Ça c'est autre chose. (That's another story.)

The plural of un autre is always d'autres:

• Il a un problème. Moi, j'ai d'autres problèmes. (He has a problem. Me, I have other problems.)

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In spoken French, autre may be used to reinforce the subject pronouns nous and vous:

• Nous autres, nous partirons. (As for us, we'll leave.)

Note: The word encore may be used before un(e) to express “an additional”:

• Apportez-moi encore une tasse de café, s'il vous plaît. (Please bring me another cup of coffee.)

Certain(e)(s) The indefinite article un(e) is used when certain is singular. No article is required in the plural:

• Elle a un certain sourire. (She has a certain smile.) • Une certaine Mme. Dupont vous attend. (A certain Mrs. Dupont is waiting for you.) • Certains tableaux dans ce musée sont très beaux. (Certain pictures in that museum are

very pretty.) • Certaines choses sont difficiles à comprendre. (Certain things are difficult to

understand.)

Chaque The invariable adjective chaque is used only in the singular:

• Chaque région française a sa propre spécialité. (Each French region has its own specialty.)

Différent(e)(s), divers(e)(es), and maint(e)(s) Divers(e)(s) and maint(e)(s) generally stand alone, while différent(e)(s) may be preceded by a preposition. The indefinite adjectives différent(e)(s) and divers(e)(es) are only used in the plural. Maint(e)(s), which is generally used in literary works and not in everyday conversation, may be used in the singular but is usually used in the plural.

• Diverses personnes m'ont parlé du problème. (Various people told me about the problem.)

• Il s'est trompé à différentes reprises. (He made a mistake on several different occasions.)

• Je vous en ai déjà parlé maintes fois. (I have already spoken to you about it many times.)

• Il m'a donné maints exemples. (He gave me many examples.)

Le (la)(les) même(s) Before a noun, le (la) (les) même(s) means “the same.” After a noun, le (la) (les) même(s) means “itself,” “very,” or “even” and can also refer to a quality that is innate. After a pronoun, même is used without a definite article (le, la, les) and is used to identity the person.

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• Nous portons les mêmes chaussures. (We're wearing the same shoes.) • C'est toujours la même chose. (It's always the same thing.) • Il est la générosité même. (He is generosity itself.) • Ses parents mêmes ne la croient pas. (Even her parents don't believe her.) • J'ai fait le travail moi-même. (I did the work myself.)

N'importe N'importe can be followed by quel(le)(s) (no matter which) to show that something doesn't matter:

• Téléphone-moi à n'importe quelle heure. (Call me at any time.) • N'importe quel docteur te dira la même chose. (Any doctor will tell you the same

thing.)

Plusieurs Plusieurs is invariable and is always plural:

• Il a plusieurs amis. (He has several friends.)

Quelconque(s) Quelconque(s) is an adjective that usually follows the noun. Quelconque has more or less the same meaning as n'importe quel(le)(s) but with some emphasis on the idea of “any sort” or “any kind”: When quelconque precedes the noun, it has a negative connotation.

• Choisis un stylo quelconque. (Choose any pen.) • Avez-vous une idée quelconque de l'endroit où ça se trouve? (Do you have any idea

where it may be?)

Quelque(s) In the singular, quelque means “some” or “a little” and is mainly found in literary texts. In the plural, it may have any of the meanings attributed to the singular and may also mean “a small number of.”

• J'habite à quelque distance d'ici. (I live some distance from here.) • Elle ne peut rester que quelques instants. (She can only stay a few minutes.)

Quelque can be used as an invariable adverb before a number, and means “about”:

• Il est âgé de quelque vingt ans. (He is about 20 years old.)

Tel(le)(s)

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Tel(le)(s) means “like” or “such.” Tel(le)(s) is replaced by si in expressions containing an adjective:

• Tel père, tel fils. (Like father, like son.) • Je n'ai jamais vu un tel film. (I never saw such a film.) • Il faut parler français tel que les Français le parlent. (You have to speak French as the

French do.) • As-tu jamais lu un si beau livre? (Have you ever read such a beautiful book?)

Tout (e)(s) and tous In the singular, when tout is used without an article, it means “each,” “every,” or “any” and is the equivalent of n'importe quel. When tout is followed by an article, it means “the whole” or “the entire.” In certain expressions, tout means “only”:

• Nous cherchons tout indice qui pourrait nous être utile. (We are looking for any clue that might be useful.)

• Il a mangé tout le gâteau! (He ate the whole cake!) • Pour toute réponse, elle pleurait. (Her only answer was to cry.)

In the plural, tous and toutes mean “all” or “every”:

• Je vais en ville tous les jours. (I go to the city every day.) • Toutes les places sont occupées. (All the seats are taken.)

Tout can be used as an adverb meaning “completely” or “entirely.” Tout (adverb) is invariable in the following circumstances:

• When followed by a masculine adjective or past participle: o Jean et Paul sont tout contents d'avoir terminé leurs études. (Jean and Paul are

very happy to have finished their studies.) o Ils ont tout compris. (They understood everything.)

• Before a feminine adjective or past participle beginning with a vowel or silent unaspirated h (no air escapes upon pronunciation):

o Elle est tout heureuse. (She is very [extremely] happy.) o Elle a tout entendu. (She heard everything.)

• When followed by another adverb: o Continuez tout droit. (Continue to go completely straight.)

Tout (adverb) must agree in gender and number with a feminine adjective beginning with a consonant or an aspirate h (in which air escapes upon pronunciation):

• Toute petite, elle aimait la montagne. (As a small child, she loved the mountains.)

Indefinite Pronouns The most commonly used indefinite pronouns are shown in the following list.

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Pronoun Meaning

aucun(e) any, no one, none

autre(s) other(s), other one(s)

autrui others

certain(e)(s) certain one(s), some

chacun(e) each one, everyone

grand-chose much

le (la/les) même(s) the same one(s)

n'importe qui anyone

n'importe quoi anything

nul no one

on we, you, they, people, one

personne no one

plusieurs several

quelqu'un(e) someone, anyone

quelques-un(e)s some, a few

quelque chose (m.) something, anything

quiconque anyone

qui que ce soit who(m)ever

quoi que ce soit whatever

rien (ne) nothing

tel(le) designates an undetermined person

tout, tous all, everything, anything

Aucun(e) As a pronoun, aucun(e) may stand alone or be followed by de + noun or pronoun + ne:

• Je n'ai lu aucun de ces romans. (I haven't read any of those novels.) • Aucune de ses amies n'est arrivée. (None of her friends have arrived.) • Quelle voiture as-tu choisie? Aucune. (Which car did you choose? None.)

Autre(s) An article precedes autre when it is used as a pronoun. The indefinite article used with autres is d':

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• Luc est parti. Les autres sont restés. (Luke left. The others remained.) • J'ai perdu mon parapluie, mais j'en ai d'autres. (I lost my umbrella, but I have others.)

The following expressions with autre are used to show reciprocal action, especially with reflexive verbs:

• l'un(e) l'autre (each other) • les un(e)s les autres (one another [of more than two])

Here they are in sentences:

• Ils s'aident l'un l'autre. (They help each other.) • Elles s'aident les unes les autres. (They help one another.)

Autre is used in the following expressions:

les un(e)s … les autres some … others

l'un(e) et l'autre both, both of them

l'un(e) ou l'autre either one

ni l'un(e) ni l'autre neither one

l'un(e) à l'autre to each other

l'un(e) pour l'autre for each other

For example:

• Les uns chantent; les autres dansent. (Some sing; others dance.) • Elles sont arrivées l'une et l'autre. (They both arrived.) • Montrez-moi l'un ou l'autre. (Show me either one.) • Je n'aime ni l'un ni l'autre. (I don't like either one.) • Elles téléphonent l'une à l'autre. (They call each other.) • Ils travaillent l'un pour l'autre. (The work for each other.)

Note the expression autre chose, which means “something else”:

• Donnez-moi autre chose, s'il vous plaît. (Please give me something else.)

Autrui Autrui is generally used in a literary context and is used most frequently after prepositions:

• Respectez le bien d'autrui. (Respect the property of others.)

Certain(e)(s) As a pronoun, certain is used only in the plural. For clarification, d'entre nous, d'entre vous, d'entre eux, or d'entre elles may be added:

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• Certains n'ont pas encore commencé. (Some haven't started yet.) • Certains d'entre vous termineront vos études cette année. (Some of you will finish your

studies this year.) • Certains d'entre nous ont reçu de bonnes notes. (Some of us received good grades.) • Certaines d'entre elles voulaient partir. (Some of them wanted to leave.)

Chacun(e) Used only in the singular, this indefinite refers to individuals. The stressed pronoun soi is used with chacun(e):

• Chacune fait de son mieux. (Everyone does her best.) • Chacun pour soi. (Every man for himself.)

Grand-chose Note that there is no agreement of the adjective grand with the feminine word chose:

• Je n'ai pas grand-chose à te dire. (I don't have anything much to tell you.)

Le (la/les) même(s) Le (la/les) mêmes is used as a pronoun in order to identify something or someone or to insist on the permanence of something, as follows:

• C'est le même. (It's the same one.) • Les mêmes coûtent cent dollars. (The same ones cost $100.) • Ce sont toujours les mêmes qui préparent le repas. (It is always the same people who

prepare the meal.) • Ma mère? Elle est toujours la même. (My mother? She is always the same.)

N'importe qui N'importe qui requires de before an adjective:

• Je parlerai à n'importe qui. (I'll speak to anyone.) • Je parlerai à n'importe qui d'intelligent. (I'll speak to anyone intelligent.)

N'importe quoi N'importe quoi requires de before an adjective:

• Je peux faire n'importe quoi. (I can do anything.) • Donnez-moi n'importe quoi de froid. (Give me anything cold.)

Nul

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Nul is invariable as a pronoun and the negative is implied. Nul has the same sense as personne (personne is favored in informal situations).

• Nul ne sait cette chanson. (Nobody knows that song.)

On The subject on refers to an indefinite person or persons (no antecedent is mentioned) and is always followed by a verb in the third person singular (the il form). On may have many different translations depending on the meaning intended. When the passive is used in English, French often uses on + an active construction. The possessive adjectives for on are son, sa, and ses. On is frequently used in a question to ask for a suggestion. The stressed pronoun soi is used with on. For the sake of pronunciation, l'on often replaces on before monosyllabic words ending in a pronounced vowel sound: et (and), ou (or), où (where), and si (if):

• On ne doit en faire qu' à sa tête. (One should do as one pleases.) • On va au cinéma? (Shall we go to the movies?) • On ne doit pas toujours penser à soi. (You should not always think of yourself.) • Si l'on veut, on peut tout faire. (If you want to, you can do anything.)

Personne (ne) Personne is always singular and considered to be masculine even if it refers to a woman. Depending upon the context of the sentence, personne may mean “no one” or “anyone.”

• Elle est plus gentille que personne. (She is nicer than anyone.) • Il n'écoute personne. (He listens to no one.) • Personne n'est arrivé. (Nobody has arrived.) • Qui est arrivé? Personne. (Who has arrived? No one.)

Plusieurs Plusieurs is invariable and is always plural. Plusieurs may be followed by d'entre eux or d'entre elles for clarification:

• Il en a plusieurs. (He has several of them.) • Plusieurs d'entre elles sont très gentilles. (Many of them are very nice.)

Quelqu'un(e) and quelques-un(e)s Quelqu'un(e) is used in the singular and quelques-un(e)s is used in the plural. The pronoun en is used when quelques-un(e)s is used as a direct object:

• Quelqu'un a sonné à la porte. (Someone rang the bell.) • Quelques-unes de ses amies travaillent en ville. (Some of his [her] friends work in the

city.) • Il m'a donné quelques-uns de ses bonbons. (He gave me some of his candies.) • Il m'en a donné quelques-uns. (He gave me some of them.)

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Quelque chose (m.) and rien (ne) These two pronouns are opposite in meaning. De precedes the adjective that refers to quelque chose or rien. Rien can stand alone or be used with the negative ne:

• Tu cherches quelque chose? (Are you looking for something?) • Tu cherches quelque chose de spécial? (Are you looking for something special?) • Non, je ne cherche rien. (No, I'm not looking for anything.) • Qu'est-ce que tu cherches? Rien (de spécial). (What are you looking for? Nothing

[special].)

Quiconque Quiconque is the equivalent of n'importe qui or personne:

• Elle ne veut recevoir d'ordres de quiconque. (She won't receive orders from anyone [anybody].)

• Je comprends mieux que quiconque. (I understand better than anyone [anybody].)

Qui que ce soit Qui que ce soit refers only to people and is the equivalent of “whoever” or “anyone”:

• Il a interdit à qui que ce soit de parler. (He forbade anyone to talk.)

Quoi que ce soit Quoi que ce soit refers only to things and is the equivalent of “whatever” or “anything”:

• Si tu révèles quoi que ce soit à qui que ce soit, tu le regretteras. (If you reveal anything at all to anyone at all, you will regret it.)

Tel(le) Tel(le) is used in the masculine or feminine singular:

• Tel vous dira qu'il faut travailler dur pour réussir. (One will tell you that you have to work hard to succeed.)

• Tel qui rit vendredi, dimanche pleurera. (You can be laughing on Friday but crying by Sunday.)

• Telle vous dira qu'il faut voter oui, telle autre vous dira qu'il faut voter non. (One [woman] will tell you to vote yes, the other will tell you to vote no.)

Tout and tous

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Tout, used in the singular, always takes the masculine form. Although in English we may refer to “all of them,” de is never used with tout. In compound tenses, tout precedes the past participle:

• Tout est bien qui finit bien. (All's well that ends well.) • Tous étaient absents. (Everyone was absent.) • Les cartes? Je les ai toutes. (The cards? I have all of them.) • Ces films? Nous les avons tous vus. (Those films? We saw all of them.)

Note the use of tout with ce qui and ce que:

• J'ai besoin de tout ce qui est sur la table. (I need everything that is on the table.) • J'ai besoin de tout ce que vous avez dans ce sac. (I need everything you have in that

bag.)

Common expressions with tout include:

à moi tout seul all to myself

en tout cas in any case, at any rate

pas du tout not at all

tout à (d'un) coup suddenly, all of a sudden

tout à fait entirely, quite

tout à l'heure a little while ago, in a little while

tout de même all the same

tout de suite immediately

tous/toutes (les) deux both

tout le monde everybody

tout le temps all the time

For example:

• Je te verrai tout à l'heure. (I'll see you in a little while.) • Il est tout à fait content. (He is completely happy.) • Je fais de mon mieux tout le temps. (I always do my best.)

Note that tout le monde is a collective noun and, as such, uses the third person singular (il form) of a verb:

• Tout le monde vient à ma soirée. (Everybody is coming to my party.)

The Passive Voice

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The passive voice is used to show that the subject of the verb does not perform the action, but rather undergoes the action or is acted upon. In French, unlike in English, a verb may be used in the passive voice only if its subject could become a direct object of that verb when used in the active voice. (An indirect object cannot be the subject of a passive verb.) Look at some examples:

• Passive: I was congratulated by my friends. (“I” is the subject.) • Active: My friends congratulated me. (“Me” is the direct object.)

The sentences above can be passive in both French and English.

• Active: My husband bought me a new car. (“Me” is the indirect object.)

The sentence above cannot be passive in French (although the passive English sentence “A new car was bought for me by my husband” is acceptable) because it is impossible to convert the indirect object to a passive subject.

If there is no direct object of the verb in French, the sentence may not be passive:

• Passive: The letters were answered.

Who answered the letters? This sentence cannot be passive in French because there is no direct object.

The passive with être The passive is formed as follows:

• subject + form of être + past participle + par + agent (if the agent is mentioned)

Because the past participle is conjugated with être, it must agree in number and gender with the subject. The agent is generally, but not always, preceded by par.

• Ce livre est écrit en français. (This book is written in French.) • La maison sera bâtie bient(tm)t. (The house will be built soon.) • Ce livre a été écrit par Gail Stein. (This book was written by Gail Stein.) • La voiture avait été vendue par son père. (The car had been sold by his [her] father.)

With verbs expressing condition or emotion, par may be replaced by de:

• Elle est respectée de tous ses collègues. (She is respected by all her colleagues.) • Nous serons accompagnés de nos parents. (We will be accompanied by our parents.) • Ils sont aimés de tous. (They are loved by all.) • La terre est couverte de neige. (The ground is covered with snow.)

The passive with se Some passive constructions may be formed by using the reflexive pronoun se with the third person singular form ( il) of the verb. This construction, although not always possible, is most

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commonly used when an action is ongoing or when the person by whom the action is performed (the agent) is not important:

• Il s'appelle Michel. (He is called Michael.) • Cela ne se fait pas. (That is not done.) • Ce livre se compose de 12 chapitres. (This book is composed of 12 chapters.) • La glace se vend ici. (Ice cream is sold here.) • Les bouquinistes se voient le long de la Seine. (The booksellers are seen along the

Seine.)

Avoiding the passive The passive should be avoided if possible. This is easily done if the agent is expressed. Simply rewrite the sentence in the active voice:

• Passive: Ce livre a été écrit par Gail Stein. • Active: Gail Stein a écrit ce livre.

If the agent is not expressed, the passive voice can be replaced by on + the third person singular ( il) of the verb:

• Passive: Le français se parle ici. (French is spoken here.) • Active: Ici on parle français. (French is spoken here.)

SynonymsNouns l'adresse f l'habileté f skill

l'affiche f l'enseigne f sign

l'angoisse f l'inquiétude f worry

l'aliment m la nourriture food

le brouillard la brume fog

le but l'intention f goal

le chagrin la douleur grief, pain

le début le commencement beginning

le dédain le mépris scorn

la faute l'erreur f mistake

l'haleine f le souffle breath

le métier la profession occupation

l'opinion f l'avis m opinion

l'orage m la tempête storm

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le songe le rêve dream

la teinte la couleur color

la vague l'onde f wave

le voeu le souhait wish Adjectives bête stupide stupid

bizarre étrange strange

ennuyeux embêtant annoying

épouvantable affreux frightful

inattendu imprévu unexpected

net propre clean

obstiné têtu stubborn

pareil semblable similar Verbs achever finir to finish

aquérir obtenir to obtain

briser casser to break

craindre redouter to fear

enchanter ravir to delight

établir fonder to set up

frémir trembler to tremble

inquiéter troubler to worry

interdire défendre to forbid

lancer jeter to throw

lutter combattre to fight

mêler mélanger to mix

mener diriger to lead

réduire diminuer to reduce

remuer bouger to move

répandre distribuer to spread

résonner retentir to resound

réussir à arriver à to succeed in

soulager calmer to soothe

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tâcher tenter to try

vouloir dire signifier to mean Adverbs aussit(tm)t sur-le-champ immediately

autrefois jadis formerly

d'avantage plus more

pourtant cependant however

AntonymsNouns la honte shame l'orgeuil m pride

la joie joy la tristesse sadness

la veille eve le lendemain next day

la vente sale l'achat m purchase

la vitesse speed la lenteur slowness Adjectives aîné eldest cadet youngest

avare miserly dépensier extravagant

clair light foncé dark

courageux brave lâche cowardly

doux sweet amer bitter

ennuyeux boring amusant fun

humide moist sec dry

mince thin épais thick Verbs acheter to buy vendre to sell

attirer to attract repousser to repel

augmenter to increase diminuer to decrease

avancer to advance reculer to retreat

économiser to save dépenser to spend

lever to raise baisser to lower

mépriser to scorn estimer to esteem

permettre to allow défendre to forbid

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remplir to fill vider to empty

Regular Verb Charts

-er verbs

Danser (to dance) Present participle: dansant; past participle: dans é

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je dans e dans ais danser ai danser ais dans e

tu dans es dans ais danser as danser ais dans es

il dans e dans ait danser a danser ait dans e

nous dans ons dans ions danser ons danser ions dans ions

vous dans ez dans iez danser ez danser iez dans iez

ils dans ent dans aient danser ont danser aient dans ent

-ir verbs Punir (to punish) Present participle: punissant; past participle: pun i

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je pun is puniss ais punir ai punir ais puniss e

tu pun is puniss ais punir as punir ais puniss es

il pun it puniss ait punir a punir ait puniss e

nous pun issons puniss ions punir ons punir ions puniss ions

vous pun issez puniss iez punir ez punir iez puniss iez

ils pun issent puniss aient punir ont punir aient puniss ent

-re verbs Rendre (to return) Present participle: rendant; past participle: rend u

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je rend s rend ais rendr ai rendr ais rend e

tu rend s rend ais rendr as rendr ais rend es

il rend rend ait rendr a rendr ait rend e

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nous rend ons rend ions rendr ons rendr ions rend ions

vous rend ez rend iez rendr ez rendr iez rend iez

ils rend ent rend aient rendr ont rendr aient rend ent

er Verbs with Spelling Changes

-cer verbs Lancer (to throw) Present participle: lançant; past participle: lanc é

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je lanc e lanç ais lancer ai lancer ais lanc e

tu lanc es lanç ais lancer as lancer ais lanc es

il lanc e lanç ait lancer a lancer ait lanc e

nous lanç ons lanc ions lancer ons lancer ions lanc ions

vous lanc ez lanc iez lancer ez lancer iez lanc iez

ils lanc ent lanç aient lancer ont lancer aient lanc ent

-ger verbs Nager (to swim) Present participle: nageant; past participle: nag é

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je nag e nag eais nager ai nager ais nag e

tu nag es nag eais nager as nager ais nag es

il nag e nag eait nager a nager ait nag e

nous nag eons nag ions nager ons nager ions nag ions

vous nag ez nag iez nager ez nager iez nag iez

ils nag ent nag eaient nager ont nager aient nag ent

-yer verbs Nettoyer (to clean) Present participle: nettoyant; past participle: nettoy é

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je nettoi e nettoy ais nettoier ai nettoier ais nettoi e

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tu nettoi es nettoy ais nettoier as nettoier ais nettoi es

il nettoi e nettoy ait nettoier a nettoier ait nettoi e

nous nettoy ons nettoy ions nettoier ons nettoier ions nettoy ions

vous nettoy ez nettoy iez nettoier ez nettoier iez nettoy iez

ils nettoi ent nettoy aient nettoier ont nettoier aient nettoi ent

e + Consonant + er Verbs Lever (to raise, lift) Present participle: levant; past participle: lev é

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je lèv e lev ais lèver ai lèver ais lèv e

tu lèv es lev ais lèver as lèver ais lèv

il lèv e lev ait lèver a lèver ait lèv e

nous lev ons lev ions lèver ons lèver ions lev ions

vous lev ez lev iez lèver ez lèver iez lev iez

ils lèv ent lev aient lèver ont lèver aient lèv ent

er Verbs with Double ConsonantsAppeler (to speak) Present participle: appelant; past participle: appel é

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

j' appell e appel ais appeller ai appeller ais appell e

tu appell es appel ais appeller as appeller ais appell es

il appell e appel ait appeller a appeller ait appell e

nous appel ons appel ions appeller ons appeller ions appel ions

vous appel ez appel iez appeller ez appeller iez appel iez

ils appell ent appel aient appeller ont appeller aient appell ent Jeter (to throw) Present participle: jetant; past participle: jet é

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je jett e jet ais jetter ai jetter ais jett e

tu jett es jet ais jetter as jetter ais jett es

il jett e jet ait jetter a jetter ait jett e

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Present participle: jetant; past participle: jet é

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

nous jet ons jet ions jetter ons jetter ions jet ions

vous jet ez jet iez jetter ez jetter iez jet iez

ils jett ent jet aient jetter ont jetter aient jett ent

é + Consonant + er VerbsPréférer (to prefer) Present participle: préférant; past participle: préfér é

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je préfèr e préfér ais préfèrer ai préfèrer ais préfèr e

tu préfèr es préfér ais préfèrer as préfèrer ais préfèr es

il préfèr e préfér ait préfèrer a préfèrer ait préfèr e

nous préfér ons préfér ions préfèrer ons préfèrer ions préfér ions

vous préfér ez préfér iez préfèrer ez préfèrer iez préfér iez

ils préfèr ent préfér aient préfèrer ont préfèrer aient préfèr ent

Irregular Verb ChartsAller* (to go) Present participle: allant; past participle: all é

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je vais all ais ir ai ir ais aille

tu vas all ais ir as ir ais ailles

il va all ait ir a ir ait aille

nous allons all ions ir ons ir ions allions

vous allez all iez ir ez ir iez alliez

ils vont all aient ir ont ir aient aillent

* Conjugated with être in the past tense Asseoir (to seat, sit) Present participle: asseyant; past participle: assis

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je assieds assey ais assiér ai assiér ais asseye

tu assieds assey ais assiér as assiér ais asseye

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il assied assey ait assiér a assiér ait asseye

nous asseyons assey ions assiér ons assiér ions asseyions

vous asseyez assey iez assiér ez assiér iez asseyiez

ils asseyent assey aient assiér ont assiér aient asseyent Avoir (to have) Present participle: ayant; past participle: eu

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

j' ai av ais aur ai aur ais aie

tu as av ais aur as aur ais aies

il a av ait aur a aur ait ait

nous avons av ions aur ons aur ions allions

vous avez av iez aur ez aur iez alliez

ils ont av aient aur ont aur aient aient Boire (to drink) Present participle: buvant; past participle: bu

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je bois buv ais boir ai boir ais boive

tu bois buv ais boir as boir ais boives

il boit buv ait boir a boir ait boive

nous buvons buv ions boir ons boir ions buvions

vous buvez buv iez boir ez boir iez buviez

ils boivent buv aient boir ont boir aient boivent Conduire* (to drive) Present participle: conduisant; past participle: conduit

Subj. Present Imperfect Future Conditional Subjunctive

je conduis conduis ais conduir ai conduir ais conduise

tu conduis conduis ais conduir as conduir ais conduises

il conduit conduis ait conduir a conduir ait conduise

nous conduisons conduis ions conduir ons conduir ions conduisions