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UNDERSTANDING APPLIEDLINGUISTICS
An Inaugural Lecture Delivered at theUniversity of Lagos Main
Auditorium
On Wednesday, 28th February, 2007
By
PROFESSOR V.B. OWHOTUB.A; Litt; PGDE; M.A; Ph.D. (Sorbonne)
Professor of Curriculum Studies and French LanguageEducation
Faculty of EducationUniversity of Lagos
Victor B. Owhotu (2007)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced,stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form
or by anymeans, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
orotherwise without the prior permission of the author.
Published 2007
By
University of Lagos PressUnilag P. O. Box 132,University of
Lagos,
Akoka, Yaba Lagos,Nigeria.
e-mail: [email protected]
ISSN 1119-4456
iii
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DEDICATION
This lecture is dedicated to the evergreen memories of :
My late mother Mrs. Matilda Juliana Owhotu (nee Roberts) of
theGambia,1909-1967,school teacher, concert soprano,
multilingual,whose love, stance on discipline, blessing and
enduring wordsof wisdom have kept me on track since she passed on
fortyyears ago,
and
My late wife Mrs. Chinyere Owhotu (nee Uduka), B.A.
(Chicago).M.A. (Vermont), M.Sc (Lagos), of Abriba, Abia State,
1948-1998.Words cannot fully illustrate her love, deep faith in my
potentials,and her selfless dedication to the welfare of the
family.
iviii
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UNDERSTANDING APPLIED LINGUISTICS
PREAMBLEThis lecture is in two parts. In the first, I shall
briefly examine theconcept, some underlying issues and contents of
modern appliedlinguistics. In the second, I shall present a few
examples of myresearch-based experiences of thinking and doing
appliedlinguistics, drawn mainly from the subfields of French
curriculumstudies and special educational linguistics.
INTRODUCTIONUnderstanding applied linguistics may not be
possible exceptthrough a conscious and sustained process of
multidisciplinaryand interdisciplinary knowledge-building, thinking
and doing; notknowledge-building, or thinking, or doing.
Knowledge-building isa crucial condition for analyzing and
interpreting the structures,contents and core values of the
constituent disciplines of appliedlinguistics. Thinking involves
rational, reflective, critical thinking,pondering the state of
reality, raising issues and questions aboutproblems, challenges,
theories, principles and practices,rationalizing results of
research, and careful and efficient planningof the teaching and
learning objectives, processes, strategies ,outcomes and output.
Doing or action derives from knowledge-building and thinking and
seeks to apply and evaluate theproducts of knowledge-building and
thinking through the use ofconventional or innovative, creative,
imaginative, but productiveor effective methods, strategies and
techniques. These includeactual teaching, learning, training,
research, development anddiffusion, monitoring and assessment.
What is Applied Linguistics?Applied linguistics has been thought
to be a difficult concept todefine. Arguments have raged over the
key question: what exactly
is being applied? In the 1960s, one was sure of linguistics as
atheoretical field of study but not so of its applications.
Nonetheless, certain features of the initial concept of
appliedlinguistics covered basically a body of knowledge of
linguistictheory, and the relevant aspects of content: language-
lexis andstructure, phonology, semantics, and their importance for
ageneral theory of language, but which was not of
immediateprofessional interest to language teachers. Also important
to noteis that linguists (theorists) found little or no esteem
amonglanguage teachers (practitioners).The reasons were
telling.Whereas the former were considered good at
propoundingtheories often far removed from the contextual realities
of teachingand learning, the latter were either ignorant of the
theorists trade,or cared less about it, relying instead upon
pragmatism, hands-on experience and intuition to do their work, not
on alien theories.This crisis of confidence was not peculiar to
linguists andlanguage teachers. Curriculum studies was considered a
coreof educational theorizing in the ivory tower. As Pinar et
al(1990:850) observed:
education professors were distant from teachers. Ingeneral it
was clear that teachers were skeptical ofeducation professors even
in the 1970s teachers didnot regard us as friends and certainly not
as experts. Ifteachers have been skeptical of the
contributionseducation professors might make to schoolimprovement,
many politicians , and even the generalpublic have been, at times,
downright contemptuous.
The deep polarization between the linguist and practitioner
wasechoed by Chandelier (1977:25) in these words: Qui a mis dans la
tte des enseignants que la
linguistique pouvait leur servir quelque chose dansleur
enseignement ? {Whoever told teachers thatlinguists could be of any
use to them in theirclassrooms ?}
21
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4 Quand un manuel, un livre est crit par un chercheur,un
thoricienJe ne lutilise pas, s il est fait par unpdagogue
(praticien) je le prends.{If a book or manualis written by a
researcher, a theorist, I wont touch it. Ifit is written by a
practitioner, Ill use it.}
However, the works of an emerging generation of the
linguistteacher-researcher in the early 1970s, such as William F.
Mackay,Bernard Quemada, Robert Gallisson, Daniel Coste,
LouisPorcher, David Wilkins and Henry Widdowson would
contributesignificantly to reducing the gap, first between theory
and practicein second and foreign language education, and then
betweentheorists and practitioners. According to Kaplan(2002), the
termapplied linguistics first appeared in the 1940s when
languageteachers were driven by the urge to dissociate themselves
fromteachers of literature and ally themselves with scientific
linguists.Furthermore, by the mid 1950s onwards, applied
linguisticsbecame associated with the considerable interest that
langugeteachers had in structural linguistics and the prospects
andimplications of Skinnerian psychology for the dominant
teachingmethod of the time, known as the audiolingual method.
Thenfollowed the launch of national associations of applied
linguisticsand university programmes (for example the University
ofEdinburgh) and specialized centres (for example Le Centre
delinguistique applique, Besancon, France).The greatest catalysts
in bridging the divide were the launch ofthe International
Association for Applied Linguistics(AILA) andthat of the Council of
Europes Modern Language Project.De Gomes (2005) defines the notion
and contents of appliedlinguistics:
Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary orienteddomain,
still too narrowly based and dependent onlinguistics and aimed at a
deeper understanding ofhuman linguistic interactions in various
contexts andat exploring ways to help improve the quality ofhuman
communicative growth and development(.) What should applied
linguistics be, Id rather
use could than should, so as to avoid a possiblereading of
something imposed, dogmatic. Appliedlinguistics could become a
field committed anddedicated to an in-depth, open-ended,
permanent,universal (rather than predominantly, Anglo-American or
European centered) search for aninterdisciplinary understanding
and/or solution ofindividual and collective communicative
problemsof acquisition, learning and teaching of languagesin varied
and variable contexts. Another crucialmission for applied
linguistics could be that ofhelping to contribute to a more crit
icalcomprehensive preparation of applied linguists asnew
constructors and transformers of socioculturaland political
realities through the means of linguisticexpression and
communication. That so manyhuman beings are being linguistically
and culturallyundervalued and exploited also merits high
priorityattention by applied linguistics.
Grabe (2002:3-12) states that early or first generation
appliedlinguistics was dominated by issues of language teaching
butthat while this relation continues in the parent, the field
hasdiversified. This diversity first became manifest at the
landmarkWorld Congress of the International Association of
AppliedLinguistics (AILA) held in Brussels, Belgium in 1984. The
eventbrought together for the first time, scholars from a wide
range ofbackgrounds: linguistics, applied linguistics,
medicine,educational planning, human and cultural rights
organisations,anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists etc. The
abstractsof papers presented were in four volumes in a total of
1762 pages!Volume one made up of the 1-11/
2 page abstracts, focused on
three sub-themes (a) language problems in developing
countries,(b) language and society, and (c) language and mind. In
VolumeII, contributions spread over 495 pages and addressed issues
oflanguage teaching and learning, while volume III focused
oncommunication and interaction, and logico-linguistics. VolumeIV
was dedicated to the AILA scientific commissions symposia.
3
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65
In one of the special AILA symposia, several discerning
scholarsreviewed the relationship of linguistics and applied
linguistics(Bugarski, 1984: 1686; Eliasson, 1984; 1689; Kuttlwein,
1984:1692; Marton (1984; 1694; 1984: 1695) while Tomic, (1984:
1696)focused on the integrity of applied linguistics.
What was clear from the compendium was that applied
linguisticspre-1984 was undergoing profound change across
disciplinesand in all fields where language and language related
issueswere involved. It also showed that the polarization
betweentheoreticians and practitioners had become much
lesspronounced, thanks to the increasing knowledge base
andcertification levels of practitioners and the new
enhancedprofessional role of teachers as thinkers and
researchers,especially action researchers. Grabe W. (2002: 3-12)
furtheremphasizes the importance and growing diversity of
appliedlinguistics in its post-1984 role as the advocate and
facilitator ofaction-oriented problem-solving. In his view applied
linguisticsis driven first by real-world problems rather than
theoreticalexplorations. In other words, the applied linguist
should bepreoccupied by the following: Language learning problems
(emergence, awareness,
rules, use, context, automaticity, attitudes and expertise;
Language teaching problems (resources, training,
practice, interaction, understanding, use,
contexts,inequalities, motivations, outcomes);
Literacy problems, (linguistic and learning issues); Language
contact problems (language and culture); Language inequality
problems such as (ethnicity, class,
gender, and age); Language policy and planning problems (status
planning,
corpus planning, and ecology of language); Language assessment
problems (validity, reliability,
usability, responsibility);
Language use problems (dialects, registers,
discoursecommunities, gate-keeping situations, limited access
toservices);
Language and technology problems (learning,assessment, access
and use);
Translation and interpretation problems (on-line,
off-line,technology assisted); and
Language pathology problems (aphasia, dyslexia,physical
disabilities).
(Kaplan (2002: v-x) highlights the
multi/interdisciplinaryframework of the issues and challenges of
applied linguistics:
Because the real world language-based problems thatapplied
linguistics tries to mediate are enormouslydiverse, having in
common only the probability thatthey are language based, it is
unlikely that any singleparadigm can speak to the diverse activity
of the field.Depending on the setting of a given problem,
theapplied linguist/practitioner may be expected to knowsomething
about at least the following: Anthropology,Economics, Education
theory, Gerontology, History,International Relations, Language
learning andteaching, Lexicology, Planning, Policy
development,Political science, Psychology and Neurology,
PublicAdministration, Sociology, Curriculum Studies andTeacher
training and Text production; Advanceknowledge in particular
languages, Multiculturaleducation, Educational measurement,
Appliedlinguistics... .Of course, since the common element is
language,the applied linguist ought to be well grounded
inlinguistics, psycho neurolinguistics, and socio-linguistics
including literacy, individual bilingualismand societal
multilingualism. And all applied linguistsmust be highly computer
literate and able to dealwith statistical data.
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7 8
Although by November 1980, when I submitted my Ph.D. (doctoratde
3 cycle) thesis for examination, I had become aware that alot lay
unexplored outside the boundaries of my doctoral worktitled: Essai
sur les dsquilibres entre thories et pratique endidactique des
langues trangres (On the imbalance betweentheory and practice in
foreign language education), I had alsorealised that there was a
lot of remedial and enrichment work Ihad to do. The 1984 AILA World
Congress was the decisivecatalyst for me to embark upon the process
of interdisciplinaryknowledge building, thinking and doing applied
linguistics muchfurther afield, for a much better understanding of
the phenomenonof language and in as diverse a setting as
possible.
THE GLOBAL CONTEXT OF APPLIED LINGUISTICSIt is surprising that
over two decades after AILA 84, scholars stillengage in what Kaplan
(2002) describes as a fairly heated publicdiscussion on the nature
and scope of applied linguistics. Thisneed not be so if the
conceptual principle is clearly understood:that whatever domain
involves language and/or a role for languagebeyond traditional
language teaching and learning is an integralpart of the inter/
multidisciplinary field of applied linguistics.Furthermore, because
of the very wide variety of contents ofapplied linguistics,
scholars should not expect a single unifiedtheory or paradigm,
since, in practice, methodology simplymeans a constant shift in
ways and means of thinking and doing,in line with the specifics of
the paradigm.
Expectedly, this remarkable diversity would sooner or
latergenerate considerable tensions within AILA. By 1990
appliedlinguistics had become a hydra-like monstrosity (Kaplan
2002)that was to force the French Association of Applied
Linguistics(co-founder of AILA) to withdraw from membership of the
globalbody in 1992. It was precisely for reasons of apparent
conceptualand methodological inconsistencies or incompatibility,
whichsucceeding World Congresses of AILA had failed to resolve
thatAILA was at the crossroads. In order to move the
intellectual
enterprise forward, France launched COFDELA (Laconfdration
franaise pour le dveloppement de la linguistiqueapplique) and
organized its maiden inter association symposiumfrom January 18 to
20, 1996. Rather than attempt aninterdisciplinary integration, its
watch-word was dialogue andexchange of ideas and the mutual respect
and coexistence ofeach area of specialization-traditional and
emerging-whileattempting to arrive at an inclusive understanding of
the genericterm of applied linguistics: what is applied, to what
domain andhow? (Marquillo and More,1996)
From the intensive interaction and the various
presentationsacross the disciplines, participants were more in
agreement withPovlets summation: Il conclut le colloque par une
mtaphorede mme que les tableaux noirs sont souvent de couleur
verte,en francais, la linguistique dite applique ne peut plus
secontenter de faire Iobjet dune lecture littrale. In other
words,one could not be too rigid about the concept of applied
linguisticsin terms of independent disciplines or areas of
knowledge, inquiry,research and applicability; emphasis should be
on thepervasiveness of language in human and social life
andcommunication in the widest sense that have given rise to
therange of sub fields and supporting disciplines I have
alreadymentioned. My view of the new field of applied linguistics
ispresented in Figure I.
The contemporary applied linguist is therefore expected to be
avery competent teacher , able to build rational scenarios
forsolving a wide range of language related problems , competentin
the design and execution of conventional and innovativeresearch
quantitative and especially qualitative, and toconstantly seek to
validate existing theories derived from basicresearch. His
persistent quest for new knowledge drawn fromall the constituent
disciplines, empowers him to contribute toknowledge by developing
among others, original and practicaltheoretical models which are
then used in practical areas such
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9as syllabus design, speech therapy, language planning,
stylistics,etc. The tasks and challenges the applied linguist faces
in meetingthese expectations are considerable especially in a
developingenvironment like Nigeria.
CONCLUSIONI shall end this first part of my lecture with the
following questionsthat were central to the heated discussions
during the 12th WorldCongress of AILA held in Tokyo Japan in August
1999.
Where does applied linguistics fit in the sociology
ofknowledge?
What are the kinds of questions that applied linguists oughtto
be addressing?
What are the dominant paradigms guiding research inthe
field?
What part(s) of linguistics can be applied to the
real-worldlanguage-based problems that applied linguists presumeto
mediate?
What kind(s) of problems can be solved through themediation of
applied linguistics?
What does an aspiring applied linguist need to know?That is,
what should the content of graduate curricula inapplied linguistics
be? (Kaplan, 2002).
10
SPEC
IAL
EDUC
ATIO
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AP
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IED
LIN
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LANG
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ubcu
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ingu
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s,et
c.
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n co
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oss
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, rig
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acqu
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etic
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se A
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Tran
slat
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theo
ry,
etc.
Philo
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Anal
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Con
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ive
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guis
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se A
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spec
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ing
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, rig
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& va
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Lang
. Lea
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ign
Lang
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du.
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um th
eory
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um s
tudi
esIn
st. M
ater
ials
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pt.
Teac
hing
Sty
le A
naly
sis
Lear
ning
Sty
le A
naly
sis,
etc
.
Clin
ical
Lin
guis
tics
Lang
uage
Dis
orde
rSp
eech
Dis
orde
r- a
phas
ia-
dysl
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Flue
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Dis
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ram
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- pra
gmat
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tam
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- stu
tterin
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FIG
UR
E I:
MU
LTI/I
NT
ER
DIS
CIP
LIN
AR
ITY
OF
AP
PL
IED
LIN
GU
IST
ICS
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11 12
SELECTED EXAMPLES OF THINKING AND DOING APPLIEDLINGUISTICSIn
this second part of my lecture, I shall present four examples ofmy
research-based experiences of thinking and doing appliedlinguistics
drawn, respectively, from French curriculum studiesand special
educational linguistics dealing with languagedisorders. They are
fairly representative of essential curriculumtheory building and
practices with at least four ways ofapproaching curriculum theory
building and research: as a bodyof knowledge to be transmitted
(syllabus); as a product: anattempt to achieve certain ends or
behavioral objectives in thelearner; as a process, that is, the
critical, negotiated, democratic,informed interactions between
teachers, knowledge, skills, valuesand learners; and as praxis,
informed, committed action (Smith,1996, 2000). In the words of
Grundy (1987: 115, quoted in Smith2000) such a critical, rational
process
develops through the dynamic interaction of actionand
reflection. That is, the curriculum is not simply aset of plans to
be implemented, but rather isconstituted through active process in
which planning,acting and evaluating are all reciprocally related
andintegrated into the processAt its centre is praxis,informed,
committed action..
The selected experiences that follow are driven by praxis,
andthe role of empirical research in understanding phenomenacannot
be overemphasized. It is particularly important in
theinterdisciplinary subfields of foreign language curriculum
studiesand language disorders.
FIRST EXAMPLE: DISORDERS OF LANGUAGEI would like to start with
language disorders, the other side of thecoin of normal language
development and education that is rarelyaddressed in mainstream
education, but that every trainedteacher, school head, and teacher
trainer should be aware of,monitor when they occur and address
appropriately. Languageand language related learning problems
abound in virtually every
classroom in mainstream education. Curriculum history tells
usthat it was in fact the development of special education
methodsthat pushed the frontiers of curriculum studies from its
centuriesold focus on what to teach, or content, to questions about
how tobring about learning or emphasize abilities in disability.
Forexample the French physician Jean-Marc-Gaspard nicknamedthe
apostle of the idiot and his pupil Edward Segan were pioneerand
consolidator respectively of methods of teaching the deafmute,
while Maria Montessori another teacher of the handicappedwho was
greatly influenced by their work, adapted their methodsfor use in
educating children of normal intelligence. (Egan, 2003:9-16).
Long before my formal training as an applied linguist, I had
beenexposed to special education quite early in my career in
theFederal Civil Service. As a clerk and Braille library assistant
inthe Nigerian National Advisory Council for the Blind, I was
familiarwith the early efforts at providing educational
opportunities forthe visually challenged children at Pacelli School
for the Blindand, to some extent, the hearing-impaired at the
Atanda OluSchool for the Deaf in Surulere. By the time I left the
Civil Servicefor this university, I had learnt three enduring
lessons about thehandicapped or challenged: i) that indeed any
mother could havethem, and unlike the popular BBC comedy I am
echoing, this isnot a funny experience; ii) that there is ability
in disability; and(iii) that advocacy and empowerment through
inclusive educationare the most potent tools to fight against
untoward societalattitudes and acts of discrimination and
intolerance against specialtarget groups.
The 1984 landmark World Congress of the InternationalAssociation
of Applied Linguistics (AILA) that I have mentioned inthe first
part of this lecture rekindled my interest in specialeducation and
culminated in my first attempt at studying languagedisorders in
special educational institutions. In the build-uptherefore to my
participation in that Congress, I had written a
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13 14
theoretical paper on deviant language and communication(Owhotu
1984: 93-94). In a subsequent paper also(Owhotu,1987:117-128), I
discussed five major types of languagedisorder as deviant sub-sets
of otherwise normal, conventionalinteractions of three pillars of
human communication, Form,Content and Use. The range of disorders
are: (a) disorder ofform, (b) disorder of content; (c) disorder of
use; (d) disorder ofinteraction among form, content and use and in
the worst case(e) nil interaction (Bloom and Lahey 1978: 259-303).
I alsohighlighted issues, trends and challenges of the behavioral
andmedical models of investigation carried out in foreign
contexts,while reiterating the need for Nigeria to address the
dearth ofinterest and research data, and the need for an integrated
teachereducation both pre-service and in-service. As a follow up to
thetwo theoretical papers, I carried out an empirical study of
languagedisorder/development problems in two special
educationalinstitutions in Lagos. Before presenting the high points
of thatstudy we need to briefly characterize the five sub sets of
disorders.[Figure II].
Subset A1 shows a more congruent overlay of the content anduse
components, whereas there is obvious disjunction of form.This
represents children whose ideas about the world of objects,events
and abilities to communicate these ideas are more intactthan their
knowledge of the linguistic system for representingthem (Bloom and
Lahey (1978:393). While Kleffner (1978) doesnot think this as
significant occurrences, I support Bloom andLaheys position
because, for methodological and conceptualreasons, whatever
deviates from the norm with implications foreasy, meaningful or
total communication, deserves attention.
Subset A 2: In sub set A2, content is at risk, whereas the
interactionof form and use appears normal. Clinically, this means
thatsubjects are characterized by (a) weak conceptual developmentin
relation to ideas of the world that make up the content oflanguage
and consequently, his developmental rate will be slower
by 3-4 years compared to his normal peers; (b) weakconceptual
component, whereby his utterances are often timescocktail party
speech, superficial and irrelevant to the contextof speech.
Subset A 3: Here the language use component is disjointed.The
subjects knowledge of the conventional linguistic systemis more or
less intact, use or transmission of such knowledge(or linguistic
competencies) suffers from inappropriateness ofcontext, or real
communicative intent or purpose of the utteranceconsequently, the
listener is eclipsed and communication maybe reduced to rambling,
repetitive, soliloquy, etc.
Subset A4 is a more serious problem and shows
distortedinteractions among the major components of form, content
anduse.
Subset A5 is a worst case scenario. There is
fragmentation/complete separation of the three components such that
noneof the components appears to interact with the other.
Such(subject) children use stereotyped speech with utterances
thathave little or no relation to the situation in which they occur
or toany recognizable content (Bloom and Lahey 1983: 302).
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15 16
A NORMAL
B. A1
Disorder of FORM
C. A2
Disorder of CONTENT
D. A3
Disorder of USE
E. A4 Disorder of INTERACTION
F. A5 NIL Interaction
Figure II. Normal and Deviant Patterns (sub sets) oflanguage
disorder
Insight from Special Education in NigeriaThe first major
official policy statement on the purpose, contextand process of
special education in Nigeria was reflected in theNational Policy of
Education, 1977, 1981 (revised). The orientationwas clearly in
favour of the education of children and adults whohave learning
difficulty of different sorts (and, consequently)unable to cope
with the normal school class organization andmethods. Furthermore,
the policy underlined the crucial conceptof integration, both at
the level of the exceptional child and interms of a systematic
campaign of awareness for social andeducational integration of the
handicapped (NERC 1982). Section10 of the 2004 National Policy on
Education (4th. Edition) maintainsthe spirit of the initial policy
and further identifies three groups ofprospective beneficiaries of
special education made up of thedisabled, the disadvantaged and the
gifted or talented. In thislecture, I shall limit myself to the
first group. The fate of exceptionalchildren, including the
linguistically challenged, has been for verymany decades compounded
by the attendant social stigma inthe form of comments, gratuitous
advice, criticism thatintensify for parents the feeling of
isolation, shock, disappointment(Basewell and Wingrave 1967, pp.
138-146). Until the late 60s, itwould appear, (even for developed
countries) that the wholepurpose of special education had been to
create an outlet- forsocial and educational misfits and thereby
facilitate the smoothrunning of the state school system (Tomlinson,
1982:2). By 1985,there were over 1,500 referred Nigerian children
with differentcategories of handicap in 28 special institutions.
These figureshave risen significantly as there are more and better
receptioncentres, and intensified parental awareness campaigns by
bothstate governments and dedicated voluntary organizations.
The empirical literature on speech and
language-relateddisabilities has been phenomenal in the last two
decades. Thisdevelopment strongly reflects the extent to which this
fairly newbranch of applied linguistics captures the interest of
very manyacademic and professional disciplines, including
medicine,
U
CF
F CU
U
CF
U
F C
F C
U
F C
U
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17 18
psychology, speech therapy and pathology, audiology,
education,sociology, linguistics, neurolinguistics, language
teaching, andpsycholinguistics. Whereas speech problems refer
primarily toboth segmental classes (phonemes: vowels, consonants)
andsuprasegmental classes (intonation: tones, stress, rhythm,
voice)respectively, language disorders are far more serious
andneurologically determined. Most studies of disorders make
thedistinction between developmental (congenital) and acquiredforms
for example, central pathologies in children such likeaphasia,
agnosia, apraxia, and dysarthria, which result fromdysfunction in
the central nervous system, are generally regardedas transient,
while acquired aphasia (permanent loss ofestablished language
skills) is normally associated with the adultpatient (Crystal
1980). Their analysis of discourse of adults withlanguage disorder
provides a wide coverage of the problems ofproduction, expression,
coherence, continuity, gesturedominance, psychotic discourse, and
other problems ofelicitation, vocabulary and minimum coding.
In the 1980s, only a few specialists, to my knowledge,
hadattempted any systematic description of specific
languageproblems among Nigerian exceptional children (Okeowo
andNwanze, 1980, Shaikh, 1982). Much of what was written fell
withinthe general theoretical and conceptual framework of
specialeducation and the characterization of the main categories
ofmentally and physically challenged. Thanks to the work of
theNigerian Educational Research and Development
Council(NERDC).
I shall now present the highlights of our investigation in this
all-important aspects of special educational linguistics.
Purpose of the InvestigationThe purpose of the study was to:(i)
Attempt a systematic identification and description of
exceptional children with varying degrees of speech and
language disabilities in two schools for handicappedchildren in
Lagos;
(ii) Profile the level of awareness of self, and other (througha
concept of self and other interview) and its possibleimplications
for the social and vocational integration ofthe children;
(iii) Profile the special education teacher who remains themost
crucial instrument and agent of change in the contextof any
education system-normal or special.
Subjects and InstitutionsTwo groups of subjects were involved in
this study. The maingroup consisted of 30 exceptional children and
adolescents withvarying degrees of mental and linguistic
disabilities drawn, assaid earlier, from two special institutions
in Lagos State. Thesecond group was made up of special education
personnelcomprising 18 special teachers, and 7 administrative and
supportstaff drawn from a total of four special education
institutions onthe Lagos Mainland.
InstrumentsThe following instruments for data collection were
used: A 28-item questionnaire for special education personnel; a
contentanalysis grid (for NERC published documentation on
specialteacher and other personnel), a subject observation
schedule;and a self-and-other concept interview schedule.
ProcedureThe study was carried out in three phases: (I)
Questionnaireadministration and Analysis of NERC published
documents, (II)Observation and Categorization of Subjects; and
(III) Self andOther Concept Interviews. Only results of phases II
and III are ofimmediate relevance here.
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19 20
PHASE II: Observation Categorization of SubjectsBoth
institutions presented subjects with a range ofsubnormalities:
total brain damage, speech and languagedisorders, autism and
echolalia, physical disabilities, slight andsevere mental
retardation, cerebral palsy, Downs syndrome,spasticity and absence,
in a few cases, of any specific languagedisorder.
The subject observation schedule was designed to provide,
foreach subject, descriptive data in respect of: (a) Category
ofhandicap (b) Sex; (c) Chronological age; (d) Mental age
(e)Presentation (physical mental); (f) Speech, Language
disability;(g) Socialization level; (h) General awareness; (i)
Prospects ofmainstream curriculum and vocational integration. With
the kindassistance of the consultant speech therapist and
audiologist,subjects were selected from case notes, then observed.
Theirvarious presentations were discussed, and relevant
datarecorded for each subject on the observation schedule.
Thecomplete data is presented in Tables I and II.
Profiles of the Exceptional Subjects
i. Speech/language disorders were indeed the mostcharacteristic
observable manifestation among subjectsin the special education
institutions. The mean mentalage of subjects was 4.7 years as
against a mean,chronological age of 13.0 years. This was very low
andmade the realization of the stated goals of social,curriculum
and vocational integration doubtful. Althoughthe contact
socialization level score of 36% of subjectswas found to be
average, prospects of the integration ofsubjects in terms of the
lifecoping skills of language(spoken and written) appeared very
poor for at least 50%;especially as they presented with strong
motorcoordination problems. 60% of subjects rejectedunelicited
verbal interaction with their peers.
Self-concept and Other InterviewThe interviews were conducted by
the senior teacher in Englishand Yoruba languages based on the
interview schedule. Out ofthe seven categories of handicap
interviewed, the total braindamaged (2 subjects) had the greatest
communication disorders,with a total absence of speech, but for
occasional grunts. Theecholalic category (1 subject) showed only
rudimentarycommunicative interaction; inaudible monosyllabic
responses tocues, punctuated with sporadic repetition of some items
of theinterviewers questions, often the last word or two. However,
theslight mental retardation category (6 subjects) showed the
highestcommunicative awareness and achievement on the more
difficultitems of social habits, concrete objects, space and
dimensions(see Tables I and II).
Rating on Self and Other Concept Interview (Table II)The highest
level of awareness was shown in subjects responsesto questions
related to greetings (68.75%); and saying theirnames (75.0%);
(items 1, 2). Average awareness scores were recorded on knowledge
aboutDaddys and Mummys whereabouts (56.25%), and of theirimmediate
school environment, 50.0%; (items, 8, 9.)The lowest awareness
scores were recorded for correctly tellingtheir age (25.0%);
friends name (31.25%); reason for their peerspresence (6.25%);
whether they had any brothers and sisters(31.25%): (Items 4, 5, 7,
8, 10).
Self-and-other Concept InterviewThe following findings were very
important for personality andsocio-cultural and socio-educative
theorizing.i. Subjects concept awareness level of their social
habits
was low, with only 39.5% appropriate response to thequestions
whether they drank beer and smokedcigarettes; (items 12, 13).
ii. There was a very high awareness among subjects oftheir
sociocultural habits. For instance, in response to
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21 22
the question do you like dancing? 96.5% said yes, and,to the
request for them to dance,81.25% did (items 14aand 14b).
iii. Very high ratings were recorded of subjects awarenessof
concrete classroom objects, (items 17, 18, 19).
iv. There was a very low awareness rate of dimensionsbased on
questions about the interviewers height andsize: only 25% rightly
disagreed that the interviewer wasvery fat, and very short: (items
15 and 16).
v. Only 31.25% correctly identified the time of day when
theywere being interviewed (in the afternoon}. The rest saidit was
in the evening or at night. (item 21)
The results had strong implications for the special
educationlanguage curriculum. The result of the self-and-other-
conceptinterview provided some fundamental areas in
whichreinforcement was urgently needed especially in language
skillsacquisition and socialization. While 75% of the
subjectsresponded positively to the interviewers greetings, and
couldsay their name, all gave grossly incorrect chronological age.
Only4 out of the 16 subjects could name his or her perceived
friend.While most subjects identified the location of interview as
schooland that they were in the institution to learn (sise)
(Yoruba), theirpeers, were, in their opinion, there to play (sere).
Most of thesubjects agreed that they smoked cigarettes and drank
beer!Their concept of height, size and volume was very low; night
andday, for example, were a conceptual blank for more than 55%
ofthem. This is an interesting area for congruency theory in
specialpsychology, although with this set of subjects, one may not
talkof dynamism of normal human interaction, personal
andinterpersonal. Secord and Backman (1974: 516) provide
theconventional setting for self-concept and concept of other,
whichcontrasts rather sharply from the situation I observed.
Becauseof his possession of language and a superior intelligence,
manhas a unique capacity for thinking about his body, his
behaviour,his appearance to other persons.
In other words, he is able to objectify himself first,
therebyestablishing a basis for objectifying others. This is the
key tohuman communication. A notable methodological contributionin
this regard is the linguistic profiling technique (Crystal
1982),which underscores the need for educators, researchers
andclinicians to first make very systematic descriptions of
thesubjects linguistic behaviour at the phonological,
grammaticaland semantic levels. Thus, an expectancy profile is
arrived at,and only then can a programme of early prevention, or
remediationbe designed. For very practical reasons this approach is
muchpreferred to the medical model, which emphasizes etiology
andetiological syndromes that in any case, neither address
theproblems raised nor quantify or profile samples of the
subjectslinguistic competence or performance. As Kleffner
(1978:6.)affirms: No amount of information about a childs
geneticbackground, medical history, developmental history,
diseases,or family interruptions can ever serve as the basis for
identifyinglanguage disorder.This has been well illustrated very
recently by a postgraduatestudent of mine, who teaches in the
university staff school, whichI shall now discuss.
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24
% 39.5
39.5
68.5
81.2
5
25.0
12.5
0
75.0
81.2
5
81.2
5
31.2
5
23
***F
or
thes
e tw
o i
tem
s th
e ex
pec
ted
res
po
nse
was
N
o
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25 26
At the beginning of my 2004/2005 lectures on Applied
Linguisticsand Foreign Language Education, an M.Phil. student of
minehad wished to know what the language disorder component inthe
course outline was all about. I pointed to three books on theshelf
and said she could read up and submit a written summaryas her first
assignment! When she brought the assignment, shequite excitedly
broke what I considered good news indeed. Havingread the books, she
concluded that certain strange behavioursshe had observed among
some of her pupils were beginning tomake sense. We discussed her
observations and agreed theneed for some clinical/case study of the
problem. She undertooka preliminary study of three of the pupils on
the four (English)language skills of oral comprehension, speaking,
reading, andwriting.
Her findings, which I summarize here, were based on social
andlinguistics profiling of three subjects (See Table III)
Subject I (Male)Social Profile: (described as) amiable,
hyperactive and lessattentive in class.Linguistic profile: He
speaks English and Yoruba. His speechis comprehensible but he
responds to questions inmonosyllables. He reads words like no and
map as on andpam respectively. Apart from the words he has
memorized, hispronunciation is bizarre, often with no relationship
with the soundsof the designated words ... He also experienced
difficulty with theconstruction of simple sentences of four to six
words in length.Despite the fact that the pupil was receiving
customized lessonsto improve his linguistic competence, his class
teacher remarkedthat he made little progress.
Subject 2 (Female)Social profile: Speaks Yoruba and English.
Sometimes gives theimpression of someone who is lost in thought,
and emotionallydisturbed. Talks sparingly repeated class I and also
repeatingclass 3.
Linguistic profile: Her spoken language is comprehensible can
hardly read simple words of four to five letters, but
oralcomprehension is fairly satisfactory. She often searches
forwords to express herself . Simple sentence construction is
amajor problem. She finds it difficult to correctly copy from
theblackboard despite evidence of satisfactory vision.
Subject 3 (Female)Social Profile: Always gay and found in the
company of herfriends almost talkative . Remains attentive in
classrepeating the class.Linguistic Profile: For her, tense
agreement isinconsequential. Her ability to do written
comprehension isdoubtful, at times she writes out of content. She
appears to havea good memory because she often recollects what she
has justheard or listened to.
Table III: Prevalence of observed problems among thethree
subject
Skill Behaviour Subjects exhibiting
behavior
Speaking Dysfluency in normal conversation Incomplete
grammatical structure. Improper use of words and meaning
023
Reading Mispronunciation of words Foreshortening of words
Sequent hesitation when reading Inappropriate intonation when
reading poor phonemic awareness Directional confusion
333333
Comprehension Word finding difficulty Fragmentation of sentence
meaning
into smaller and poorly related chunks Difficulty in answering
oral
comprehension questions Difficult answering written
comprehension questions
3
1
1
3
Writing Letter reversal Number reversal Letter inconstitencies
(shape / size) Unfinished letters Difficulty copying from the
blackboard.
22212
Source: compiled from Chugbo (2005)
behaviour
Frequent hesitations
inconsistencies
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27 28
As I say, this was a welcome event. As a preliminary
in-classinvestigation, much more work remains to be done on a
wholeschool-to-school basis for us to be able to influence
necessaryreform in terms of teacher awareness ,management training
andintegrative or inclusive learning. Nonetheless, this
developmentcorroborates our conclusions made over 20 years ago,
still validand urgent, that mainstream teachers do need to be aware
ofthe range of language related problems that exists in almost
everyclassroom; be trained to recognize signs and symptoms andmake
appropriate interventions or, better, refer cases to the schoolhead
and parents for professional advice. Lack of awareness onthe part
of teachers and school heads might well mean rejection,frustration,
underachievement and perhaps the end of the roadfor the child.
Current Issues and Directions in Special
EducationalLinguisticsThe current literature is extremely rich on
learning difficulties inthe foreign language (FL) classroom. There
are excellenthistorical reviews of the trends since the 1970s, by
Ganschowand Sparks (2001:79 98) and Sparks (1995).
Certainfundamental issues raised including lessons and directions
forlanguage disabilities and linguistics in general.
Ganschow and Sparks (2001) distinguish between learners atrisk,
and those with learning disabilities in the foreign
languageclassroom. At risk individuals refer to those who have
failed orexhibited inordinate difficulties facing FL courses in
school,whereas the term learning disabilities is used to refer to
individualswho have on record the diagnosis. The two relevant
contexts ofFL learning here are mainstream education and special
education.In the former case critical variables are at play such as
aptitude;models of learning or students learning strategies;
individualdifferences and varying contexts and contents of
learning;motivation and anxiety. Generally research interests have
focusedmainly on the good learner profile, ethnology and
ethno-methodology and personal accounts of successful FL
learning.
With regard to foreign language disabilities, US
collegerequirements of a foreign language are enforced, except
wherea student presented with identified, diagnosed FL
learningdisability. Students would then be eligible for FL waiver
or coursesubstitution, and while 14% of all institutions of higher
educationrequire FL training upon college entry, close to half of
all collegesrequired it for graduation. Against this backdrop of
curriculumprerequisite, Austin et al (1988) cited in Ganshow and
Sparks(2001), report that in the late 1980s, an estimated 1% of
thecollege population had self-identified as having specific
learningdisabilities, and the number was thought to be rising.
Theoutcome of this finding was the establishment of
closecollaboration between foreign language educators and
specialeducators, the use of a considerable array of innovative
teachingstrategies for FL learning disabilities, and the launch (in
1989) ofthe linguistic coding differences hypothesis (LCDH) based
onCarroll and Pimsleurs propositions on aptitude testing.
The theoretical premise of LCDH is that the primary
causalfactors in successful or unsuccessful FL learning are
linguistic;that is, students who have difficulties learning a FL
are likely tohave overt or subtle difficulties in their native
language. In otherwords, LCDH suggests that native language skills,
in thephonological / orthographic, syntactic, and semantic codes,
formthe basic foundation for FL learning, with the phonological
/orthographic components being the most problematic. Like atthe
1984 AILA World Congress, the interest in language disabilitieshad
become multidisciplinary and multisectoral: essentially,through the
coming together of mainstream educators andspecial educators,
making FL learning disabilities the centre ofinterdisciplinary
theorizing, empirical research andcommunication, and training. The
following extract summarizesthe trends in the disability from the
1990s.
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29 30
Across the world, there was increasing access toinformation
about learning disabilities / dyslexia inrelation to a variety of
languages. In June of 1999, theBritish Dyslexia Association held
the first conferenceon Multilingualism and Dyslexia (including the
teachingof modern foreign languages); The first book of readingson
bilingualism / multilingualism and dyslexia appeared(Peter and
Reed, 2000); there was a proliferation ofpublications about
orthographic differences acrosslanguages, including nonalphabetic
languages, and theirimplications for individuals with learning
difficulties (..)There was also a rise in the availability of
assessmentinstruments across language a growing body ofinformation
about learning disabilities and FL studybecame available through
world wide web sites ..(Ganshow and Sparks 2001).
Looking ahead, the following six research questions/issues
willcontinue to be useful to interested scholars in both
mainstreamand special education. The main finding is indicated for
eachquestion (Ganschow and Sparks 2001).
Q1: Are there native language and FL aptitudedifferences between
good and poor FL learners?Students classified as learning disabled
and at riskstudents showed poorer performance than good FLlearners
on native language measures, particularlymeasures of phonological
orthographically processingand FL aptitude.
Q2: Are there native language and FL aptitudedifferences in
students with differing levels ofmotivation and anxiety?Highly
anxious FL learners performed more poorly thanlow anxious student
on the above measures (i.e.phonological and orthographic processing
and FLaptitude)
Q3: Are there FL proficiency differences among studentswho
differ in their level of native language and
FLaptitude?Self-reported surveys indicated that both good and
poorFL learners wanted to learn a FL but that poor FL learnershad
less positive attitudes about their ability to learn.
Q4: What are the best predictors of FL grades and
FLproficiency?The best predictors of FL grades and FL proficiency
weretasks of native language phonological / orthographic skillsand
the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT).
Q5: Are there native language and FL aptitudedifferences in
students classified as learningdisabled and at risk students not
classified aslearning disabled both of whom have FL
learningproblems?Students classified as learning disabled and at
riskstudents performed similarly on native and FL
aptitudemeasures.
Q6: Do student with FL learning problems benefit
frommultisensory structured language (MSL) instructionin the
FL?Students with FL learning problems benefit from MSLinstruction.I
need to reiterate the fact that applied linguists have anendless
scope across languages: native, second andforeign and further
tongues, to move the frontiers ofempirical investigation and
(practical) theory building. Iam quite familiar with the Nigerian
literature; and thereare huge gaps. In order to move applied
linguisticsforward in Nigeria, I could not agree more with
thedirections for research suggested by Ganschow andSparks
(2001).
(i). Aptitude: Educational psychologists and appliedlinguistics
would need to update and normalize the two
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31 32
main measures of FL aptitude test MLAT (1959) and P-LAB
(1966);
(ii) Proficiency: There is urgent need for scholars to
design(and validate) instruments to quantify current measuresof FL
proficiency in order to compare students moreeffectively in
empirical studies;
(iii) Verbal memory (Prop mechanism) is the store housefor data
bases of notions, concepts and skills for whichretrieval and use
are vital for learner progress andachievement. Empirical research
that helps tocharacterize the working memory of at risk learners
isneeded.
(iv) Early identification: Few studies have been conductedwith
at risk learners who begin FL study in their earlyyears. There is
need to examine the best time to beginFL study and to determine
whether early instruction in anFL will prevent or promote later
difficulties. Longitudinalstudies in particular would be useful for
prediction of laterFL success or failure.
(v) Cross-linguistic variables: There is need for
empiricalstudies on cross linguistic variables in relation to
studentswith classified learning disabilities/dyslexia. There is
aneed to examine differences across languages that mightfacilitate
or hinder learning FL for at risk learners.
SECOND EXAMPLE: ICTs in Foreign Language TeacherEducationThe
advent of the computer into the everyday context of teachingand
learning had generated considerable anxiety, skepticism andcynicism
on the part of education practitioners, especiallyclassroom
teachers. On the one hand, they feared that themachines were going
to cost them their jobs, then becameskeptical about the
contribution that the computer could evermake to students learning
of the four basic language skills oflistening, speaking, reading
and writing. Above all, teachers
especially in the arts and humanities developed technophobia.
Iam not sure teachers in the non-science disciplines, even
intertiary education, are out of the woods yet. But we may as
wellaccept the grim reality that IT or ICTs have become the
longpredicted second revolution that will not go away now.
I shall now first examine salient current global directions in
ICTsin education including teacher education, and then share
myresearch-based experiences in this fascinating but crucial areaof
applied linguistics.
The Global Directions in ICTs in EducationInformation and
Communication Technologies {ICTs or IT} are atrue second revolution
that is determining, as it were, the fate ofnations with respect to
globalization, the digital divide and theneeds and dilemmas of the
developing and least developedcountries {LDCs}. Despite the
overwhelming odds thesecountries face, there is an overarching hope
that perhaps onlyeducation can contribute to reduce significantly
the digital divideand all its concomitant effects: social,
political, economic, aswell as the real danger of becoming exiles
or victims of informationand knowledge isolation. This holistic
view of ITs potential isstrongly reflected in UNESCOS vision,
philosophy andprogrammes especially over the last decade.
Significant actionstaken by the Organization in this respect
include the creation in1999 of the UNESCO Institute for Information
Technologies inEducation {IITE}with headquarters in Moscow, and the
AddisAbaba based, Africa-centred UNESCO International Institute
forCapacity Building in Africa {IICBA} providing,
essentially,opportunities for teacher education through distance
learning,educational materials development as well as women
educationand empowerment. Furthermore, since 1998, specific
regionalevaluation and capacity building activities have been
coordinatedby UNESCO Regional Offices, of which two studies
arenoteworthy. The first focused on assessing levels of
awarenessand practices in several countries as reflected in their
national
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33 34
and educational action plans and systems. The report
(UNESCO2002) provided invaluable insight into the universal
acceptanceof ICTs as a must factor in national educational and
developmentplanning and practices, and the need to devise very
closemonitoring mechanisms at all levels for cost efficiency.
Thesecond more substantial study is highlighted in the project
titledUsing ICTs to upgrade the Quality and Reach of Education
inAsian and the Pacific {2003} which aimed to breakdown barriersand
build bridges.
The following excerpts summarize the strategy and series
ofderivable lessons for education systems around the world:
The programmes focus is on how to use ICTs to reducedisparities
in both educational access and quality andultimately, bridge the
digital divide. Its special concern forgender uses in ICT use in
education will promote the EFA[Education For All Dakar 2000;
Jomtien 1990].Frameworks call for gender equality in education by
theyears 2015...
UNESCO envisions that ICT will result in an
educationalenvironment programme involving enriched curricular anda
cadre of teachers who are competent in facilitatingbetter learning
through ICTs.Furthermore, in order to achieve the vision and goal
ofthe Asia-pacific ICT project, four major areas of emphasiswere
identified by the partners:-
The need for unambiguous and sustainable ICTs ineducational
policies which promotes successful policymodels and strategies of
ICT integration ...., places specialemphasis on removing barriers
to participation and thelearning of girls and women, out - of -
school youth, thedisadvantaged and those with special needs and
thepoor.
Capacity - building of teachers through training andprofessional
development and other facilitators for
effective use of ICTs in improving teaching and learning.Some of
the focused actions of this project include:developing a regional
guideline on curriculum frameworkand standard of ICT infusion by
teacher; designingtemplates of ICT-integrated e-lesson plans and
evaluationtools for teachers to assess their student learning
usingICTs; and creating an on-line network of teacher centresto
share innovative practices.
Integration of ICTs in the classroom and strengtheningICT use in
school and [ASEAN] School net through coreactions including (i)
exploring and demonstrating how ICTscan be used in schools to
improve the quality of educationfor all and better prepare youth
for the demands of theknowledge society, (ii) developing
interactive educationsoftware and ICT-based teaching/learning
lessons andmaterials for integration into the teaching of
science,mathematics and language, and (iii) exchangingexperiences
and best practices generated from the useof ICTs and School net in
ASEAN countries.
Empowerment of Non-formal learning/ Educationprogrammes for
meeting non-mainstream adult andcommunity needs especially improve
the quality of lifeand alleviate poverty among disadvantaged
ruralpopulations through greater access to context-
specificeducation programmes using ICTs.
At this point one should ask one important question amongseveral
others, that I have asked myself since the late 1980s,which is: Is
Nigeria (and by extension sub-Saharan Africa) readyfor the ICT
revolution, the e-revolution and the knowledge-basedeconomy? As
Bates (2001: 115) rightly affirms the sooner thata nation or an
education system gains experience and practicein e-learning, the
more economically competitive that nation islikely to become. But
he adds stable electricity supply andreliable and moderately priced
internet access is a necessarycondition for e-learning.
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35
In two related reviews, I examined policy trends and practices
inintegrating ICTs in education systems in both developed
anddeveloping countries (Owhotu, 1999:29-39;2006). The
developingcountries showed particular interest in new technologies
despitethe odds they faced in terms of basic support infrastructure
(forexample fixed telephone access/density, power and their
ailingeconomies). As at 2006 when I carried out a small scale
surveyof the integration of ICT in public schools system in some
sub-Saharan countries, the situation had not changed
significantly(Owhotu 2006:311-316).
Empirical Insight into ICTs in Foreign Language TeacherEducation
(1996-2006)Between 1996 and 2003, I carried out a longitudinal
study of ICTs(or IT) in pre-service teacher education and in
selected state -funded and independent secondary schools in
England. Thestudy was of interest in several respects:
i. I had monitored policy dialogue and curriculumimplementation
plan of the relevant provision of theBritish National Curriculum,
first adopted in theEducation Act of 1988, when I was a British
CouncilFellow at the Institute of Education, University ofLondon.
The United Kingdom was going to experimenther national IT policy
implementation, which to mymind should throw up valuable insight
and lessonsfor Nigeria.
ii. Information and Communication technology hadbecome the
overriding focus of national educationpolicy across the world and
one instinctively lookedto the developed countries for insight and
lessons.
iii. The critical role of all teachers across the
subjectcurriculum in making the innovation work was givenspecial
emphasis;
iv. The learner or end user was also recognized as themain
stakeholder and the key beneficiary and potentialagent for the
sustenance and impact of the ITrevolution.
36
v. As early as 1986, Nigeria had expressed keen interestin
joining with the emerging global ICT trend and wassearching for
appropriate ways and means ofactualizing her computer education
policy;
vi. In 1994, almost a decade later. when I first carried outa
French Government-sponsored study of newtechnologies in the French
language classroom, inFrance, Nigeria was still at the 1986
starting block,despite the initial frenzy of crash-teacher
trainingcourses and supply of computers to the pilot schools(in an
environment with little or no matchinginfrastructure, facilities
and teaching resources)!
Two main questions guided the study: How was the British
National curriculum being
implemented with respect to information technology
skillsdevelopment in initial teacher training and in the
secondaryschool modern languages curricula?
What lessons could one learn for the Nigerianenvironment against
the backdrop of Nigerias moribund1987 computer education/literacy
policy?
Procedure for data collection (1996 and 2003)The procedure was
generally the same in 1996 and 2003 withsome modification to the
locations of study. Whereas in 1996my investigation was limited to
institutions in Cambridgeshire,the 2003 phase included similar
institutions in Oxford and London.In 2003, I used a total of seven
different questionnaires, as againstfour in 1996. The 2003 IT
skills questionnaire was expanded toinclude the internet and
on-line data sourcing/current searchskills; web design and
e-learning. The extension was meant toaccount for developments in
ICT since 1996. A questionnairesurvey of the state of IT in schools
was once again facilitated bythe PGCE modern foreign language
students at Cambridge,Oxford and London Universities. I also mailed
some subjectspecific questionnaires to randomly selected placement
schools
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37
to be filled in by their head of modern foreign languages, the
ITtutor and the school IT Coordinator/ Administrator
respectively.The Post-graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE)
cohortcompleted three sets of questionnaire that required them
toprovide base line information on (a) their IT skills and level
ofconfidence; (b) their perceptions of certain issues including
theaim of school placement and related experience, and (c)
theiropinion of the National Curriculum generally and the IT
provisionin particular.
Furthermore, I carried out several classroom observations
ofteaching and training sessions at Oxford and Cambridgecomprising
IT lecture/workshops and micro teaching sessionsduring which PGCE
students made IT mediated presentations.Classroom observations were
also made during study visits toschools, one comprehensive village
{community} college, anindependent {private} secondary school in
Cambridge and atechnology college in Camberwell, London.I shall now
present a summary of noteworthy results of the variousquestionnaire
surveys only, with some indication of the trend onthe same issues
as observed in 1996.
Summary of Main Results of the Study (1996 2003)Between 1996 and
2006 the United Kingdom made verysignificant progress in IT policy
implementation. Informationtechnology was well entrenched in the
school curriculum, bothas a core course and across the various
school subjects,especially its rapidly growing use in the modern
foreign languageclassroom. For instance, data obtained for 38
Oxford, Cambridgeand London placement schools showed that there was
a totalof 2,203 personal computers for teaching and
learninglanguages, including 65 laptop computers, giving an average
ofabout 58 computer units per school.
38
More importantly, modern foreign language learners in 2003
hadsignificantly greater access to and use of IT for regular
instructionand independent learning, which was markedly different
fromthe situation in 1996.
Data for available foreign language software and facilities
wasalso obtained. The great majority of schools had CD
ROMS,multi-wave radio cassette recorder, video cassette
recorder/playback facility and a variety of modern language
magazines. Agood number had foreign language pre-recorded cassettes
whilea few had satellite TV receivers. All had e-mail facility and
almostall had internet access. Three London schools had video
orteleconferencing facility which objective is to encourage
topical,relevant, face-to-face exchanges among the members of
classesin two (or potentially more) locations (Kinginger 1999). In
contrastto the situation in 1996, the current shift has been more
towardsinternet-based materials and resources the use of the
over-headprojector and multimedia.
Perhaps the most significant finding was in relation to the IT
skilldevelopment of trainee teachers. Seventy-six PGCE
student-teachers from Oxford,Cambridge and London
universitiesresponded to our questionnaire by the end of the (1st)
MichaelmasTerm. This was to assess their perceived levels of
confidenceand attainment/achievement in the four skill CLUSTERS
asfollows. (Percentage scores are shown for the three
universitiesrespectively). A +B: Operational and word processing
skills: with 87%;
78%; 85%, respectively; C: Databases and Desk Top publishing:
61%; 31%; 67%,
respectively; D: Spread sheet: 59%; 42%; 53%; respectively; and
E: Internet skills: 43%; 46% and 45%.What this shows is that within
only the first term, most studentshad become confident (and
competent) in at least clusters A, B,and C. This result was all the
more significant as only 16 out of
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39 40
76 respondents (21. 05%) were familiar with the requisite IT
skillsbefore enrolling on the PGCE course.
Lessons for Planning ICTs in Teacher Education in NigeriaWhat,
from our findings, explains the resounding success storyof ICT
policy in British education? Five major factors have beenat play: a
very strong political will driven by the awareness ofthe potential
of ICTs in national development; a very activepromotion of
sustainable partnerships with a wide range ofstakeholders and
democratization of the policy designprocess (including teachers
voices); an exemplary commitmentto efficient policy implementation,
and a culture of monitoring,assessment and reporting for possible
review/adjustment/reform.More importantly, several national
frameworks and institutionalsupport systems were established, such
as the TeacherTraining Agency (TTA), the Office for Standards in
Education(OFSTED), the New Opportunities Fund (NOF) and
theDepartment for Education and Employment (DFEE). Monitoringand
assessment became closely tied to funding of schools andteacher
training institutions. The setting up of the Teacher TrainingAgency
in 1999 provided added impetus to integrate IT within 10subjects
specialties: Art, English, History, Modern Foreignlanguages, Design
and Technology, Mathematics, Music, PhysicalEducation, Religious
Education and Science, in addition to ITwhich is a separate
examination subject for the NationalVocational and Technical
Qualification (NVTQ). Even the perennialanxiety over funding was
adequately addressed for sustainabilityof the innovation.
For example, OFSTEDs (2001) report indicated as follows:The
Department for Education and Employment {DFEE}funding for the ICT
infrastructure and generic trainingamounted to 675 million pounds
over four years andbegan in April 1998... distributed to Local
EducationAuthorities {LEAs}via the Government StandardFund {SF}. In
addition the Government announced that,from April 1999, 230 million
pounds of lottery fund
would be available from the New OpportunitiesFund {NOF} a non
departmental public body to helpincrease the competence of all
teachers in their use ofICT in teaching and learning. The scheme
would usetraining organizations, approved by NOF and
quality-assured by the Teacher Training Agency . The DFEEwas given
the role of formulating the ICT policy foreducation and steering
the implementation of mostaspects of the governments ICT strategy
for schools.This involved working with the ICT supply
industry,LEAs, the TTA and the British Educational andCommunication
Technology Agencies {BECTA}.
More importantly the report acknowledged that: There isemerging
evidence of a link between high standard across thecurriculum and
good ICT provision variable and is more markedin some than others .
The powerful new resources obtainedwith AGFL funds have increased
pupils motivation to learn .Training programmes that lack the
intended subject-specific focushave been less effective in raising
teachers confidence to useICT . Many teachers have bought their own
computers throughGovernment schemes. Computers ownership has helped
toboost teachers confidence and basic ICT skills
significantly.(Theemphases are mine).
With specific reference to foreign language teacher
education,the implementation of ICT policy was in terms of creating
aconducive learning and training environment. The followingabridged
excerpts (Box1) amply demonstrate how modern foreignlanguage
teachers are put through their paces at Cambridge,London and
Oxford.
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41 42
BOX I: Conducive Institutional Environments (Oxford)
The Department has extensive ICT facilities. TheDepartments ICT
Centre has two rooms for teachingpurposes and for use by individual
PGCE students bothequipped with powerful multimedia PCs.
Additionalcomputers and ICT equipment are located in the
LibraryResources area. PGCE students also have access tolaser
printers, colour printers, digital cameras, scanners,video capture
equipment, a video editing suite andelectronic Smart boards. All
computers can be used forword-processing. The growing library of
educationalsoftware consists of a large number of
packagesappropriate for the secondary age range. All of
thecomputers in the Department are connected to theInternet and can
be used for e-mail. All curriculum subjectteaching rooms are
equipped with Smart boards andcomputer projection systems. A loan
pool of equipmentconsisting of laptop computers, portable data
projectorsand digital cameras (still and movie) is available
forPGCE students to take into schools.All interns are required to
demonstrate competence inthe use of ICT for teaching and learning
in their mainsubject, as a condition for the award of QTS
(QualifiedTeacher Status). These capabilities are developedthrough
each curriculum subject programme, supportedby ICT workshops.
BOX II: Conducive Institutional Environments (Cambridge)
During the first term, you will attend introductory, sessionson
the main applications of ICT in language teaching (e.g.word
processing, database, spreadsheet, Power-Pointand the Internet).
The aim of this part of the course is toprovide you with sufficient
confidence and knowledge tosupport the integration of this resource
in your teachingduring Terms 2 and 3.
In School, during PPI, you should find out how ICT isplanned and
used within the department and across theschool as a whole. You
should observe teacher(s) andlanguages and from other subjects if
possible, usingcomputers in the classroom. In consultation with
yourmentor you must plan and carry out Assignment 6 (Pupiluse of
ICT in Language learning). The aim is to provideyou with a first
experience (whether with a full class orsmall group of pupils) of
assessing the effect of theresource on the linguistic performance,
learning strategiesand motivation of pupils. The extended
placements inthese two terms give you the chance to focus on howICT
can be integrated in lesson planning generally. Yourfocus should be
on how ICT activities can link up withother parts of the lesson.
You should also think abouthow ICT lessons can fit in schemes of
work extendingover a sequence of lessons. Copies of your lesson
plansinvolving ICT should be included in here.
You should aim to try out ICT activities in lessons withpupils
of different age and ability groups; and to supportdifferent
language learning objectives (e.g. the fourlanguage skills. You
should aim to engage in broaderprofessional activities. For
instance, your departmentmight ask you to make a small presentation
at one of itsstaff meetings on the potential of ICT.You will be
asked to make a Power Point Presentation ata subject studies
sessions in Term 3 on some aspect ofyour ICT teaching
experience.
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43 44
It is time once again to address the same question about
Nigeriasreadiness for the ICT revolution. Nigerian education
haswitnessed some encouraging developments in IT related
matterssince 2003. For example: (a) the Petroleum Development
TrustFund signed a Memorandum of Understanding with
Microsofttargeting schools and especially the capacity building of
teachersand institutions, which led to the establishment of
Microsoft ITAcademies(Nigeria Monthly 2006); (b)Nigeria established
theDigital Bridge Institute an International Centre
forTelecommunications and Information Studies; (c) hosted theWorld
Digital Africa 2006 Conference on the theme ICT foreducation,
development and empowerment: children and learningfor learning; (c)
launched the one-laptop-per-child (OLPC)initiative in collaboration
with the Nigerian government whichresulted in the provision of one
million, $100 laptops for the e-secondary school project in Nigeria
(The Vanguard, 2006). (d) Anational Computer in Schools Committee
and a few ICT (skillacquisition) Villages have recently been set
up.
Internet access has only begun to have some significant impacton
university campuses for both students and academic staffespecially.
The National Universities Commission has set up asuccessful on-line
training programme for higher educationpersonnel known as the
Virtual Institute for Higher EducationPedagogy (VIHEP) and also
coordinates the Nigerian VirtualLibrary Project for universities
and other institutions of HigherEducation. Similarly, the Federal
Government has establishedthe National Information Technology
Development Agency(NITDA); launched a geoinformatic communication
satellite inorbit, with a second IT dedicated satellite for launch
soon.In spite of the apparent progress at the macro level, the
issuesof infrastructure, appropriate environments, and costs of
ICTpolicy implementation at the micro levels in schools and
teachertraining faculties constitute the most serious challenges
for thepublic sector. In cases where some attempt have been made
by
tertiary institutions to provide a semblance of IT compliance
fortheir students, research has shown that nothing significant
ishappening in this regard. Some scholars (Busari, 2006:165-194and
Maduekwe, 2006:165-184) recently investigated the problemin several
tertiary institutions and have found discouraging results.Busari
sums up her impressions: a situation where studentsreceive little
or no exposure to ICT during training calls for all,both at
secondary and university levels, to re-examine the currentstatus of
IT in education, right from the primary school. Similarly,Maduekwes
study clearly showed that the provision of trainingin ICT skills
for pre-service teacher trainees in FSC 103 in twouniversities was
largely inadequate.
The implications are clear. We cannot over-emphasize the
factthat the all-comers university-wide GST computer core
courseswill not on their own make students in tertiary institutions
in Nigeriacomputer and IT-literate. Most students have become IT
literatethrough their own independent action/initiative. For
instance,Awoleye and Siyanbolas ( 2006 :1708-1713) study showed
that92 percent of undergraduate students have embraced theinternet,
spending on average 3 hours per week in the pastfour years. It also
showed that the interest has made an impacton their academic and
life while science-based students madeuse of the internet more than
their non-science peers. Anotherrelated implication of this
self-help trend among students is thatTeacher Training Departments
have a crucial obligation to developthe IT skills of prospective
teachers. The foundation in terms ofknowledge building, thinking
and good practices in IT educationis laid there at the
undergraduate B.A, B.Sc. Education (Hon),and Postgraduate diploma
in Education programme levels,echoing as strongly as practicable
the conducive environmentsfor teaching, training and independent
learning.
Developing the ICT Skills of Language TeachersIn order to ensure
that the goals and objectives of IT skillsdevelopment for language
teachers are achieved, the planning
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45 46
lessons I have already highlighted become imperative in
threemain areas. These are: attitudinal, ICT knowledge base and
rangeof competences. Technophobia has been identified as
asignificant attitudinal challenge that teachers in the Arts
andhumanities have to be helped to overcome. The confidence
toexplore the new technologies and look closely at old ways
ofthinking and doing things is the best way forward into
theknowledge economy and modern foreign language industry.
Theknowledge component includes: understanding the ICT
revolutionand development in ICTs and their role, uses or impact on
foreignteaching and learning; functional understanding of the
working ofa Computer system and a user appreciation of the
variouscomponents; rational decision-making in adopting
teacher-friendlyand learner-friendly language software in relation
to the four basicskills and culture; monitor and critically assess
the outcomes ofvarious researches into ICTs in teaching and
learning languages;knowledge of functions in relation to learner
skills and learningissues (Table IV). Skills comprise the
following: (1) Operational,(2) Word-processing, (3) Databases, (4)
Spreadsheets, and (5)Internet / Multimedia. This last one is
particularly an importantcomplex of skills and includes at least 14
sub-skills ranging frombrowsing, writing and sending e-mail with
attachment; chat / e-conversation to web authoring to website
design, accessingdedicated teaching resource to job hunting, taking
online coursesor tutorials to using Internet as a virtual library.
(6) Further skillsinclude using bibliography software such as
endnote; using avideo camcorder; making audio recordings; taking
skillphotographs; using the photocopier; using the overhead
projector(OHP); preparing transparencies for the OHP; creating
PowerPoint slides; setting up equipment to give a Power
Pointpresentation; preparing materials using desktop publishing
(DTP)and; scanning images and graphics for DTP.The mastery of all
these skills by teachers in training is relevantto all language
curricula, first, second and foreign.
Table 1V: Examples of Functions and Learner-related Issues
ConclusionI have shown in this discussion of ICT policy
implementation inEngland what strong political will can do; how
crucial buildingsustainable partnership among all stakeholders is;
how qualitycontrol and assurance could only be achieved through a
cultureof objective monitoring, assessment and reporting; how
fundingcould be sourced and well managed; how at the
institution-basedlevel, Oxford, Cambridge and London demonstrated
thatsuccessful implementation has been a function of an enabling
/conducive environment they have provided for language
teachertraining and learning. In the wider context of education,
ICTinvestments in teacher education across the curriculum has
theenormous potential multiplier effects in providing a more
efficientmeans of delivering literacy training within a sustainable
literateenvironment, and support adult literacy and basic skills
acquisitionin basic education etc (Wagner and Kozma 2005:5).
A THIRD EXAMPLE: Voices in School-based FrenchCurriculum
ReformIn this third example of thinking and doing applied
linguistics, Ishall present briefly my experiences of micro-system
or school-based French curriculum reform involving syllabus design
in
Functions Learner Skills Learning Issues CALL websitesWord
processingText manipulationSpreadsheetsDatabasesInternetWeb
pagesPower Point PresentationsCD-ROMsSchool websitee-mail
linkslanguages clubs
Oral practiceWritingReading
comprehensionCommunicationGrammarVocabulary acquisitionCultural
awareness
DifferentiationMotivationIndependent learningImmediate
feedbackAccuracyRevisionText level literacyLanguage
authenticity
Source: University of Cambridge PGDE Handbook 2002/2003Source:
University of Cambridge PGCE Handbook 2003/2004
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47 48
communicative French, French curriculum evaluation,
teachertraining and organizational improvements.In 1990, shortly
after I returned from sabbatical, during which Ispent about four
months as a British Council Fellow at the Instituteof Education
University of London, I was invited by the Head of alarge
multinational International School comprising primary andsecondary
wings- to save their souls. It would be my firsthands-on experience
of such a thoroughly cosmopolitan/multicultural context of
schooling; running a different curriculum,a different value system
and school culture from ours. However,three important facts were in
my favour:(i) My familiarity with curriculum history (comparative)
and
the role of North America in modern curriculum theoryand
development;.
(ii) My recent research and professional experience atLondon
University on multiracial education, English as asecond language
curriculum as well as modern foreignlanguage learning, and the
emerging British NationalCurriculum;
(iii) My disciplinary tradition of knowledge-building,
thinkingand doing applied linguistics determined the logic of
whatto do or not to do when one got to an unfamiliar
culturalterrain, as well as the relativity of theoretical and
knowledgebases. In other words, I made no assumptions; was waryof
appearances, sought out and characterized theobserved differences;
planned and experimented,consolidated adjusted and validated
outcomes.Accordingly, I evolved a ten-phase interventioncomprising
the following actions: (i) situational analysis(ii) needs
identification and analysis; (iii) administrationof
learner-questionnaire, (iv) placement/diagnostic testsof learners
of French across the higher elementary andJunior high secondary
grades (v) hands-on classroomteaching which was a crucial strategy
for understandingthe multicultural context of curriculum reform;
(vi)communicative French syllabus design, and trialing by
the teachers; (vii) review of aspects of school culture;(viii)
review of organization to include teachers voice atschool
management board.; (ix) needs-based In-serviceand workshop for
teachers; (x) Monitoring andassessment of curriculum
implementation.The memorable highpoint of this experience was that
allmy recommendations were accepted and implementedby the school
authorities (Owhotu,2001). From thesuccess of that project, other
multicultural internationalschools using the British National
Curriculum invited meto replicate, as it were, our work in their
schools.
In 1999, about six years later, I was again invited by the
sameInternational school to validate the programme and prepare it
foraccreditation from their Home School Board. Building on
thefoundation I had laid six years earlier and with
classroomobservation, workshops, seminars and syllabus review,
theFrench programme got the accreditation with commendation.Between
then and June 2001 we had the mandate to monitorimplementation of
agreed recommendations and strategies.Other outcomes of the reform
are noteworthy: the schooladministration and French teachers were
agreed that there hadbeen significant improvement in the teachers
team spirit, lessonplanning skills, classroom organization and
instruction as wellas teacher self-assessment, and assessment of
studentlearning outcomes.
These encouraging results notwithstanding, I decided, with
thekind approval of the school authorities, to probe
beyondappearances as it were, and carry out a voices survey of
bothparents and learners. In that particular environment, parents
andlearners were both informed and vocal stake holders in the
reformprocess. If they had been generally dissatisfied then I would
havelaboured in vain. The voices survey was therefore to enable
usto assess whether or not in their view there were any
noticeable/significant improvements in teaching based on
parentsobservation concerning their children and wards
attitudes
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49 50
towards French and their achievements. Learners wererequested to
address similar issues.
Relevant FindingsFor the purpose of this lecture I shall
highlight the trends for onlythe critical items in both
questionnaires.
Parents Voices164 parents returned their questionnaire duly
completed, exceptfor a few items that were not fully completed.
What is your opinion, in general, of the French programme? 140
parents responded, of whom 98 (70%) had a positive opinionof the
French programme ranging from excellent lot ofimprovement, very
good, fine, to quite organized: 28 others(20%) were not sure, while
14 (10%) had a negative opinionranging from quite weak, too simple
to prefer Spanish toFrench.
Do you sincerely think your child has made appreciableprogress
in
(a) Understanding French? and (b) Speaking French?Out of the 154
responses, 127 (82%) agreed that their childrenslistening
comprehension skill had improved; 12 (7.7%), had anegative view,
while 13 (8.4%) were not sure. With respect totheir childrens
spoken French, 92 (59.7%) agreed that theirchildrens spoken French
had improved; 35 (22.7%) disagreed.while 27 (17.5%) were not
sure.
How would you rate the effectiveness of your childs
Frenchteachers?
Out of 158 responses, 94 (59.49%) said it was Good, 40(25.31%)
said it was satisfactory, 13 (8%) thought it was poorwhile 11 (%)
were not sure.
If French was an elective programme, would you haveencouraged
your child to study it all the same?
Out of 158 responses 136 (86.07%) said yes, 14 (8.8%) said
nowhile 8(5,06%) were not sure.
From this analysis of the key items, parents did seem to
haveclearly positive impressions of the French programme. A total
of134 parents (84.81%) said they were satisfied with the
Frenchteachers effectiveness, 70% were satisfied with the
Frenchprogramme while another 86% said they would encourage
theirchildren to study French. More importantly, 82% thought that
theirchildren had made progress in listening comprehension skill,
with59% observing improved oral skill of their children. 86.07%
ofthem laid due emphasis on the importance of the Frenchlanguage in
the world today, next to English, and would encouragetheir children
and wards to c