-
LABORATORY EXERCISE 20 (ZOOLOGY) : TYPES OF TISSUESI. EPITHELIAL
TISSUE
TYPES SPECIALIZED OTHER PICTURES: Lining Squamous
Cell division occurs near the basement membrane, pushing older
cells to the surface
Cells lost by abrasion are replaced by cells underneath
Tile-like flattened cells
Ciliated epithelium Roof of mouth of living frog Glandular
epithelium 1. specialized for production of secretory
substances
o goblet cells - unicellular glands in lining of the intestine
2. for higher amount of secretiono surface epithelia grow inward or
infolded to become multicellular glands o include the
following:
a. exocrine glands with ductsb. endocrine glands no ducts
o types:a. simple cutaneous and gastric glands b. compound
salivary and mammary glands
Cuboidal Lining of many
internal cavities Lumen of kidney
tubules, intestine
OVERALL CHARACTERISTICSo Form outer coverings and inner linings
of the body surfaceso Tightly packed cells with very little
intercellular material o Primitive tissues
- first to develop both ontogenetically and phylogenetically o
Main functions
1. protection skin 2. selective absorption lungs and gut (absorb
nutrients from food)3. secretion chemicals, hormones, etc.
o grouped into:a. covering and lining of epithelial membranesb.
glandular epitheliumc. type:
1. squamous2. glandular3. transitional
d. # of cell layers1. simple2. stratified
e. Shape of cells:
1. Cuboidal2. Squamous3. Columnar
f. Surface specializations:1. Cilia2. Keratin
Columnar Lining of many
internal cavities Lumen of kidney
tubules, intestine
II. SUPPORTING AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE
OVERALL CHARACTERISTICS CARTILAGE- depending on the nature and
amount of connective tissue fibers present in the matrix BONE
Ciliated/pseudostratified epithelium
Frog skin Cheek cells
Kidney tubules
Bile duct
Small intestine
-
o Presence of a large amount of:1. intercellular material
a. attach or connect partsb. support or bear weightc. provide
medium through which
tissue fluids may diffuse 2. paucity of cells
o connective tissue cell = FIBROCYTES 1. most distinct feature
=
extracellular ovoid nuclei2. stellate cells with pale
cytoplasm3. intercellular material secreted:
a. amorphous ground substance (matrix)
b. connective tissue fibers 4. collagenous fibers
o fine, wavy fibers occurring in bundlesmatrix
QUESTIONS: 1. Give examples of each kind of cartilage
(3)2. Bones are prepared by the grinding
method will not show osteocytes but only the cavities or
lacunae. WHY?
- Because they have already been replaced by grinding that is
why only the cavities are shown
HYALINE FIBROUS ELASTIC
o most abundant o found in lining of joints, inside boneso forms
most of the embryonic skeleton o large and predominantly
collagen
o found in areas requiring tough support or great tensile
strength
o lacks erichondrium o epiglottis and external ear
o present to kept the tubes permanently openo similar to hyaline
but with elastic bundles o yellow
PARTS, FUNCTIONS, CHARACTERISTICS PARTS FUNCTIONSCartilage cells
(CHONDROCYTES)
o nuclei rounded and have one or more nucleolia.
young/undifferentiated - flattenedb. old/differentiated big and
round
Bone cells = OSTEOCYTES Embedded in a calcified matrix (hydroxyl
apatite crystals)
Intercellular substance Solid matrix (chondroitin sulfate
matrix) Canaliluci o Where protoplasmic processes of the immature
bone cells used to passo Passageway of materials from the blood
vessels in the Haversian canal to the osteocytes
lacunae May contain more than one chondrocyte
LacunaePerichondrium Calcified matrix Laid down in rings or
lamellae around the Haversian canal
Haversian canal run along the length of the long bone and
provide major vessel supply to the osteocytesVolkmanns canal
Connects Haversian canals
III. MUSCULAR TISSUE OVERALL CHARACTERISTICS NONSTRIATED MUSCLE
STRIATED MUSCLE
a. specialized for movement b. Contracts in response to
stimulation
c. Used for locomotion, food movement , heat production d.
Muscle cells are called MUSCLE FIBERS
o drawn out in long spindle-shaped thread-like structures for
effective contraction
o contractile tissues of visceral organs (except heart)o
involuntary muscles
o cross section of vertebrate intestine/stomach o layer of
spindle-shaped cells (smooth muscle cells with oval nuclei) next
to
the tunica serosa (outer covering)
o presence of alternating dark bonds (anistropic/A-disc) &
light bonds (isotropic/I-disc)
o Thick and thin myofilaments (contained within myofibrils)
a. Myosin (thicker and darker)b. Actin (thinner and lighter)
Arrangement of myosin and actin give rise to the dark and light
bonds of striated muscleTERMS SMOOTH SKELETAL CARDIAC
(INVOLUNTARY)
-
PART FUNCTIONsarcoplasm a. Muscle cell cytoplasm Myofibrils a.
Contractile elements of the muscle cell
b. Consists of small protein filaments (myosin and actin)
Anistropic/a-disc Dark bandsIsotropic/i-disc Light bands
MyofilamentsSarcolemma a. Thin cell membrane of the muscle
fiber
**Inner surface of the cell membrane of muscle tissue Syncitium
(SKELETAL)
a. Presence of multi-nucleated condition in cells
Intercalated discs (CARDIAC)
QUESTIONS:1. How is
syncitium brought about in muscle cells?
- Numerous mitoses but no cytokinesis
a. Tightly joined cell membranes of the adjacent cells
comprising the muscle fiber
b. Fibers are not straight by bifurcate and connect with
neighboring fibers to form an intricate network
c. Nuclei of individual cells are centrally located within the
fiber
o Made up of thin-elongated muscle fibers (tapered ends)o
Single. large, oval nucleus, spindle-shaped next to the tunica
serosa (outermost
covering of stomach/intestine) o Myofibrils are parallel to each
other (smooth)o Form sheets or layers rather than bundles o Forms
the muscle layers in the walls of hollow organs (digestive tract,
stomach,
intestine)
o FUNCTIONS:a. Controls slow, involuntary movements, such as the
contraction of the smooth
muscle tissue in the walls of stomach and intestinesb. Muscle of
arteries contracts and relaxes to regulate the blood pressure and
the
flow of blood
o Most abundant tissue in the vertebrate body o Attached to and
bring about movement of the various bones of the skeletono Enclosed
in a sheath of connective tissue (EPIMYSIUM)
- folds inward into the muscle substance to surround a large
number of smaller bundles (FASCICULI)
consist of even smaller bundles of elongated, cylindrical muscle
cells (FIBERS)
each fiber is called SYNCYTIUM (many nuclei) o NUCLEI
- Oval-shaped- Found at the periphery of the cell (beneath the
sarcolemma)
o CONTRACTION
- Actin filaments slide inwards between myosin filaments
o FUNCTIONS:a. Coordinated movements of the limbs, jaws,
eyeballs, etc.b. Directly involved in the breathing process
o Not structurally syncytial although it is a functional
syncitium o Found in the walls of the heart
o Differences from striated muscle:a. Shorterb. Striations not
so obviousc. Sarcolemma is thinner (not discernible)d. One nucleus
present
o FUNCTIONS:a. Contraction of the heartb. Causes rhythmical
beating of heart (circulation of heart)
IV. VASCULAR/BLOOD TISSUE OVERALL CHARACTERISTICS RBC (Red Blood
Corpuscles) :: ERYTHROCYTES WBC (White Blood Corpuscles) ::
LEUCOCYTES
o components:a. plasma (liquid portion)b. blood cells (formed
component)
o types:a. RBCb. WBCc. Platelets
- produced by megakaryocyte (mammals) or thrombocytes
(amphibians)
QUESTIONS:1. Explain why blood is considered as
belonging to the connective tissue group
- It has intercellular spaces through which blood cells are
suspended
- Located in a fluid medium- Traced to the connective tissues of
the
bone marrow2. Function of erythrocytes3. functions of WBC
FROG HUMAN FROG HUMAN
o ovoid and has a nucleus o biconcave discs without nuclei
o unstained : pale greenish-yellow
o rouleaux - arrangement resembling a
stack of coins o hemoglobin
- coloring pigment- has a role in the
transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
o fewer than the erythrocytes
o smaller than erythrocytes o nuclei differ from the
classical spherical centrally located type
o fewer than erythrocytes o larger than erythrocytes
Polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMN) Lymphocytes Monocytes/
Macrophilo aka : GRANULOCYTES/POLYMORPHS o irregular nuclei with a
variety of shapes o three kinds (according to staining property of
cytoplasmic granules)
NEUTROPHIL EOSINOPHIL BASOPHIL
most numerous (60-75% of WBC few (2-5% of WBC) least numerous
(0-2%)nuclei: 2-5 thin lobes connected by chromatin threads
nuclei: 2 oval lobes linked by thread-like chromatin
nuclei: stain very faintly (almost not visible)
o moderately numerous comprising 20-25% of the WBC
o large nucleio narrow rim of cytoplasm around nucleus o
smallest of the WBC in general (slightly
larger than RBC)
fine granules coarse granules coarse cytoplasmic granules B
lymphocytes T lymphocytesneutral pH acid (red) basic
(blue)scavengers within extravascular tissue, destroying bacteria
or other infectious organisms that invade the body
function specifically as phagocytes to destroy larvae of
parasites that have invaded tissues (allergic responses)
Phagocytotic & granules contain histamine and heparin (for
allergic response)
o make antibodies o recognition and rejection of foreign
tissues
o few (3-8% of total WBC)o nuclei: indented ovals to
horsehoe-
shaped o larger amounts of cytoplasm than
lymphocyteso largest of the blood cells
V. NERVOUS TISSUE
Smooth muscle
Skeletal muscle
Cardiac muscle
-
NEURON (nerve cell)
Cytoplasm - drawn out in
long nerve fibers- carry impulse
a. Dentrites TOWARD cell body b. Axon AWAY from body
Sheath of Schwann - covering of the nerve fiber- protoplasmic
sheath- also called the neurillema
Axis cylinder - central transparent portion- it is the long
drawn-out cytoplasm of the neuron
Medullary sheath / Myelin sheath
- white substance of Schwann
Nodes of Ranvier - areas of myelin sheath which are
discontinuous or constricted
Clefts/incisures of Schimdt-Lantermann
- oblique clefts present in the myelin sheath
NERVEBundle of nerve fibers bound by connective tissue
Epineurium Loose connective tissue covering the nerve
**loose connective tissue- holds organs in place and attaches
epithelial tissue
to other underlying tissues- soft and compliant
Fascicles - nerve bundlesPerineurium - dense connective tissue
(completely fibers) that
covers each fascicleEndoneurium - lies in an amorphous
(shapeless) intercellular
substance - connective tissue fibrils that covers individual
fibers within the fascicle
-
EXERCISE 21: MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF FROG ORGANS I. SKIN
EPIDERMIS (epithelial) DERMIS/CORIUM (connective
tissue)REGIONS/PARTS FUNCTION REGIONS/PARTS FUNCTION Stratum
corneum - outermost layer of the epidermis
- made up of thin, flat cells (squamous cells)- dead cells that
have been pushed outwards and are
constantly shed off
Stratum spongiosum / stratum laxum - dermis layer of loose
connective tissue- where glands have been sectioned centrally,
their openings to the outside
can be seen penetrating the epithelial layers - locate blood
capillaries and lymph spaces (clear spaces)- contains:
1. chromatophores - contains pigment granules- function:
2. cutaneous glands - multicellular glands formed by the
infolding of the stratum
germinativum Stratum germinativum
- second layer of epidermis- several rows of more or less
spherical cells and a deeper
layer of columnar cells which touch the dermis part - columnar
cells continuously divide and give rise to new
cells which are pushed to the outer layer
stratum compactum -- made of tightly packed horizontal strands
of connective tissue with
alternating vertical connective tissue strands- blood
capillaries and nerves are present between connective tissue fibers
- below the stratum compactum:- very loose subcutaneous connective
tissue filled with lymph in the living
frog (connect the skin with the underlying muscle)
2. LIVERPARTS FUNCTION Hepatocytes - liver cells
- polygonal in shape- darkly stained spherical nuclei
Blood Vessels a. HPV (hepatic portal vein) branchesb. Arterioles
(THICK-WALLED)
- have well-defined walls with a scalloped inner marginc.
Venules (THIN-WALLED)
Bile duct - surrounded by a stroma of collagenous tissue (found
in large blood vessels)- lumina is lined with cuboidal epithelium-
found together with smaller blood vessels, arterioles, and
venules
Sinusoids - Spaces between hepatocytes - No distinctive walls -
Occur in-between the liver cell clusters
Bile Duct and Sinusoids
Bile Duct and Artery
3. INTESTINE REGIONS/PARTS FUNCTION Valves of Kerkring - Inner
wall circular folds Tunica mucosa - Lines the intestinal cavity or
lumen
- Innermost layer- Made of simple epithelial cells and goblet
cells
goblet cell unicellular gland with a slender base and
dilapidated apexTunica submucosa - Outer to the mucosa
- Made up of loose connective tissue- Contains lymph vessels and
blood vessels
Tunica muscularis - Outer to the submucosa- In between the
muscle cells are connective tissue fibers - Made up of two layers
of muscles running perpendicular to each other:
a. Stratum circulare - thick inner circular layer-
Spindle-shaped smooth muscle cells can be observed
b. Stratum longitudinale - Thin outer longitudinal layer - Cross
sections of muscle cells can be seen
Tunica serosa - Serous coat or visceral peritoneum - Forms the
outermost layer of the organ - Very thin layer of loose connective
tissue covered with mesothelium
QUESTION:1. What do goblet cells secrete Goblet cells secrete
and produce mucus
2. What is mesothelium? Pavement epithelial cells in surface
view that lines the internal cavity (derived from the mesoderm)
-
\EXERCISE 1: ANIMAL FORMS 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL FORMS
SYMMETRY METAMERISM REGIONALIZATION APPENDAGESo Correspondence in
size, shape and relative position of parts that are on opposite
sides of a dividing line, median line, or parts that are
distributed about a center or axis
Universal Radial Bilateral - Displayed by animals with
spherical body- Body can be divided into two or
more symmetrical parts by cutting through the center of the
body
- Condition of having similar parts regularly arranged about a
central axis
- Ex. star-shaped body (pentamerous plan)
- THREE AXES:a. Longitudinalb. Transversec. Sagittal
- Median sagittal plane (passing through the longitudinal and
sagittal axes dividing the body into right & left halves which
are mirror images of each other)
- SIX ASPECTSa. DORSAL (back)b. VENTRAL (front)c. LATERAL (right
and
left)d. ANTERIOR (head)e. POSTERIOR (tail)
o Regular repetition of body parts along antero-posterior
axis
o May be divided into more or less equal parts
SEGMENTS/METAMERES?SOMITES
o Has both INTERNAL (internal organs) & EXTERNAL aspects
o Condition of having parts of the body more or less
differentiated in to recognizable zones (head, trunk, tail)
o cephalization tendency for the anterior end of the body to
differentiate into a head
o cephalic appendages antennae, tentacles, etc.
o may be segmented or unsegmented (extremities on the side of
the body)
o lophophores ciliated tentacles
2. EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE FROG AXIAL REGIONHEAD a. Snout
(apex)
b. External nares (nostrils)c. Bulging eyes (dorsolateral sides)
with upper and
lower eyelidsd. Tympanum (eardrum) posterior to the eye
TRUNK a. Posterior to the trunk anus b. Anterior to the trunk
mouth
APPENDICULAR REGIONFORE LIMBS a. Upper arm proximal to the fore
arm
b. Fore arm proximal to the manus c. Manus composed of four
segmented units; distal
end (away from the axis of the body
HIND LIMBS a. Proximal thighb. Middle shankc. Pes
o Web o QUESTION: what is the function of the
web?
EXERCISE 2: ANIMAL INTEGUMENTSo Outer covering which may be soft
or hard in texture, dry or slimy o Simplest form: thin, slimy
epithelium (Planaria) -- allows diffusion of gas into the body o
Earthworm : epithelium secretes a cuticleo Mollusks : mantle (soft
integument) chitinous; mantle secretes the shello Arthropods :
rigid integument which is chitinouso Echinoderms : integument
comparable to the vertebrate skino Frogs: have naked skin
QUESTION:What is the role of integument in crabs and
lobsters?
- Housing for the animals since they do not have endoskeletons
(protection and support)
-
EXERCISE 3: SKELETAL SYSTEMo Any hardened part of the bodyo
Either EXOSKELETON (outside the body) or ENDOSKELETON (inside the
body)
SKELETON OF VARIOUS ANIMAL TYPES COMPARISON OF BONES OF THE
FORELIMB AND HINDLIMB COMPARISON OF VARIOUS TYPES OF VERTEBRAE
(+/)Animal Exoskeleton (specify) Animal Endoskeleton
(present/absent) FORELIMB HINDLIMB TYPES OF VERTEBRAE
Corals Calcareous exoskeleton (made of calcium carbonate)-
Phylum Coelenterata/ Cnidaria
Squid and cuttlefish Pen (transparent and pliant) humerus Femur
Atlas Sacral vertebra UrostyleRadio-ulna Tibia-fibula Neural spine
+ (slight protrusion) + (modified into a keel)
Mollusks Shells (calcareous)- Single valve- Bivalve
Sea urchin Shell (test or corona) - Calcareous- Composed of
dermal plates separated by jagged sutures
carpals Tarsals Neural arch + + +
metacarpals Metatarsals Neural canal + + +phalanges phalanges
centrum + + +
Crustaceans and insects
Chitinous exoskeleton
Turtle Shell- Partly bony or horny - Composed of (1) dorsal
carapace and (2) ventral
plastron
Vertebrates - Leverage for locomotion and as protection for the
delicate organs like the brain and the heart1. Bones (principal
elements of endoskeletons)2. Ligaments/tendons3. Cartilages
zygapophyses + (pre) + Transverse processes +
GENERAL REGIONS OF THE SKULL AND LOWER JAW (mandible)The skull
consists of (1) the cranium and (2) maxillary arch/bones of the
upper jaw
Fish Bony scalesSnakes and lizards Horny shields (also present
in crocodiles)
- Form a continuous coat (different from scales)Birds Feathers
(plumage)Mammals Hair (plumage)
Cattle and buffalos True horns (hollow)Deer Antlers (bony and
can be shed periodically)
o QUESTION: Why are the pen of squids and cuttlefish placed in
cages of pet birds? - they serve as food for the birds
PART LOCATION CHARACTERISTICSCranium Dorsal side - Encloses the
brain and some sense organs
- Hollow median portion of the skull- Expands anteriorly into a
pair of olfactory capsules
Maxillary arch Bordering the orbit laterally
Premaxillary process Snout region where the arch meets its pair
- Adjoins the paired triangular bones of the cranium - Attached to
the otic region (posteriorly) by 2 dorso-ventrally opposed
triradiate bones
Chicken Plumage; claws Chicken PresentButterfly Chitinous plate
(sclerites) Butterfly
Synarthrosis - Immovable type of joint - Sutures in the skull
which separates the bones
Garden slug Shell Garden slug Olfactory capsule Anterior to the
cranium Hidden from view by a pair of triangular bonesDog Pelage;
claws Dog Present Otic capsule Posterior to the cranium Lodges the
inner ear Sea stars Skin Sea stars Present Occipital region
Posterior region of the skull Bears a hole at the center (foramen
magnum)Prawn Cuticle (chitinous plate) Prawn Foramen magnum Center
of the occipital region Where the spinal cord passes
thorughCockroach Chitinous plate (sclerites) CockroachEarthworm
Cuticle (chitinous plate) Earthworm (fluid-hydrostatic)
Occipital condyle Ventrolateral to the foramen magnum - Pair of
smooth processes- Articulate with the first vertebra (connection to
the atlas)
Corals Calcareous CoralsMan Pelage; nails Man Present
orbit Large cavity on each side of the cranium Houses the
eyeball
-
OTHER EXOSKELETON: nails, hooves, claws THE FROG SKELETAL
SYSTEM
OVERVIEWThe Skull is the chief skeleton of the head
PART LOCATION CHARACTERISTICLower jaw Posterior end of the
skullVertebrate Posterior to the skull Longitudinal row of short
irregular bones Hyoid Lies in the floor of the mouth - Flat
skeleton (mounted separately)
- Articulates with the rear end of the skull by means of long
paired anterior processes
Other parts:Pectoral girdle
Shoulder region - Arch of bones and cartilages- Upper arm bone
fits on its ventro-lateral aspect
Sternum Anterior and posterior the pectoral girdle on its
mid-ventral aspect
- Series of bones and cartilages
Pelvic girdle - Posterior tip of the elongate 10th vertebra-
intimate association with the lateral processes of
the 9th vertebra
- U-shaped structure
-
THE VERTEBRATEPART LOCATION CHARACTERISTIC
FIRST vertebrate : ATLAS - Right below the occipital
condyles
- First part of the vertebral column
- Articulate the occipital condyles of the skull- Cervical
vertebra
Centrum - Body of the vertebra- Concave in front - Convex
behind
Neural arch - Dorsal to the centrum - Forms a canalNeural canal
- Contains the spinal cordNeural spine - Mid-dorsal side of the
neural
arch- Posteriorly directed
Transverse processes - Junction of the centrum and the neural
arch
- Extend laterally and help support the body wall
Zygapophyses (PRE and POST) - Anterior and posterior edges of
the neural arch
- Short paired processes- Serve for articulating successive
vertebrae
NITH vertebrate: SACRALTENTH vertebrate: UROSTYLE
THE PECTORAL GIRDLE Suprascapula - Most dorsal component of
the
pectoral girdle- Flat- Trapezoidal- cartiliginous
Scapula - articulates with the suprascapula
- irregular bone- smooth concavity on its proximal end
Glenoid fossa - smooth concavity on the scapulas end
- where the upper arm fits
Fenestra - gap that separates the scapulaClavicle - anterior to
the fenestra - thin
- where a Y-shaped bone rests (belongs to the sternum)
Coracoid - posterior to the fenestra - contributes to the
glenoid fossaEpicoracoid cartilages - joins the two halves of the
pectoral girdle
THE STERNUMSet of bones and cartilages lying in the mid ventral
axia which consist of two portions (anterior and posterior to the
PG)
Episternum - flat, rounded cartilage- first portion
Omosternum - inverted Y-shaped bone- two arms rest on the
clavicle
Mesosternum - second portion- bone wedged between the coracoids
in its anterior end
Xiphisternum - cartilage lying posterior to the mesosternumTHE
PELVIC GIRDLE
Strengthens the posterior design of the body and provides
support to the hind limbsConsists of left and right halves, solidly
fused on its posterior end
Each half is called OS INNOMINATUM (innominate bone)Acetabulum -
each rear end of the
innominate bone- cup-shaped depression - where the proximal end
of the thigh bone fits - formed by the convergence of the raised
edges
of the bones comprising the girdle (ischium, ilium, pubis)
Ilium articulates with the lateral processes of the 9th
vertebra
forms the anterior boreder of the acetabulum
Ischium - wedged between the ilium and the next bone
- fan shaped bone - contributes to the posterior border of
the
acetabulumPubis - wedged ventrally between the
ilium and ischium - apical end contributes to the acetabulum
-
EXERCISE 4: MUSCULATURE Muscle - contractile tissues responsible
for
motion and locomotion- found next to the integument forming
part of the body wall- found in walls of certain visceral
organs (ex. digestive tract)
AXIAL MUSCULATUREHEAD (3 pairs) LOCATION ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION
TRUNK LOCATION ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION
Temporalis (1) stout muscles at the back of the skull Mid-dorsal
line Posterior region of the mandible
Raises lower jaw Coccygeosacralis (DORSAL)
Anterior portion Lateral of anterior part of urostyle
Transverse processes of sacral vertebra Keeps coccyx in line
with ilium
Depressor Mandibulae (2) posterior to the temporalis and
tympanic membrane
Mid-dorsal line Angle of the jaw Lowers the jaw
Coccygeoiliacus(DORSAL)
- Both coccys are the V-shaped muscles bordered by the ilium of
the pelvic girdle
- Taper towards the anus
Posterior portion Lateral posterior part of the urostyle
Ilium
Skeletal Muscle
- muscles attached to the skeletons- comprise bulk of the body-
voluntary
Median Raphe (3) Mid-ventral side of the head (a septum)
Mylohyoid Median raphe Inner surface of lower jaw
Raises floor of the mouth
Visceral Muscle
- form part of the wall of internal organs like the stomach,
heart, blood vessels, and ducts of glands
- involuntary Longissimus dorsi(DORSAL)
Posterior part wedged between the coccygeoiliacus
Urostyle Posterior end of the skull, dorsal surface of the
vertebrae
Extends back and elevates head
Fascia - connective tissue that binds skeletal muscle
- continue to the ends as tendons (when cord-like) or as
aponeuroses (when thin and flat)
- attach the muscles o lumbo-dorsal fascia fascia
covering the back of the frog
External oblique Lateral side of the abdomen Lumbo-dorsal fascia
Beneath muscles of the ventral side of the abdomen
Compress the abdomen
Rectus abdominis (VENTRAL) Ventral abdominal wall (thin and flat
muscle)
Pubis sternum Compress the abdomen
Linea alba (not a muscle) Longitudinal septum of connective
tissue (white line)Inscriptiones tendinae (not a muscle) Lateral
and segmentally arranged connective tissue
TENDONS
APPENDICULAR MUSCULATURE FORELIMB LOCATION ORIGIN INSERTION
ACTION HINDLIMB (THIGH) LOCATION ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION
Belly - middle fleshy part of the muscleOrigin - point of
attachment
- more or less fixed
Latissimus dorsi(DORSAL)
Flat muscle next to and partly hidden from view by the depressor
mandibulae
Fascia on the anterior trunk region
Shoulder joint and humerus Draws arm away from the body
Insertion - relatively movable end Sterno-radialis(VENTRAL)
- Chest region- Muscle forming the apex of the
triangular mass of muscle on the chest
- Anterior portion hidden from view by the edge of the
mylohyoid
Episternum Proximal end of the radio-ulna
Draw arms towards the chest
Triceps extensor femoris Stout muscle on the frontal surface of
the thigh, extendin well to the dorsal and ventral sides
Posterior border of the ilium and the anterior border of
acetabulum
Proximal end of the tibio-fibula
Straightens shank and bends the thigh
Heads - when there is more than one point of origin
- Semimembranosus (DORSAL
Medial to the triceps femoris on the dorsal side (stout
muscle)
Ischium Back of the knee, proximal end of the tibio-fibula
Biceps femoris(DORSAL)
Separate the triceps and semimembranosus
Long slender muscle
Posterior margin of ischium Proximal end of tibio-fibula
Slips - several points of insertion -
-
Draws the thigh medially and bends the
shank
- Gracilis major(VENTRAL)
Medial margin of the thigh (stout) Posterior margin of ischium
Proximal end of tibio-fibula Draws the thigh medially
Pectoralis(VENTRAL)
Posterior to the sterno-radialis (divisible into 3 portions)
- (1-2) pectoral girdle and sternum
- (3) almost a separate muscle; fascia of the rectus
abdominis
Humerus (hidden from view by the distal end of the
sterno-radialis)
Sartorius(VENTRAL)
Long, flat muscle traversing the thigh obliquely and partly
covers a stout muscle
Lower end of ilium Proximal end of tibio-fibula Bends the
leg
Adductor magnus (VENTRAL)
Covered by the sartorius Pelvic girdle Distal end of femur
Adducts thigh and draws thigh ventrally
Deltoid Stout muscle wedged between the distal ends of the
sterno-radialis and the latissimus dorsi in the upper arm
coracoid Proximal end of the humerus HINDLIMB (SHANK) LOCATION
ORIGIN INSERTION ACTIONGastrocnemius muscles (calf muscle)(DORSAL
AND VENTRAL)
Loosely bound to the adjoining muscles of the shank by a
superficial fascia which may be slit
(!) small head top of aponeurosis which covers the knee(2) big
head- tendon back of the knee connected to the ligament bending the
femur and the tibio-fibula
Achilles tendon- passes over the back of the ankle joint
Flexes leg and extends foot
Triceps Brachii Stout muscle at the back of the arm
Scapula-coracoid Distal end of the humerus and proximal end of the
radio-ulna
Straightens the forearm
Peroneus (DORSAL)
Lateral to the gastrocnemius Distal end of femur Distal end of
tibio-fibula and proximal end of tarsal bones
Straightens the shank and bends the foot
Tibialis anticus(DORSAL AND VENTRAL)
Anterior border of the shank and bound with the peroneus by a
common fascia (long, thin muscle)
Distal end of femur 2 tendons onto the tarsals Bends the
foot
-
Tibialis posticus (VENTRAL)
Long, thin muscle adhering to the posterior margin of the bone
(push the ventral portion of the gastrocnemius away from the
tibio-fibula)
Entire length of tibio-fibula Proximal end of the tarsals
Extends the foot
EXERCISE 5: MOTION AND LOCOMOTION LOCOMOTION IN PLANARIA
LOCOMOTION IN GASTROPOD MOLLUSKS LOCOMOTION IN EARTHWORMS MOTION
AND LOCOMOTION IN VERTEBRATES
- Illustrate origin of the dynamic functions of the hydrostatic
skeleton
- Capable of looping - Leeches - Snails and slugs (pedal
locomotory waves)
- By means of flattened muscular foot through pedal locomotory
waves
- Foot is analogous to the whole body of the flatworm
- Gastropod foot may be inflated by blood
o QUESTION: how does the snail pedal locomotion differ from the
creeping mode of locomotion of Planaria?
- Highest form of a locomotor system dependent on a hydrostatic
skeleton- Same diameter all throughout if the body is at rest-
Contraction of circular muscles on the anterior end of the body
extends to a
number of segments- Alternate circular and longitudinal muscle
contraction that facilitates
locomotion - Wave of circular muscle contraction then passes
backwards along the body,
and when it has travelled some distance it is followed by a wave
of longitudinal muscle contraction, also starting from the anterior
end
- Contraction of circular muscles makes segments longer and
thinner- Contraction of longitudinal muscles shortens segments in
preparation for
the next phase of circular muscle contraction o QUESTION: how
does the earthworm anchor itself to the substratum?
DEMONSTRATION OF MUSCLE ACTION LOCOMOTION IN VERTEBRATESAction
specific movement produced by a muscleAntagonists Groups of muscles
whose actions are opposite Synergists Groups of muscles whose
actions are acting in concertadductor Moves a part towards the
bodyabductor Moves a part away from the bodyflexor Bends a part
Undulatory swimming - Body is thrown into waves that pass along
the animal (head to tail)- Brought about by the contraction of the
trunk musculature- Ex fish:
Pectoral and pelvic fins breaksCaudal fin rudder
Dorsal fin stabilizer
extensor Extends a part Pedal Locomotion - Contraction of limb
muscles- Quadruped- biped
Levator Raises a part Flight - birds and bats- flying lemurs and
squirrels (volpane/glide not fly)
depressor Lowers a partconstrictor Closes an aperture Animal
Mode of Locomotiondilator Opens an aperture PythonQUESTION: what
does a rotator do?
House lizardeel
QUESTIONS:i. gastrocnemius and peroneus
(synergistic/antagonistic)?
ii. How does the tibialis-anticus respons with respect to the
gastrocnemius and peroneus?
iii. What action does the tibialis posticus produce?
iv. What muscles must be stimulated to produce
abduction/adduction and elevation/depression?
v. What happens when you stimulate the rectus abdominis?
vi. Does the external oblique respond in the same way as with
the rectus abdominis?
vii. When do you use your abdominal muscles?
viii. Does the depressor mandibulae raise the lower jaw?
Frog
Duck
Chicken
mouse
Chimpanzee
Horse
Dove
TortoiseMan
PICTURES: