Page 1
1
Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
DN : CN = Weabmaster’s name
O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
Nwamarah Uche
FACULTY OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACEUTICAL
CHEMISTRY
PHYTOCHEMICAL AND BIOACTIVITY-GUIDED
EVALUATION OF THE ANTIBACTERIAL
CONSTITUENTS OF PSIDIUM GUAJAVA (LINN.) AND
LORANTHUS MICRANTHUS (LINN.) LEAVES
UKWUEZE, STANLEY EJIKE
(PG/PhD/05/40421)
Page 2
2
PHYTOCHEMICAL AND BIOACTIVITY-GUIDED EVALUATION OF
THE ANTIBACTERIAL CONSTITUENTS OF PSIDIUM GUAJAVA
(LINN.) AND LORANTHUS MICRANTHUS (LINN.) LEAVES
UKWUEZE, STANLEY EJIKE
(PG/PhD/05/40421)
DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY,
FACULTY OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.
SUPERVISOR: PROF. (MRS.) P. O. OSADEBE
MARCH, 2014.
Page 3
3
PHYTOCHEMICAL AND BIOACTIVITY-GUIDED EVALUATION OF
THE ANTIBACTERIAL CONSTITUENTS OF PSIDIUM GUAJAVA
(LINN.) AND LORANTHUS MICRANTHUS (LINN.) LEAVES
UKWUEZE, STANLEY EJIKE
(PG/PhD/05/40421)
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND MEDICINAL
CHEMISTRY, FACULTY OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.
IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PhD) DEGREE IN PHARMACEUTICAL
& MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY.
Page 4
4
CERTIFICATION
Ukwueze, Stanley Ejike, a postgraduate student with registration number:
PG/PhD/05/40421 has satisfactorily completed the requirement for the award
of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) of the Department of
Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
The research embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in
part or in full for the award of any other diploma or degree of this or any other
University.
_____________________________ ______________________
Prof. (Mrs.) P. O. Osadebe Prof. C. J. Mbah
(Supervisor) (Head of Department)
_____________________________
(External Examiner)
Page 5
5
DEDICATION
To my beloved wife (Odimnobi), Nchedo, and my lovely roots: Osinachi,
Munachiso, Oluoma and Uchechi who have remained the priceless jewels and
adorable ornaments of my life.
Page 6
6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To God be the Glory, great thing He has done! He has shown me His
faithfulness once again by making it possible for me to attain the zenith of this
tortuous and seemingly endless race. I will forever consecrate my life to Him!
My immeasurable gratitude goes to my supervisor, Prof. Mrs. P. O. Osadebe,
who God has used to guide and illuminate my academic path since my
undergraduate years. She and her inspirational husband, Rev. Prof. N. N.
Osadebe, have been more of motivators and mentors not just to me, but also to
my entire family in diverse realms. I will always remain indebted.
My appreciation also goes to my ever loving parents, Ichie and Mrs. S. K. C.
Ukwueze, who God has kept alive to witness their life-long dream of having
one of their children attain this academic summit. May God continue to
preserve their life for us!
My special acknowledgement goes to my brother, friend, colleague and
schoolmate, Dr. Okoye, F. B. C. who has always been of great support in times
of need. His role in carrying out the spectral analysis in Germany and the
eventual structure elucidations cannot be quantified. My appreciation also goes
to Dr. Peters at the Institute of Organic Chemistry, Heinrich-Heine-University
for the NMR measurements. I also acknowledge the contributions of the
Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, University of Heirich-
Heine-Düsseldorf for the HPLC/ESI-MS recordings.
I would like at this juncture to appreciate the professional and elderly roles
played by some of my senior colleagues who kept prodding me on even when I
appeared distracted. Worthy of mention here include Prof. C. O. Onyeji (my
Page 7
7
VC), Prof. Cyril Usifo (my amiable Prof), Assoc. Prof. Eseyin (my Oga), Prof.
Orisakwe, Prof. S. I. Ofoefule, Prof. Vincent Okore and Prof. O. K. Udeala (my
able Dean). The list is quite endless!
It will be so unfair if I shall end this eulogy without the appreciation of all the
laboratory staff that played one role or the other towards the accomplishment of
this study. Names like Chief Hassan and Mrs. Caleb come tops here. Also, my
colleagues in the Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry,
University of Port Harcourt deserve special recognition.
Finally, my greatest felicitation goes to my beloved wife, Nchedo, and my
vibrant children: Osinachi, Munachiso, Oluomachukwu and Uchechi. I will
always remember the angelic voice of my sweet one (Odimnaheart) constantly
reminding me of her joy in seeing this work completed. Thank God it finally
came to a glorious end! My siblings equally deserve special recognition: Sis.
Vicky, Rev. Leo, Eby, Ify, Iyke, Chika and Eyinwa.
To anyone I might have forgotten to mention, please accept my apology and lets
all join hands to say three ‘Gbosas’ to one another for a job well done.
Merci! Danke!!
Ukwueze Stanley Ejike. February, 2014.
ABSTRACT
Antibiotics have remained the mainstay of drug therapy of infectious diseases
worldwide. Their use is, however, limited by their numerous adverse effects and rapid
development of microbial resistance. Identification of natural products from plants that
may serve as valuable sources of antimicrobial agents for medicinal or agricultural uses
seems to be a viable alternative to the conventional antibiotics. To achieve this goal,
biological assays should be carried out in order to identify promising plant extracts,
Page 8
8
guide the separation and isolation, and to evaluate "lead" compounds. Psidium guajava
Linn. and Loranthus micranthus Linn. have been employed traditionally in Nigeria and
other parts of the globe for the treatment of various human ailments such as wounds,
gastrointestinal tract disorders and other forms of infective and non-infective disorders.
The main objective of this study was to identify and isolate the antibacterial compounds
from the leaves of Psidium guajava and Loranthus micranthus L. The specific objectives
were to: (i) carry out phytochemical evaluation and isolation of antibacterial
constituents of the plants using standard methods, (ii) elucidate the structures of the
isolated secondary metabolites, and (iii) carry out antibacterial assay of the isolated
compounds.
Fresh leaves of Loranthus micranthus (Linn.) parasitic on the stem of Persea americana
were collected at Nsukka while those of Psidium guajava were collected from the bio-
resource area of the University of Port Harcourt in June 2010. The leaves were then
cleaned, air-dried for 14 days and milled to coarse powder. The powdered materials
(800 g each) were defatted with n-hexane (5 L) and extracted in a soxhlet extractor with
90.0 % methanol. The methanol extract was further fractionated to yield the
chloroform, ethyl acetate, acetone and methanol soluble fractions. Each of the fractions
was screened for antibacterial activity using Agar-well diffusion method. Phytochemical
tests were carried out using standard procedures. The fractions that had the best
antibacterial activity were subjected to column chromatographic separation and
monitored by analytical thin layer chromatography (TLC). The ethyl acetate fraction
(PsG-EF) from P. guajava that gave satisfactory bioassay result was subjected to further
Sephadex-LH 20 chromatographic fractionation and purification to afford ten fractions
(PsG-EF1 to PsG-EF10) which were pooled. Fractions PsG-EF4, PsG-EF5 and PsG-EF7
that had good antibacterial activity were subjected to semi-preparative reverse phase
high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) purification to isolate the phenolic
compounds; I-V. The structures of these compounds were elucidated by analytical and
spectral techniques which included: ultra violet (UV), proton nuclear magnetic
resonance (1H-NMR), carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (13C-NMR), distortionless
enhancement by polarization transfer (DEPT), proton-proton correlation spectroscopy
(1H-1HCOSY), heteronuclear multiple quantum correlation (HMQC), heteronuclear
multiple bond correlation (HMBC) and electron spray ionization-mass spectroscopy
(ESI-MS) analyses. The isolated compounds were screened against standard strains of
Staphylococus aureus (ATCC 25923) and Escherichia coli (ATCC 35219) using broth
dilution assay method, and the MIC values determined and compared with ceftriaxone.
All data obtained were analyzed by GraphPad Prism® 5 using differences in mean by
two-way ANOVA and further subjected to Bonferroni post-tests to compare replicate
Page 9
9
means. The results were presented as mean ± SEM. Differences between means were
considered significant at P<0.05.
The results showed that the ethyl acetate fraction (PsG-EF) from P. guajava yielded one
known compound (IV) and four novel phenolic compounds (I, II, III & V). The isolated
compounds were elucidated as : 2,4-dihydroxy-6-O-βD-glucopyranosyl benzophenone
(I); 2,4-dihydroxy-3-methyl-6-O-βD-glucopyranosylbenzophenone (II); 2,4-dihydro xy-
3-methyl-6-O-βD-glucopyranosylbenzophenone (4→5", 6'→1") benzene-2",3",4",5"-
tetraol (III); quercertin-3-O-αL-arabinofuranoside (IV) and 2,4-dihydroxy-6-O-βD-
glucopyranosylbenzophenone (4→5", 6'→1") benzene-2",3",4",5"-tetraol (V).
Compounds I, II, III, and V are new natural products which have not been previously
reported in literature for this plant, guava, and the trivial names Guajaphenone A, B, C
and D were proposed, while Compound IV has been previously reported as Guaijaverin.
The various fractions of Psidium guajava L. exhibited significant (p < 0.05) antibacterial
activities while for Loranthus micranthus L., its various fractions showed significantly
lower values (p > 0.001) when compared with the control (ceftriaxone) suggestive of a
generally weak or negligible antibacterial action. All the isolated compounds from P.
guajava were also found to have moderate antibacterial activities against E. coli and S.
aureus in comparison with ceftriaxone whlie I and IV showed lower MICs than those of
the other isolates against the test organisms.
Page 10
10
Table of Contents
Page
TITLE PAGE i
CERTIFICATION iii
DEDICATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
ABSTRACT vii
TABLE OF CONTENT ix
LIST OF FIGURES xiv
LIST OF TABLES xvii
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1
1.0 PREAMBLE 1
1.1 INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND CONVENTIONAL ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY 2
1.2 LIMITATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL ANTIBACTERIAL
AGENTS 6
1.2.1 Bacterial Resistance 6
1.2.2 Adverse Reactions by Agents 7
1.3 HIGHER PLANTS AS ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS 8
1.3.1 Medicinal Plants with Antibacterial Activity 9
1.3.2 Plant Secondary Metabolites Associated with Antibacterial Effects 10
1.3.2.1 Flavones, Flavonoids and Flavonols 11
1.3.2.2 Alkaloids 12
1.3.2.3 Terpenoids and Essential Oils 13
1.3.2.4 Tannins 15
1.3.2.5 Miscellaneous Plant Constituents 17
1.4 LITERATURE REVIEWS OF PLANTS USED 21
Page 11
11
1.4.1 Loranthus micranthus Linn 21
1.4.1.1 Taxonomy of L. Micranthus 21
1.4.1.2 Description of the Family, Genus and Species of L. micranthus 23
1.4.1.3 Ethnomedicinal Uses and Pharmacological Studies on
L. micranthus 24
1.4.2 Psidium guajava Linn 25
1.4.2.1 Taxonomy of Psidium guajava 25
1.4.2.2 Morphology of Psidium guajava 26
1.4.2.3 Ethnomedicinal Uses and Pharmacological Studies of
Psidium guajava 28
1.4.2.4 The Phytochemistry of Psidium guajava 32
1.5 BIOASSAY-GUIDED CHARACTERIZATION OF ANTI-BACTERIAL CONSTITUENTS FROM HIGHER PLANTS 37
1.5.1 Principles of Bioassay 38
1.5.2 Screening Methods for Antibacterial Agents from Higher Plants 38
1.5.2.1 Test Organisms and Culture Media 38
1.5.2.2 Antibacterial Testing 40
1.6 STRUCTURE ELUCIDATION OF BIOACTIVE PLANT
METABOLITES 42
1.6.1 Preliminary Analysis 42
1.6.2 Application of Modern Analytical Techniques 43
1.7 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 44
1.8 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY 44
1.9 AIMS AND SCOPE OF THE WORK 45
CHAPTER TWO: MATERIALS AND METHODS 46
2.1 MATERIALS 46
2.1.1 Plant Materials 46
Page 12
12
2.1.2 Microorganisms Used 46
2.1.3 Solvents and Reagents 47
2.1.4 Materials and General Instruments 48
2.2 METHODS 50
2.2.1 Extraction and Fractionation of Plant Materials 50
2.2.2 Isolation and Purification of the Active Constituents from PsG-EF 54
2.2.3 HPLC Analysis of Active Constituents from PsG-EF 55
2.2.4 Electron Spray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (HPLC/ESI-MS)
of Isolates 55
2.2.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy of Isolates 56
2.2.6 Preliminary Screening of Extracts and Fractions
for Antimicrobial Activity 56
2.2.7 Phytochemical Screening of Plant Extracts and Fractions 57
2.2.8 Antibacterial Screening of Isolates 57
2.2.9 Statistical Analyses 58
CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS 59
3.1 Extraction and Solvent Fractionation 59
3.2 Preliminary Phytochemical and Antibacterial Screening Results 61
3.3 Isolation of Bioactive Constituents 73
3.4 Structure Elucidation of Isolated Compounds 74
3.4.1 PsG-EF4A (Compound I) 74
3.4.2 PsG-EF4B (Compound II) 76
3.4.3 PsG-EF7A (Compound III) 78
3.4.4 PsG-EF7D (Compound IV) 80
3.4.5 PsG-EF7E (Compound V) 81
3.5 Antibacterial Profile of Bioactive Constituents 83
Page 13
13
CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 84
4.1 Discussion 84
4.2 Conclusion 98
REFERENCES 100
APPENDICES 113
Page 14
14
LIST OF FIGURES
page
Fig. 1.0: Flowers and Leaves of Loranthus micranthus 22
Fig. 2.0: Loranthus micranthus parasitic on a host tree 23
Fig. 3.0 Psidium guajava Tree 27
Fig. 4.0 Leaves and Flowers of Psidium guajava 27
Fig. 5.0 Fruit of Psidium guajava 28
Fig. 6: Schematic Diagram of the Extraction/Fractionation 52
Procedure for L. micranthus Leaves.
Fig. 7: Schematic Diagram of the Extraction/Fractionation 53
Procedure for P. guajava Leaves.
Fig. 8: Graph of Mean IZD (mm) ± SEM of the extracts/fractions of
L. micranthus leaves against bacteria 68
Fig. 9a: Structure of Compound I 74
Fig. 9b: Numbering of Carbon Skeleton of Compound I 75
Fig. 10a: Structure of Compound II 76
Fig. 10b: Numbering of Carbon Skeleton of Compound II 77
Fig. 11a: Structure of Compound III 78
Fig. 11b: Numbering of Carbon Skeleton of Compound III 79
Fig. 12: Structure of Compound IV 80
Fig. 13: Structure of Compound V 81
Appendix 1: ESI-MS /UV Spectra of Compound I 113
Appendix 2: H-NMR Spectrum (500MHz; MeOD) of Compound I 114
Appendix 3: H-NMR Spectrum (600MHz; MeOD) of Compound I 115
Appendix 4: H-NMR Spectrum (600MHz; DMSO-d6) of Compound I 116
Page 15
15
Appendix 5: 2-D COSY of Compound I 117
Appendix 6: C-13 NMR Spectrum of Compound I 118
Appendix 7: HMQC Spectrum of Compound I 119
Appendix 8: HMBC Spectrum of Compound I 120
Appendix 9: ESI-MS /UV Spectra Compound II 121
Appendix 10: H-NMR Spectrum (500MHz; MeOD) of Compound II 122
Appendix 11: H-NMR Spectrum (600MHz; DMSO) of Compound II 123
Appendix 12: 2-D COSY of Compound II 124
Appendix 13: C-13 NMR Spectrum of Compound II 125
Appendix 14: ESI-MS /UV Spectra Compound III 126
Appendix 15: H-NMR Spectrum (500MHz; MeOD) of Compound III 127
Appendix 16: H-NMR Spectrum (600MHz; DMSO) of Compound III 128
Appendix 17: 2-D COSY of Compound III 129
Appendix 18: C-13 NMR Spectrum of Compound III 130
Appendix 19: HMQC Spectrum of Compound III 131
Appendix 20: HMBC Spectrum of Compound III 132
Appendix 21: UV Spectrum of Compound IV 133
Appendix 22: ESI-MS Spectra of Compound IV 134
Appendix 23: H-NMR Spectrum (500MHz; MeOD) of Compound IV 135
Appendix 24: 2-D COSY of Compound IV 136
Appendix 25: H-NMR Spectrum (500MHz; MeOD) of Compound V 137
Appendix 26: 2-D COSY of Compound V 138
Appendix 27: 2-D COSY [aromatic region] of Compound V 139
Page 16
16
LIST OF TABLES Page
Table 1: Some plant species with potential antimicrobial activities... 9
Table 2: Yield from extracts/fractions of the leaves of L. micranthus. 59
Table 3: Yield from extracts/fractions of the leaves of P. guajava …. 60
Table 4: Results of phytochemical tests on the leaf extract of
Loranthus micranthus parasitic on different host trees.... 61
Table 5: Results of the anti-microbial screening of extracts of
mistletoe from six different host plants... 62
Table 6: Results of phytochemical tests on the leaf extract of
Loranthus micranthus harvested at different seasons... 63
Table 7: Results of the anti-microbial screening of leaf extracts of
Loranthus harvested at different seasons... 64
Table 8: Result of MICs of leaf extracts of African mistletoe harvested
from P. americana against some fungi... 65
Table 9: Results of phytochemical tests on the solvent fractions of L.
micranthus leaves harvested from P.americana... 66
Table 10: Result of mean IZD (mm) ± SEM for L. micranthus
extracts/fraction… 67
Table 11: Results of phytochemical tests on the leaf extract of
P. guajava harvested at different seasons.... 69
Table 12: Results of the anti-microbial screening of leaf extracts of
P. guajava harvested at different seasons... 70
Table 13: Results of phytochemical tests on the solvent fractions
of Psidium guajava leaves... 71
Table 14: Table of Mean IZD (mm) +/- SEM for P. guajava
extracts/fractions... 72
Table 15: 1H and
13C-NMR data of Compound I... 75
Table 16: 1H and
13C-NMR data of Compound II... 77
Table 17: 1H and
13C-NMR data of Compound III... 79
Page 17
17
Table 18: 1H and
13C-NMR data of Compound V... 82
Table 19: Antibacterial profile of the isolated compounds against
Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli... 83
Page 18
18
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.0 PREAMBLE
Over the years, medicines and medicinal agents derived from plants have made
large contributions to human health and well-being. This is because they are
either used directly as phytomedicines for the treatment of various ailments or
they may become the base and the natural blueprint for the development of new
drugs (Cseke et al, 2006).
Herbal medicine also called phytotherapy or phytomedicine has been around
since the beginning of recorded history. It has also been described as the
therapeutic use of medicinal plants referred to as herbs (Thea et al, 2008).
Herbal medicine has become an integral part of standard health care, based on a
combination of time honored traditional usage and ongoing scientific research.
Surging interest in medicinal herbs has increased scientific scrutiny of their
therapeutic potential and safety. Some of the medicinal plants are believed to
enhance the natural resistance of the body to infections (Atal et al, 1986).
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), herbal medicines could
also be referred to as phytopharmaceuticals sold as over the counter products in
modern dosage forms such as tablets, capsules, syrups or liquids for oral use or
dietary supplements containing herbal products, also called nutraceuticals
available in modern dosage forms, or even referred to as medicines consisting of
other crude, semi processed or processed medicines, which have a vital place in
primary health care and developing countries like Nigeria.
Page 19
19
Traditional medicines are finished drug products intended for self-medication or
application that contain, as the active principles, herbal ingredients that have
received relatively little attention in world scientific literature, but for which
traditional or folkloric use is well documented in herbal references. It may
contain chemically defined or herbal based materials in addition to the active
principles (Canada, 1989).
The medicinal properties of plant have been investigated in the light of recent
scientific development throughout the world due to their potent pharmaceutical
activities and low toxicity. Today many countries still rely on the medical
values of herbs and use of medicinal plants for their therapeutic practices (Thea
et al, 2008). In this same vein, Nigeria which is having a vast heritage of
knowledge and expertise in herbal medicines is not an exception.
Finally, it has been variously established that the identification of these natural
products from plants that may serve as valuable sources of bioactive agents for
medicinal and agricultural uses largely depends on bioactivity-directed isolation
(Cseke et al, 2006).
1.1 INFECTIOUS DISEASES AND CONVENTIONAL ANTIBIOTIC
THERAPY
Infectious diseases, also known as contagious diseases or transmissible diseases,
and include communicable diseases, comprise clinically evident illness (i.e.,
characteristic medical signs and/or symptoms of disease) resulting from the
infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual
host organism. In certain cases, infectious diseases may be asymptomatic for
much or their entire course. Infectious pathogens include some viruses, bacteria,
Page 20
20
fungi, protozoa, multicellular parasites, and aberrant proteins known as prions.
These pathogens are the cause of disease epidemics, in the sense that without
the pathogen, no infectious epidemic occurs.
Transmission of pathogen can occur in various ways including physical contact,
contaminated food, body fluids, objects, airborne inhalation, or through vector
organisms (Ryan and Ray, 2004). Infectious diseases that are especially
infective are sometimes called contagious and can be easily transmitted by
contact with an ill person or their secretions. Infectious diseases with more
specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual
transmission, are usually regarded as contagious but do not require medical
quarantine of victims.
The term infectivity describes the ability of an organism to enter, survive and
multiply in the host, while the infectiousness of a disease indicates the
comparative ease with which the disease is transmitted to other hosts; and as
such, an infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some
infections do not cause illness in a host (Ryan and Ray, 2004).
Among the almost infinite varieties of microorganisms, relatively few cause
disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the
interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect.
The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen depends
upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the
host to resist the pathogen. Clinicians therefore classify infectious
microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses - either as
primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens:
Page 21
21
Primary pathogens cause disease as a result of their presence or activity within
the normal, healthy host, and their intrinsic virulence (the severity of the disease
they cause) is, in part, a necessary consequence of their need to reproduce and
spread. Many of the most common primary pathogens of humans only infect
humans; however many serious diseases are caused by organisms acquired from
the environment or which infect non-human hosts.
Organisms which cause an infectious disease in a host with depressed resistance
are classified as opportunistic pathogens. Opportunistic disease may be caused
by microbes that are ordinarily in contact with the host, such as pathogenic
bacteria or fungi in the gastrointestinal or the upper respiratory tract, and they
may also result from (otherwise innocuous) microbes acquired from other hosts
(as in Clostridium difficile colitis) or from the environment as a result of
traumatic introduction (as in surgical wound infections or compound fractures).
An opportunistic disease requires impairment of host defenses, which may
occur as a result of genetic defects (such as chronic granulomatous disease),
exposure to antimicrobial drugs or immunosuppressive chemicals (as might
occur following poisoning or cancer chemotherapy), exposure to ionizing
radiation, or as a result of an infectious disease with immunosuppressive
activity (such as with measles, malaria or HIV disease). Primary pathogens may
also cause more severe disease in a host with depressed resistance than would
normally occur in an immunosufficient host.
Many human diseases are caused by pathogenic organisms resulting sometimes
in high mortality figures. Among these pathogens, bacteria account for a
reasonable percentage of causative organisms implicated in human infectious
Page 22
22
diseases. Over the years, infections have been managed by the conventional
antibiotics. Antibiotics are microbial metabolites or synthetic analogues inspired
by them that, in small doses, inhibit the growth and survival of microorganisms
without serious toxicity to the host. They therefore exhibit selective toxicity. In
many cases, the clinical utility of natural antibiotics has been through medicinal
chemistry manipulations of the original structure leading to broader
antimicrobial spectrum, greater potency, lesser toxicity, more convenient
administration, and additional pharmacokinetic advantages. Through customary
usage, the many synthetic substances that are unrelated to natural products but
still inhibit or kill microorganisms are referred to as antimicrobial agents instead
(Martin, 1998).
Antibiotics are used to treat infections caused by organisms that are sensitive to
them, usually bacteria or fungi. They may alter the normal microbial content of
the body (e.g. in the intestine, lungs, bladder) by destroying one or more groups
of harmless or beneficial organisms, which may result in infections (such as
thrush in women) due to overgrowth of resistant organisms. These side-effects
are most likely to occur with broad-spectrum antibiotics (those active against a
wide variety of organisms). Resistance may also develop in the microorganisms
being treated; for example, through incorrect dosage or over-prescription.
Antibiotics should, therefore, not be used to treat minor infections, which will
clear up unaided. Some antibiotics may, in addition, cause allergic reactions
(Hendricks and Nemeth, 2010).
Page 23
23
1.2 Limitations of Conventional Antibacterial Agents
1.2.1 Bacterial Resistance
Resistance is the failure of microorganisms to be killed or inhibited by
antimicrobial treatment. Resistance can either be intrinsic (exist before exposure
to drugs) or acquired (develop subsequent to exposure to a drug). Resistance of
bacteria to the toxic effects of antimicrobial agents and to antibiotics develops
fairly easily both in the laboratory and in the clinic and is an ever-increasing
public health hazard.
In clinical practice, resistance more commonly takes place by Resistance (R)
factor mechanisms. In more lurid examples, enzymes are elaborated that attack
the antibiotic and inactivate it. Mutations leading to resistance occur by many
mechanisms. They can result from point mutations, insertions, deletions,
inversions, duplications and transpositions of segments of genes or by
acquisition of foreign DNA from plasmids, bacteriophages, and transposable
genetic elements.
These mechanisms can convert an antibiotic-sensitive cell to an antibiotic -
resistant cell. This can take place many times in a bacterium's already short
generation time.
Bacterial resistance generally is mediated through one of three mechanisms:
• Failure of the drug to penetrate into or stay in the cell
• Destruction of the drug by defensive enzymes, or
• Alterations in the cellular targets of the enzymes.
Page 24
24
All these call for conservative but aggressive application of appropriate
antimicrobial chemotherapy. In many cases, however, a resistant microorganism
can still be controlled by achievable, though higher, doses than are required to
control sensitive populations. These higher doses must be cautiously employed
as they may predispose the patient to antibiotic adverse reactions that can be
life-threatening.
1.2.2 Adverse Reactions by Agents
Many patients placed on conventional antibiotics have reported various cases of
adverse drug reactions ranging from mild to severe/life-threatening reactions
including arrhythmias, hepatotoxicity, acute renal failure, and antiretroviral
therapy-induced lactic acidosis (Granowitz et al, 2008). Adverse reactions
associated with drug use include allergies, toxicities, and side effects. An
allergy is a hypersensitivity reaction to a drug. Many allergies are IgE-mediated
and occur soon after drug administration. Examples of IgE-mediated type 1
hypersensitivity reactions include early-onset urticaria, anaphylaxis,
bronchospasm, and angioedema. Non-IgE-mediated reactions include hemolytic
anemia, thrombocytopenia, acute interstitial nephritis, serum sickness,
vasculitis, erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and toxic
epidermal necrolysis. Toxicity, which is generally due to either excessive
dosing or impaired drug metabolism, is a consequence of administering a drug
in quantities exceeding those capable of being physiologically ‘‘managed’’ by the
host. Examples of toxicity caused by excessive dosing include penicillin-related
neurotoxicity (e.g. twitching, seizures) and the toxicities caused by
aminoglycosides. Side effects include adverse reactions that are neither
Page 25
25
immunologically mediated nor related to toxic levels of the drug. An example is
the dyspepsia caused by erythromycin.
Various forms of frequently encountered toxicities/adverse reactions include
anaphylaxis, cardiotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, adverse heamatological and
dermatological reactions, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, muscoskeletal tocxicity,
electrolyte and glucose abnormalities, fever, antibiotic-associated
diarrhea/colitis, etc (Granowitz et al, 2008).
1.3 HIGHER PLANTS AS ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
The emergence of pathogenic microbes with increased resistance to established
antibiotics provides a major incentive for the discovery of new antimicrobial
agents. Antimicrobial screening of plant extracts and phytochemicals then
represents a starting point for antimicrobial drug discovery.
Main-stream medicine is increasingly receptive to the use of antimicrobial and
other drugs derived from plants, as traditional antibiotics (products of
microorganisms or their synthesized derivative) become ineffective and as new,
particularly viral, diseases remain intractable to this type of drug. Another
driving factor for the renewed interest in plant antimicrobials in the past 20
years has been the rapid rate of (plant) species extinction (Lewis and Elvin-
Lewis, 1995). There is a feeling among natural-products chemists and
microbiologists alike that the multitude of potentially useful phytochemical
structures which could be synthesized chemically is at risk of being lost
irretrievably. There is a scientific discipline known as ethnobotany (or
ethnopharmacology), whose goal is to utilize the impressive array of knowledge
assembled by indigenous peoples about the plant and animal products they have
Page 26
26
used to maintain health (Rojas et al, 1992). Lastly, the ascendancy of the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has spurred intensive investigation into the plant
derivatives which may be effective, especially for use in underdeveloped
nations with little access to expensive Western medicines.
1.3.1 Medicinal Plants with Antibacterial Activity
Many tropical and non-tropical plants have been evaluated for their
antimicrobial activity. For want of space, representatives of diverse plant
families with documented antibacterial activity and the organisms tested are
tabulated below.
Table 1: Some plant species with potential antimicrobial activities
Common/Botanical name Family Bacterial Susceptibility
Celosia argentea L. Amaranthaceae K. pneumoniae
Tylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merr. Asclepiadaceae K. Pneumoniae
Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. Asteraceae K. Pneumoniae
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Balanitaceae K. Pneumoniae, S. typhimurium
Spathodea campanulata Beauv Bignonaceae K. Pneumoniae
Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae K. Pneumoniae, P. mirabilis
Beta vulgaris L. Chenopodiaceae K. Pneumoniae
Spinacia oleracea L. Chenopodiaceae K. Pneumoniae, P. mirabilis
Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae K. Pneumoniae
Rourea santaloides (Vahl.) Connaraceae E. aerogenes; K. Pneumoniae; P.
mirabilis
Cressa cretica L. Convolvulaceae K. Pneumoniae
Lepidium sativum L. Cruciferae S. typhimurium
Page 27
27
Momordica charantia L. Cucurbitaceae E. aerogenes; K. Pneumoniae; P.
mirabilis
Cyperus scarious R.Br. Cyperaceae E. aerogenes; K. Pneumoniae; P.
mirabilis
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae K. Pneumoniae, P. mirabilis
Arachis hypogaea L. Fabaceae E. aerogenes; K. Pneumoniae;
Vigna radiata L. Fabaceae K. Pneumoniae; P. mirabilis
Fumaria indica (Haussk.) Pugsley. Fumariaceae K. Pneumoniae; P. mirabilis
Ocimum kilimanjaricum L. Labiatae
E. aerogenes; E. coli; K.
Pneumoniae; P. mirabilis; P.
vulgaris.
Artocarpus hetrophyllus Lam. Moraceae E. aerogenes; P. mirabilis
Ficus elastica Roxb. Moraceae K. Pneumoniae; P. mirabilis
Piper longum L. Piperaceae E. aerogenes; K. Pneumoniae; P.
mirabilis; S. typhimurium .
Gardenia resinifera Roth. Rubiaceae K. Pneumoniae; P. mirabilis
Mesua ferra Linn. Guttiferae E. aerogenes; K. Pneumoniae; P.
mirabilis; P. vulgaris.
Alchornea cordifolia Euphorbiaceae K. Pneumoniae; E. coli; B. subtilis;
S. aureus
Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Propionibacterium canes;
Mycobacterium spps.
(Parekh and Chanda, 2007; Okoye and Ebi, 2007)
1.3.2 Plant Secondary Metabolites Associated with Antimicrobial Effect
Plants have been shown to possess an amazing potential to synthesize aromatic
substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygenated-substituted
derivatives. These substances have been reported to consist of mostly secondary
metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated, a number estimated to
still be less than 10% of the total (Schultes, 1978).
Page 28
28
Plant secondary metabolites, in many cases, serve as plant defense mechanisms
against predation by microorganisms, insects, and herbivores. Some, such as
terpenoids give plants their odours; others (e.g. quinones and tannins) are
responsible for plant pigmentation. Many of these compounds are also
responsible for plant flavour. It is therefore not surprising that useful
antimicrobial phytochemicals have been derived from these plant secondary
metabolites.
1.3.2.1 Flavones, Flavonoids and Flavonols
Flavones are phenolic structures containing one carbonyl group (as opposed to
the two carbonyls in quinones). Addition of a 3-hydroxy group yields a flavonol
while flavonoids are also hydroxylated phenolic substances but occur as a C6-
C3 unit linked to an aromatic ring. These compounds have been known to be
synthesized by plants in response to microbial infection and have equally been
found in vitro to be effective antimicrobial substances against a wide array of
microorganisms (Dixon et al, 1983; Cowan, 1999). Their activity is probably
due to their ability to complex with extracellular and soluble proteins and to
complex with bacterial cell walls, often leading to the inactivation of the
proteins, loss of function and cell lysis (Stern et al, 1996). More lipophilic
flavonoids may also disrupt microbial membrane (Tsuchiya et al, 1996).
Example of flavonoid compounds with known antimicrobial activity includes
the catechins. These are the most reduced form of the C-3 unit in flavonoid
compounds that have been extensively researched due to their occurrence in
oolong green teas. Teas have been reported to exert antimicrobial activity and
also contain a mixture of catechin compounds which inhibited in vitro activity
Page 29
29
of Vibrio cholerae 01, Streptococcus mutans, Shigella, and other bacteria and
microorganisms (Toda et al, 1989; Batista et al, 1994; Borris, 1996; Sakanaka
et al, 1989; Sakanaka et al, 1992; Vijaya et al, 1995).
Examples of compounds in these groups with antimicrobial activity include
flavone (I), catechin (II), chrysin (III) and quercetin (IV).
I II
III IV
1.3.2.2 Alkaloids
These are basically heterocyclic nitrogenous compounds. Many of these
compounds found in higher plants have shown promising antibacterial activity.
For instance, diterpenoid alkaloids, commonly isolated from the plants of the
Ranunculaceae, or buttercup family, are commonly found to have antimicrobial
Page 30
30
properties (Omulokoli et al, 1997). Some of the highly aromatic planar
quaternary alkaloids such as berberine (V) have their mechanism of action
attributable to their ability to intercalate with DNA (Phillipson and O'Neill,
1987). Other alkaloids with antimicrobial actions are Harmane (VI), Piperine
(VII), etc.
V VI
VII
1.3.2.3 Terpenoids and Essential Oils
Essential oils are secondary metabolites that are highly enriched in compounds
based on an isoprene structure. The observed fragrance in most plants is
contained in their essential oil fraction. They consist mainly of compounds
belonging to the chemical group called terpenes. When the compounds contain
Page 31
31
additional elements, usually oxygen, they are called terpenoids. Terpenoids,
even though synthesized from acetate units, differ from fatty acids by their
extensive branching and cyclization.
Many plant terpenoids have been found to be active against bacteria, fungi,
viruses and protozoa (Amaral et al, 1998; Habtemariam et al, 1993; Himejima
et al, 1992; Mendoza et al, 1997; Kubo et al, 1993; Hasegawa et al, 1994;
Ghoshal et al, 1996; Rao et al, 1993; Sun et al, 1996; Tassou et al, 1995; 2000).
Although the mechanism of their antibacterial action is not yet fully understood,
terpenes are speculated to act by disrupting cell membranes due to their
lipophilic nature. In fact, it has been reported as far back as 1977 that of all the
essential oil derivatives being examined, 30% were inhibitory to bacteria while
60% inhibited fungi (Chaurasia and Vyas, 1977). For instance, capsaicin
[(VIII); a terpenoid constituent found in Chiles peppers] in addition to its wide
range of biological activities in humans, has been shown to clearly inhibit
various bacteria to differing extents; and although possibly detrimental to the
human gastric mucosa, it is bactericidal to Helicobacter pylori (Cichewicz and
Thorpe, 1996; Jones et al, 1997). Also, the ethanol-soluble fraction of purple
prairie clover yields a terpenoid called petalostemumol, which showed excellent
activity against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus but lesser activity
against Gram-negative bacteria as well as Candida albicans (Hufford et al,
1993). In the same vein, two diterpenoid compounds isolated from the roots of
Plectranthus hereroensis were found to have good activity against S. aureus, V.
cholerae, P. aeruginosa, and Candida spp (Batista et al, 1994); while another
diterpene, trichorabdal A, isolated from a Japanese herb by Kadota et al (1997)
Page 32
32
was found to directly inhibit H. Pylori. Terpeoids like menthol (IX) and
artemisin (X) have also shown antimicrobial activity.
VIII
IX X
1.3.2.4 Tannins
The term 'tannin' is used to describe a group of polymeric phenolic substances
capable of tanning leather or precipitating gelatin from solution. The property is
known as astringency. Tannins which are found in almost every plant part are
divided into hydrolyzable and condensed tannins. Hydrolyzable tannins are
based on gallic acid, usually as multiple esters with D-glucose; while the more
numerous condensed tannins (often called proanthocyanidins) are derived from
flavonoid monomers (Cowan, 1999). Generally, tannins may be formed by
Page 33
33
condensation of flavan derivatives which have been transported to woody
tissues of plant, or alternatively, by polymerization of quinone units (Geissman,
1963).
Tannins have been shown to act at the molecular levels by complexing with
microbial proteins through so-called non-specific forces such as hydrogen
bonding and hydrophobic effects, as well as covalent bond formation (Haslam,
1996; Stern et al, 1996). Thus, their mode of antimicrobial action may be
related to their ability to inactivate microbial adhesins, enzymes, cell envelope
transport proteins, etc. They may also complex with polysaccharide (Ya et al,
1988). Tannins have also shown to act via direct inactivation of microorganisms
(eg. low tannin concentrations modify the morphology of germ tubes of
Crinipellis perniciosa (Brownlee et al, 1990).
According to various documented studies reviewed by Scalbert (1991), tannins
were found to be toxic to filamentous fungi, yeasts and bacteria. Condensed
tannins have been described to bind cell walls of ruminal bacteria, preventing
growth and protease activity (Jones et al, 1994). Though still speculative,
tannins are considered to be wholly or partially responsible for the antibiotic
activity of various aqueous and solvent extracts of many tropical and temperate
plants scattered across the globe (Taylor et al, 1996). Pentagalloyl glucose (XI;
hydrolysable tannin) and procyanidine (XII; condensed tannin) have shown
remarkable antimicrobial activities (Cowan, 1999).
Page 34
34
XI XII
1.3.2.5 Miscellaneous Plant Constituents
Other major groups of antimicrobial compounds from plants include the simple
phenols and phenolic acids, quinones, coumarins, lectins and polypeptides; and
mixtures of all these groups. There abound many documented plant derivatives
belonging to these chemical groups that have proven antimicrobial activity.
The common herbs terragon and thyme both contain caffeic acid (XIII; a
phenylpropane-derived phenolic compound), which is effective against viruses,
bacteria and fungi (Wild, 1994; Brantner et al, 1996). Catechol (XIV) and
pyrogallol both are hydroxylated phenols, shown to be toxic to microorganisms;
while eugenol (XV; a phenolic compound possessing a C3 side chain at lower
level of oxidation but also classified as an essential oil) is considered
bacteriostatic against both fungi and bacteria (Duke, 1985). Gallic acid (XVI)
has also proven to be toxic to some microorganisms.
Page 35
35
XIII XIV
XV XVI
Quinones are aromatic rings with two ketone substitutions which are ubiquitous
in nature and are characteristically highly reactive. In addition to providing a
source of stable free radicals, they are known to complex irreversibly with
nucleophilic amino acids in proteins, often leading to inactivation of the protein
and loss of action (Stern et al, 1996). For these reasons, the potential range of
quinone antimicrobial effects is great. Kazmi et al (1994) described an
anthraquinone from Cassia italica, a Pakistani tree, which was bacteriostatic for
Bacillus anthracis, Corynebacterium pseudodiphthericum and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa but bactericidal for Pseudomonas pseudomalliae. Also, Hypericin
(XVII), an anthraquinone from St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum), has
received much attention in the scientific journals lately as an antidepressant.
This compound has, however, been reported by Duke (1985) to possess general
Page 36
36
antimicrobial properties. Cowan (1999) reported that rhein (XVIII) which is an
anthraquinone compound has broad antimicrobial effects.
XVII XVIII
Coumarins (XIX) are phenolic substances made up of fused benzene and α-
pyrone rings. They are responsible for the characteristic odour of hay. As a
group, coumarins have been found to stimulate macrophages which could have
an indirect negative effect on infections (Casley-Smith, 1997). Hydroxycinamic
acids, related to coumarins, seem to be inhibitory to Gram-positive bacteria
(Fernandez et al, 1996). Also, phytoalexins, which are hydroxylated derivatives
of coumarins, are produced in carrots in response to fungal infection and can be
presumed to have antifungal activity (Hoult and Paya, 1996). General
antimicrobial activity was equally documented in coumarin compounds found
in woodruff (Galium odoratum) extracts (Thompson, 1978). Although data
about specific antibiotic properties of coumarins are scarce, many reports give
reasons to believe that some utility may reside in these phytochemicals (Cowan,
1999; Hamburger and Hostettmann, 1991).
Page 37
37
XIX
Peptides which are inhibitory to microorganisms were first reported by Balls et
al (1942). They are often positively charged and contain disulfide bonds. Their
mechanism of action may be the formation of ion channels in the microbial
membrane, or by competitive inhibition of adhesion of microbial proteins to
host polysaccharide receptors (Zhang and Lewis, 1997; Sharon and Ofek,
1986). Inhibition of bacteria and fungi by these macromolecules (e.g. peptides
from the herbaceous Amaranthus) has been documented (De Bolle et al, 1996).
Also, thionins, which are peptides commonly found in barley and wheat,
consisting of 47 amino acid residues are toxic to yeasts and both Gram-negative
and Gram-positive bacteria (Fernandes de Caleya et al, 1972). Fabatin, a
recently identified 47-residue peptide from fava beans, appears to be structurally
related to γ-thionins from grains and inhibits E. coli, P. aeruginosa and
Enterococcus hirae but not Candida or Saccharomyces (Zhang and Lewis,
1997).
Page 38
38
The antimicrobial activity of several extracts from plants has been linked to
compounds belonging to more than one chemical group. For instance, the
chewing sticks which are widely used in many African countries as an oral
hygiene aid come from different species of plants, and within one stick, the
chemically active component may be heterogeneous (Akpata and Akinrimisi,
1977). Crude extracts of one species used for this purpose, Serindeia werneckei,
inhibited the periodontal pathogens Porphyromonas gingivalis and Bacteroides
melaninogenicus in vitro (Rotimi et al, 1988). Also, the active component of
one of the Nigerian chewing sticks (Fagara zanthoxyloides) was found to
consist of various alkaloids (Odebiyi and Sofowora, 1979). Pawpaw (Carica
papaya) yields a milky sap, often called latex, which is a complex mixture of
chemicals (Cowan, 1999). Chief among them is papain, a well-known
proteolytic enzyme. It also contains carpaine (an alkaloid) and terpenoids
(Thomson, 1978). All these compounds in papaya have been shown to
contribute to the antimicrobial properties of its latex which was found to be
bacteriostatic to B. subtilis, Enterobacter cloacae, E. coli, Salmonella typhi,
Staphylococcus aureus and Proteus vulgaris (Osato et al, 1993).
1.4 LITERATURE REVIEWS OF PLANTS USED
1.4.1 Loranthus micranthus Linn
1.4.1.1 Taxonomy of L. Micranthus
The botanical profile of Loranthus micranthus is as summarized below:
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Angiosperm
Page 39
39
Sub-Phylum: Dicotyledons
Order: Santalales
Family: Loranthaceae
Sub-Family: Lorantheae
Genus: Loranthus
Species: micranthus
The mistletoe plant is an evergreen obligate parasite with over 700 species
which depends on its hosts for minerals and water only, as it can
photosynthesize its carbohydrate by means of its green leaves (Gill, 1973;
Griggs, 1991).
The most common species include: European mistletoe (Viscum album L.);
American mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens); Australian/Argentine mistletoe
(Ligaria cuneifolia R et. T); African mistletoe, e.t.c.
Figure 1.0: Flowers and Leaves of Loranthus micranthus
Page 40
40
Figure 2.0: Loranthus micranthus parasitic on a host tree
1.4.1.2 Description of the Family, Genus and Species of L. micranthus
The Loranthaceae family consists of parasites with green leaves found in both
tropical and temperate regions. They are mostly small semi-parasitic shrubs
attached to their hosts by suckers or haustoria (usually regarded as modified
adventurous roots). The family is fairly large with over 36 genera and 130
species, most of which are quite omnivorous in their choice of hosts, but a few
are restricted to one or two. Few members of Loranthaceae family root in the
earth (e.g. the Western Australia Christmas tree -Nuytsia floribunda, which
grows into a small tree of up to 10 metres high). For most others that root on
hosts, there is commonly an outgrowth, often of considerable size and
complicated in shape, where the parasite root joins the host. The roots of the
parasites often branch within the tissue of the host (as in Viscum).
Page 41
41
The genus, Loranthus, consists of several species scattered in many parts of
Africa. It belongs to the sub-family, Lorantheae, which is characterized by the
presence of stem without secretory canals and has extraxylary phloem. Their
flowers have below the petals an outgrowth from the axis in form of small ring
or fringe called calyculus. After some weeks of the seeds germinating on
branches of its host, the Loranthus plant produces proper flowers which are
generally bright red and conspicuous, although one species produces yellow
flowers with red tips. The flowers are soon followed by small, fleshy,
drupaceous fruits which are much sought after by birds. The red Loranthus is a
common sight in many parts of West Africa, particularly in cocoa and cola
plantations, where whole branches are often covered with this medicinal herb.
The African mistletoe species, micranthus, is found mainly in the Southeastern
part of Nigeria. It grows on a large number of hosts including kola nut (Kola
acuminata), avocado (Persea americana), dogoyaro/neem (Azadirachta indica),
oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla), ogbono (Irvigia gabonensis),
lemons/citrus, etc. It produces sympodial, often dichasical, stem and the leaves
are usually evergreen and leathery. The cymose inflorescences are in spikes,
with the flowers on the internodes as well as on the nodes. Thus, they have
clusters of narrowly tubular flowers that are bright-red which appear as clusters
of coloured ‘matches’.
1.4.1.3 Ethnomedicinal Uses and Pharmacological Studies on L. micranthus
Several ethnomedicinal usages have been attributed to Loranthus micranthus.
These include: blood pressure control (antihypertensive activity), anti-diabetic
Page 42
42
activity, anticancer, antimicrobial and in many other metabolic diseases which
qualified mistletoe as an “all-purpose herb” (Kafaru, 1993; Obatomi et al, 1994;
Oliver-Bever, 1986; Dalziel, 1955). Different research works have been carried
out on the several species of the plant to demonstrate and support the existence
of many of the ethno medicinal claims (Obatomi et al, 1996; Osadebe and
Ukwueze, 2004; Osadebe and Akabogu, 2006; Osadebe et al, 2004, 2010, 2012;
Ukwueze and Osadebe, 2012; Agbo et al, 2013; Omeje et al, 2012). Previous
works on Loranthus micranthus have equally shown that some of its medicinal
activities vary with the particular host tree from which it is harvested (Osadebe
and Ukwueze, 2004; Osadebe et al, 2004). Other factors that have been shown
to affect the phytochemical composition and pharmacological activities of
mistletoe plant include species, harvesting season, etc. (Obatomi et al, 1994;
Wagner et al, 1996; Osadebe et al, 2008).
1.4.2 Psidium Guajava Linn
1.4.2.1 Taxonomy of P. guajava
The botanical profile of Psidium guajava is as summarized below:
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Angiosperms
Sub-Phylum: Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Myrtales
Family: Myrtaceae
Page 43
43
Subfamily: Myrtoideae
Tribe: Myrteae
Genus: Psidium
Species: guajava
Binomial name: Psidium guajava L.
Psidium guajava L, a fruit-bearing tree commonly known as guava, of the
family Myrtaceae, is a native of tropical America. The French call it goyave or
goyavier; the Dutch, guyaba or goeajaaba; the Surinamese, guave or goejaba;
and the Portuguese, goiaba or goaibeira. Hawaiians call it guava or kuawa. In
Guam, it is abas. In Malaya, it is generally known either as guava or jambu batu
(Morton, 1987).
1.4.2.2 Morphology of P. guajava
Cultivated varieties grow about 10 m in height and produce fruits within 4
years. Wild trees grow up to 20 m high and are well branched. The guava tree
can be easily identified by its distinctive thin, smooth, copper-colored bark that
flakes off, showing a greenish layer beneath. The trees might have spread
widely throughout the tropics because they thrive in a variety of soils, propagate
easily and bear fruits quickly. The fruits are enjoyed by humans, birds and
monkeys, which disperse guava seeds and cause spontaneous dumps of guava
saplings to grow throughout the rainforest (Wealth of India, 2003).
Page 44
44
Figure 4.0: Leaves and Flowers of Psidium guajava
Figure 3.0: Psidium guajava Tree
Page 45
45
Figure 5.0: Fruit of Psidium guajava
1.4.2.3 Ethnomedicinal Uses and Pharmacological Studies of P. guajava
Psidium guajava is a medicinal plant used in tropical and subtropical countries
to treat many health disorders. In the indigenous system of medicine, different
parts of the plant are used for the treatment of various human ailments such as
wounds, ulcers, bowels and cholera (Begum et al., 2002a). Investigations have
indicated that its bark, fruit and leaves possess antibacterial, hypoglycaemic,
anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, spasmolytic and CNS depressant
activities ( Begum et al., 2002b). It has indeed been variously reported that
Psidium guajava leaf extract has a wide spectrum of biological activities such as
anticough, antibacterial, haemostasis (Jaiarj et al., 1999; 2000), antidiarrhoeal
and narcotic properties (Lozoya et al.,1990), and antioxidant properties (Qian
and Nihorimbere, 2004). According to Lutterodt and Maleque (1998) and
Meckes et al., 1996, the leaf extract is used to treat diarrhoea, abdominal pain,
convulsions, epilepsy, cholera, insomnia and has hypnotic effect.
Page 46
46
The long history of guava use has led modern-day researchers to intensify their
study on guava extracts. Its traditional use against diarrhea, gastroenteritis and
other digestive complaints has been validated in numerous clinical studies. In a
study including 17 Thai medicinal plants on anti-proliferative effects on human
mouth epidermal carcinoma and murine leukemia cells using MIT assay, guava
leaf showed anti-proliferative activity, which was 4.37 times more than
vincristine (Manosroi et al. , 2006).
Bark and leaf extracts were shown to have in vitro toxic action against
numerous bacteria. Gallocatechin isolated from the methanol extract of guava
leaf showed antimutagenic activity against E. coli (Matsuo et al., 1994). Water
and chloroform extracts of guava were effective in activating the mutagenicity
of Salmonella typhimurium (Grover and Bala, 1993). The antimicrobial
activities of P. guajava and leaf extracts, determined by disk diffusion method
(zone of inhibition), were compared to tea tree oil (TTO), doxycycline and
clindamycin antibiotics. It was shown that P. guajava leaf extracts might be
beneficial in treating acne especially those that have anti-inflammatory activities
(Qadan et al., 2005). The active flavonoid compound-quercetin-3-O-alpha-l-
arabinopyranoside (guaijaverin) - extracted from guava leaves has high potential
antiplaque activity by inhibiting the growth of Streptococcus mutans (Limsong
et al., 2004). Guava leaf extract also inhibited the growth of Streptococcus
aureus in a study carried out by disc diffusion method (Abdelrahim et al.,
2002). In several other studies, guava showed significant antibacterial activity
against common diarrhea-causing bacteria such as Staphylococcus, Shigella,
Salmonella, Bacillus, E. coli, Clostridium and Pseudomonas. Indeed, the
aqueous, alcohol and chloroform extracts have been found to be effective
against Aeromonas hydrophila, Shigella spp. and Vibrio spp., Staphylococcus
aureus, Sarcinta lutea and Microbacterium phlei (Jaiarj et al., 1999). In a more
recent study, the aqueous and ethanol:water extracts of P. guajava leaves, roots
and stem bark were found to be active against the Gram-positive bacteria
Page 47
47
Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis, but virtually inactive against the
Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
(Sanches et al.,2005).
A double-blind clinical study of the effects of a Phytodrug (QG-5) developed
from guava leaf showed a decrease in duration of abdominal pain, which was
attributed to antispasmodic effect of quercetin present in leaf extract (Xavier et
al., 2002). Guava leaf extracts and fruit juices have also been clinically studied
for infantile diarrhea. In a clinical study with 62 infants with infantile rotaviral
enteritis, the recovery rate was 3 days (87.1%) in those treated with guava, and
diarrhea ceased in a shorter period than controls. It was concluded in the study
that guava has 'good curative effect on infantile rotaviral enteritis' (Wei et al.,
2000). Lectin chemicals in guava were shown to bind to E. coli (a common
diarrhea-causing organism), preventing its adhesion to the intestinal wall and
thus preventing infection and resulting diarrhea (Rodriguez et al., 2001). Guava
leaf extract has also shown to have tranquilizing effect on intestinal smooth
muscle, inhibit chemical processes found in diarrhea and aid in the re-
absorption of water in intestines. In another research, an alcoholic leaf extract
was reported to have a morphine-like effect, by inhibiting the gastrointestinal
release of chemicals in acute diarrheal disease. This morphine-like effect was
thought to be related to a chemical, quercetin. The effective use of guava in
diarrhea, dysentery and gastroenteritis can also be related to guava's
documented antibacterial properties (Tona et al., 2000). In a study carried out
with leaf extract of the plant, inhibition of gastrointestinal release of
acetylcholine by quercetin present in extract was suggested as a possible mode
of action in the treatment of acute diarrheal disease (Lutterodt, 1992).
Page 48
48
Guava fruit and leaf showed antioxidant and free radical scavenging capacity
(Hui-Yin and Gow-Chin, 2007). A study of aqueous extract of P. guajava in
acute experimental liver injury induced by carbon tetrachloride, paracetamol
and thioacetamide, showed its hepatoprotective activity. The effects observed
were compared with a known hepatoprotective agent, silymarin. Histological
examination of the liver tissues supported hepatoprotection (Roy et al., 2006).
During various episodes of screening of medicinal plants, extract from P.
guajava leaves was found to exhibit significantly inhibitory effect on the protein
tyrosine phosphatase1B (PTP1B). Significant blood glucose lowering effects of
the extract were observed after intraperitoneal injection of the extract at a dose
of 10mg/kg in both 1-and 3-month-old Lepr(db)/Lepr(db) mice (Oh et al. ,
2005). In a study undertaken to investigate the hypoglycemic and hypotensive
effects of P. guajava leaf aqueous extract in rats, it showed hypoglycemic
activity. The hypoglycemic effect of plant extract was examined in normal and
diabetic rats, using streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes mellitus model
(Ojewole, 2005). Also, i.p. treatment with 1g/kg guava juice produced a marked
hypoglycemic action in normal and alloxan-treated diabetic mice (Cheng and
Yang, 1983). In two randomized human studies, the consumption of guava fruit
for 12 weeks was shown to reduce blood pressure by an average 8%, decrease
total cholesterol level by 9%, decrease triglycerides by almost 8% and increase
HDL cholesterol by 8%; while a randomized, single-blind, controlled trial
conducted to examine the effects of guava fruit intake on blood pressure and
blood lipids in patients with essential hypertension showed the possibility that
an increased consumption of guava fruit can cause a substantial reduction in
Page 49
49
blood pressure and blood lipids without decreasing HDL-cholesterol level
(Singh et al., 1992, 1993).
Leaf extract of guava had shown ionotropic effect on guinea pig atrium
(Conde-Garcia et al., 2003). Some studies reported that the leaf extract and its
derivative identified as quercetin has effect on the intracellular calcium levels in
gastrointestinal smooth muscle (Lozoya et al., 1990), in cardiac muscle cell
(Apisariyakul et al., 1999) and in neuromuscular junction (Chaichana and
Apisariyakul, 1996). In other animal studies, guava leaf extracts have shown
central nervous system (CNS) depressant activity (Shaheen, 2000). Guava leaf
extract showed anticough activity by reducing the frequency of cough induced
by capsaicin aerosol (Jaiarj et al., 1999).
1.4.2.4 The Phytochemistry of Psidium guajava
Guava has been found to be rich in tannins, phenols, triterpenes, flavonoids,
essential oils, saponins, carotenoids, lectins, vitamins, fibre and fatty acids.
According to Olajide et al (1999), the leaves of P. guajava contain an essential
oil rich in cineol, tannins, triterpenes and flavonoids. Various reports of
phytochemical screening of Psidium guajava leaf showed tannins in aqueous
extract; and anthocyans, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins and steroids/terpenoids in
ethanolic extract.
More than twenty identified compounds from Psidium guajava leaf have been
reported (Seshadri and Vasishta, 1965; Osman et al., 1974; Lutterodt and
Maleque, 1988). The major components are: β-selinene (XX), β-caryophyllene
(XXI), caryophyllene oxide (XXII), squalene (XXIII), selin-11-en-4α-ol
(XXIV), guaijavarin (XXV), isoquercetin (XXVI), hyperin (XXVII), quercitrin
(XXVIII) and quercetin-3-O-gentobioside; morin-3-O-α-L-lyxopyranoside
(XXIX), morin-3-O-α-L-arabopyranoside (XXX); β-sitosterol (XXXI), uvaol
Page 50
50
(XXXII), oleanolic acid (XXXIII), ursolic acid (XXXIV) and one new
pentacyclic triterpenoid: guajanoic acid (Lozoya et al., 1994; Meckes et al.,
1996; Arima and Danno, 2002; Begum et al., 2004).
XX XXI
XXII XXIII
XXIV XXV
Page 51
51
XXVI XXVII
XXVIII XXIX
XXX XXXI
XXXII XXXIII
Page 52
52
XXXIV
Guava fruit is higher in vitamin C than citrus fruits (80 mg of vitamin C in 100g
of fruit) and contains appreciable amounts of Vitamin A as well and is also a
good source of pectin (Sunttornusk, 2002).
The bark of guava tree contains considerable amounts of tannins (11-27%), and
hence is used for tanning and dyeing purposes. Leucocyanidin (XXXV), luectic
acid, ellagic acid (XXXVI) and amritoside (XXXVII) have been isolated from
the stem bark.
Other compounds that have been isolated from guava plant include avicularin
(XXXVIII; 3-L-4-4-arabinofuranoside), α-pinene (XXXIX), β-pinene (XL),
limonene (XLI), terpenyl acetate (XLII), isopropyl alcohol (XLIII),
longicyclene (XLIV), β-bisabolene, β-copanene, farnesene, humulene,
cardinene, curcumene, mallic acids, ursolic, crategolic, guayavolic acids,
cineol, etc (Shruthi et al., 2013).
Page 53
53
XXXV XXXVI
XXXVII XXXVIII
XXXIX XL XLI
XLII XLIII XLIV
Page 54
54
1.5 BIOASSAYBIOASSAYBIOASSAYBIOASSAY----GUIDED CHARACTERIZATION OF ANTIGUIDED CHARACTERIZATION OF ANTIGUIDED CHARACTERIZATION OF ANTIGUIDED CHARACTERIZATION OF ANTIBACTERIALBACTERIALBACTERIALBACTERIAL
CONSTITUENTS FROM HIGHER PLANTSCONSTITUENTS FROM HIGHER PLANTSCONSTITUENTS FROM HIGHER PLANTSCONSTITUENTS FROM HIGHER PLANTS
The driving force behind much phytochemical research is the discovery of new
biological active compounds for medicinal or agricultural uses. Biological
assays then must be carried out in order to identify promising plant extracts, to
guide the separation and isolation, and to evaluate lead compounds.
Identification of natural products from plants that may serve as valuable sources
of bioactive agents for medicinal and agricultural uses largely depends on
bioactivity-directed isolation (Cseke et al, 2006).
The choices of bioassays depend a great deal on the amounts of materials to be
tested and the time and effort necessary to carry out the assays. Obviously, an in
vivo assay using the organism afflicted (humans or animals) would provide the
most meaningful results. However, exploratory screening using whole animals
is impractical (or unethical), and various in vitro screening methods have been
developed to provide guided separation and identification of lead compounds.
The latter have the advantage in that they can be automated with robotics and
miniaturized, leading to rapid throughput screening of large numbers of
samples. In addition, the in vitro bioassays may provide activity information
that is precluded by poor bioavailability using a whole-animal in vivo assay. For
instance, natural products that inhibit the growth of tumor cells or bacteria in an
in vitro assay may identify promising molecular structures that would benefit
from semi-synthetic modifications (Cseke et al, 2006).
Page 55
55
1.5.1 Principles of Bioassay
Bioassay (or biological assay) is the estimation of the activity or potency of a
drug or other substance (e.g. plant extract) by comparing its effects on a test
organism with that of a standard preparation. It is a type of scientific experiment
conducted to measure the effects of a substance on a living organism and is
essential in the development of new drugs and other scientific monitoring.
Bioassays may be qualitative or quantitative.
1.5.2 Screening Methods for Antibacterial Agents from Higher Plants
The discovery of promising plant extracts and the subsequent activity-guided
isolation of constituents put specific requirements on the bioassays to be used
for that purpose. They have to be simple, rapid, reproducible and inexpensive in
order to be compatible with the large number of assays to be performed.
Antimicrobial activity of plants can be detected by observing the growth
response of various microorganisms to those plant tissues or extracts which are
placed in contact with them. Many methods for detecting such activity are
available, but since they are not equally sensitive or even based upon the same
principle, the results obtained will also be profoundly influenced not only by the
method selected, but also by the microorganisms used to carry out the test
(Vanden-Berghe and Vlietinck, 1991). In general, biological assays or
evaluation can be carried out much more efficiently on water-soluble, pure
crystalline substances than on mixtures like plant extracts.
1.5.2.1 Test Organisms and Culture Media
The purpose of any antimicrobial investigation will obviously determine to a
great extent the choice of test organisms to be used. For an investigation of a
Page 56
56
general character, the test organisms selected should be as diverse as possible
and preferably representative of all important groups of pathogenic bacteria
according to their physical and chemical composition and resistance pattern.
Most screening studies on plant extracts, however, have been carried out on one
or two bacteria, including strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia
coli, although such findings may not adequately predict an interesting broad-
spectrum activity or a selective but pronounced activity against some of the
problem-pathogenic bacteria in chemotherapy such as resistant S. aureus, P.
aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Neisseria gonorrhoeae,
Candida albicans and others.
Most bacteria (and yeasts) can be cultivated on standard Mueller-Hinton agar or
diagnostic sensitivity test agar (DST) and American type culture collection
(ATCC) or similar standard microorganisms are available. Only few bacteria
(e.g. Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Campylobacter fetus) require special growth
factors which should be included in the standard medium.
In general, standard microorganisms should be preferably used as test bacteria
during screening for new antimicrobially-active plant components for ease of
reproducibility of results by other researchers. If the interest, however, is in
finding new products which are selectively active against problem
microorganisms causing certain diseases, e.g. resistant P. aeruginosa, it is
clearly appropriate to employ the corresponding isolated pathogenic
microorganisms (Rwangabo et al., 1988).
Page 57
57
1.5.2.2 Antibacterial Testing
The currently available antimicrobial screening methods fall into three broad
groups, including diffusion, dilution and bioautographic methods (Rios et al,
1988). These testing methods will only give an idea of the presence or absence
of substances with antimicrobial activity in the plant extracts, as the potency of
the active ingredients can only be determined on pure compounds using
standardized methodologies. The results obtained using any of the methods,
however, are influenced by such factors such as extraction method, inoculum
volume, culture medium composition, pH and incubation temperature.
In the diffusion technique, a reservoir (e.g. filter paper disc, porcelain/stainless
steel cylinder or hole punched in the media) containing the plant extract to be
tested is brought into contact with an inoculated medium (e.g. agar) and, after
incubation, the diameter of the clear zone around the reservoir (inhibition zone
diameter) is measured. In order to lower the detection limit using this method,
the inoculated system is kept at low a temperature during several hours before
incubation, which favors diffusion over microbial growth and thus increases the
inhibition diameter. In most studies, the inhibition zones obtained are compared
with those obtained for antibiotics so as to establish the sensitivity of the test
organism to the extract. Advantages of the diffusion methods are the small size
of the sample used in the screening and the possibility of testing up to five or six
compounds per plate against a single microorganism.
For the dilution methods, samples being tested are mixed with a suitable
medium, which has previously been inoculated with the test organism. After
incubation, growth of the microorganism may be determined by direct visual or
Page 58
58
turbidimetric comparison of the test culture with a control culture which did not
receive an addition of the sample being tested, or by plating out both test and
control cultures (Kavanagh, 1963). Usually a series of dilutions of the original
sample in the culture medium is made and then inoculated with the test
organism. After inoculation, the endpoint of the test (MIC-value) is taken as the
highest dilution which will just prevent perceptible growth of the test organism
(Vanden-Berghe and Vlietinck, 1991). In comparison, several different test
microorganisms may be tested simultaneously on the same dilution as against
diffusion methods in which several substances or dilutions of one substance
may be tested simultaneously against one test microorganism. The agar dilution
method is thus very quick, time saving and also very useful to guide the
isolation of antimicrobially active components from plant extracts (Bakana et
al, 1987; Rwangabo et al, 1988).
Bioautographic methods are employed to localize antibacterial activity on a
chromatoGram. The procedures are based on the agar diffusion technique,
whereby the antimicrobial agent is transferred from the thin layer or paper
chromatoGram to an inoculated agar plate through a diffusion process. Zones of
inhibition are then visualized by appropriate vital stains. Although very suitable
for testing highly active antibiotics (MIC-values < 10ug/ml), bioautographic
methods might not be very promising for testing plant extracts, which often
contain much less potent antimicrobial agents than the currently available
antibiotics (Vanden-Berghe and Vlietinck, 1991).
Page 59
59
1.6 STRUCTURE ELUCIDATION OF BIOACTIVE PLANT
METABOLITES
Chemical compounds, usually derived from plants and other natural sources,
have been used by humans for thousands of years to alleviate pain, diarrhea,
infection, and various other maladies. Until recently, these ''remedies" were
primarily crude preparations of plant material of unknown constitution. The
revolution in the synthetic organic chemistry during the nineteenth century
produced a concerted effort towards identification of the structures of the active
constituents of these naturally derived medicinals and synthesis of what were
hoped to be more efficacious agents.
By determining the molecular structures of the active components of these
complex mixtures, it is hoped that a better understanding of how these
components work can be elucidated (Knittel and Zavod, 2008).
1.6.1 Preliminary Analysis
Bioassay-directed fractionation is the process of isolating pure active
constituents from some type of biomass (eg. plants, microbes, marine
invertebrates, etc.) using a decision tree that is dictated solely by bioactivity
(Kinghorn, 2008). A variety of chromatographic separation techniques are
available for these purposes, including those based on adsorption on sorbents,
such as silica gel, alumina, Sephadex, and more specialized solid phases, and
methods involving partition chromatography inclusive of counter-current
chromatography. Recent improvements have been made in column technology,
automation of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC; a technique
Page 60
60
often used for final compound purification) and compatibility with HTS
methodology (Butler, 2004).
1.6.2 Application of Modern Analytical Techniques
Routine structure elucidation is performed using combinations of spectroscopic
procedures, with particular emphasis on one and two-dimensional 1H- and
13C-
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and mass spectroscopy (MS).
2D NMR spectra, generally, provide more information about a molecule than
1D NMR spectra and are especially useful in determining the structure of a
molecule, particular for molecules that are too complicated to work with using
1D NMR. Thus, for the structural elucidation of a compound, a simple 1D NMR
(H1 and C
13) may not be sufficient. Advanced techniques like correlation
spectroscopic methods, when analyzed properly, provide the perfect way to
determine the structure of a given formula or an entirely unknown compound.
The combination of some or all of these 1D and multi-dimensional NMR
spectra are all very useful in identification and characterization of the structure,
and orientation of bonds in a molecule (Becker, 2000).
Considerable progress has been made in the development of cryogenic and
microcoil NMR probe technology for the determination of structures in sub-
milligram amounts of natural products (Koehn and Carter, 2005). In addition,
the automated processing of spectroscopic data for the structure elucidation of
natural products is a practical proposition (Steinbeck, 2004).
Another significant advance is the use of "hyphenated" analytical techniques for
rapid determination of the structure of natural products without the need for a
separate isolation step, such as liquid chromatograph-nuclear magnetic
Page 61
61
resonance (LC-NMR) and LC-NMR-MS (Koehn and Carter, 2005; Butler,
2004).
1.7 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Antibiotics have remained the mainstay of clinical therapy of infectious diseases
worldwide. Many microorganisms, however, are becoming increasingly
resistant to most of these agents (Jawetz et al., 1989). Another serious limitation
of these chemotherapeutic agents is the numerous adverse effects associated
with their administration (Snavely and Hodges, 1984). These limitations have,
thus, made it imperative that extensive efforts must be made to uncover new
antimicrobial agents from alternative sources whose structures and modes of
action may very likely differ from those of microbial sources (antibiotics).
Compounds extracted from higher plants have the potential of fulfilling this
purpose and that has led to the increasing screening studies on several plant
extracts in search of new ‘leads’. Unfortunately, most of these works are
preliminary investigations of the pharmacological actions of the crude plant
extracts, rather than the isolation, identification or the characterization of the
active constituents of these extracts.
1.8 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
Several works have been carried out to verify and confirm the traditional
antibacterial uses of Psidium guajava and Loranthus micranthus growing in the
tropical rain forest region of Nigeria, but researches on the isolation,
Page 62
62
characterization and detailed chemical investigations of their pharmacologically
active components have remained inexhaustive.
There is, therefore, the need for comprehensive chemical and bio-molecular
studies on these active constituents, and hence the justifications for this present
research.
1.9 AIMS AND SCOPE OF THE WORK
Aims of the Study
• To carry out a detailed bioactivity-guided phytochemical evaluation of
the extracts/solvent fractions of the leaves of Psidium guajava and
Loranthus micranthus.
• To identify and isolate the antibacterial compounds from the leaves of
the plants.
• To characterize and elucidate the structure of the isolates.
• To compare the antibacterial potentials of these isolates with standard
antibiotics with a view to developing derivatives of the ‘lead’ compounds
and optimize same for activity with respect to potency and selectivity,
especially against bacteria causing opportunistic AIDS infections [ e.g.
resistant strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus
aureus; including the multi-drug resistant (MDR) strains of methicillin-
resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and Mycobacterium avium
complex (MAC)].
Page 63
63
CHAPTER TWO
MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 MATERIALS
2.1.1 Plant Materials
The leaves of Loranthus micranthus L. were collected in mid-June at Nsukka,
South-Eastern Nigeria, from the stem of Persea americana and authenticated by
Mr. A. Ozioko, a taxonomist with the Bio-resources Development and
Conservation Project (BDCP), Nsukka, Nigeria. Voucher specimen was
deposited in the herbarium of the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The leaves of Psidium guajava L. were collected
at the same period from the bio-resource area of the University of Port Harcourt
in South-South region of Nigeria and authenticated by the Plant Science
Biology (PSB) Department of the University. The voucher specimen was
deposited in the herbarium of the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of Port Harcourt.
The leaves were air-dried at room temperature to a constant weight, pulverized
and passed through a 1mm sieve. The powdered materials were stored in air-
tight containers and kept in a refrigerator.
2.1.2 Microorganisms Used
The studies were performed with standard cultures of Staphylococus aureus
(ATCC 25923), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27833) and Escherichia coli
(ATCC 35219) obtained from the Nigerian Institute of Medical Research
(NIMR),Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria. The clinical isolates of other microorganisms
Page 64
64
were used. All the microorganisms were grown in nutrient broth (Biotec,
Suffolk, UK) at 37oC and maintained on nutrient agar (Biotec, Suffolk, UK)
slants at 4oC. The standardized cultures of the organisms were used throughout
the experiment.
2.1.3 Solvents and Reagents
N-Hexane (Sigma-Aldrich, South Africa), Chloroform (Sigma-Aldrich, South
Africa), Ethyl acetate (BDH, England), Methanol (Sigma-Aldrich, South
Africa), Acetone (BDH, England), DMSO (Sigma-Aldrich, USA), Acetic acid
(Hopkins and Williams, England). Cutter mill (Manesty, England), Electronic
Balance (Sartorius, Germany) and Weighing balance (Ohans, USA). Other
reagents used were freshly prepared in the laboratory according to official
specifications.
Solvents Used for Isolation and Characterization of Active Ingredients
Dichloromethane (DCM), ethyl acetate, hexane and methanol. These solvents
were purchased from the Institute of Chemistry, University of Duesseldorf,
Germany. They were distilled before use and special grades were used for
spectroscopic measurements.
Solvents for HPLC
Methanol (LiChroSolv HPLC; Merck) and nano-pure water (distilled and heavy
metals free water obtained by passing distilled water through nano- and
ionexchange filter cells; Barnstead, France).
Solvents for NMR
Deuterated methanol (Uvasol, Merck) and DMSO-d6 were used for NMR
measurements.
Page 65
65
2.1.4 Materials and General Instruments
Chromatography
Pre-coated TLC plates (Silica Gel 60 F254, layer thickness 0.2mm) Merck
Silica Gel 60, 40−63 μm mesh size Merck
Sephadex LH 20, 25−100 μm mesh size Merck
General instruments
Analytical balances MC-1 Sartorious
Half-micro and analytical balance MC-1 Sartorious
Glass ware Schott Duran
Drying Oven ET6130 Heraeus
Ultra sonicator RK 510H Bandelin
UV-Lamp (254 and 366 nm) Camag
Rotary evaporator Büchi Rotavapor R-200
Vacuum pump CVC 2000 Vacuubrand
Centrifuge Pico Heraeus
Nitrogen generator UHPN 3001 Nitrox
Air generator ZA 20 WGA
Fraction collector Retriever II ISCO
Lyvac GT2 (Freeze dryer) Steris
Vacuum pump Trivag D10E (Freeze dryer) Leybol
Syringe Hamilton 1701 RSN
Magnetic stirrer Variomag
HP Behrotest PH 10-Set Multipoint
Semi-preparative HPLC
Page 66
66
Pump: L-7100 Merck/Hitachi
Detector: UV-L7400 (Photodiode array detector) Merck/Hitachi
Printer: Chromato-Intergartor D-2000 Merck/Hitachi
Column: Eurospher 100-C18, [10 μm; 300 mm × 8 mm] Knauer
Pre-column: Eurospher 100-C18, [10 μm; 30 mm × 8 mm] Knauer
Analytical HPLC
Pump: P 580A LPG Dionex
Autosampler: ASI-100T (injection volume = 20 μL) Dionex
Detector: UVD 340S (Photodiode array detector) Dionex
Column oven: STH 585 Dionex
Column: Eurospher 100-C18, [5 μm; 125 mm × 4 mm] Knauer
Pre-column: Vertex column, Eurospher 100-5 C18 [5-4 mm] Knauer
Software: Chromeleon (V. 6.30)
HPLC-MS
Analytical HPLC: Agilent 1100 series (Photodiode array detector) Agilent
MS: Finigan LCQ-DECA Thermoquest
Ionizer: ESI and APCI Thermoquest
Vacuum pump: Edwards 30 BOC
Column: Eurospher 100-C18, [5 μm; 227 mm × 2 mm] Knauer
Pre-column: Vertex column, Eurospher 100-5 C18 [5−4 mm] Knauer
NMR
DRX-500 Bruker
Page 67
67
2.2 METHODS
2.2.1 Extraction and Fractionation of Plant of Materials
A portion of the powdered material (800 g) from L. micranthus plant was
defatted with n-hexane (4.5 L; to yield HFM) and the dried marc (540 g)
extracted in a soxhlet extractor with absolute methanol (3.5L). The dried
methanol soluble extract (MFM; 60.0 g) was reconstituted in 30 mL of
methanol, made up to 250 mL with distilled water, shaken for about 30 minutes
and subjected to successive liquid-liquid extraction with chloroform (3 X 750
ml), ethyl acetate (3 X 750 ml) and acetone (3 X 750 ml) to yield the
chloroform (CFM; 11.4 g), ethyl acetate (EFM; 21.3 g) and acetone (AFM; 17.4
g) soluble fractions respectively. An aqueous portion (8.7 g) was left behind
after the fractionation process. The fractions were concentrated by evaporating
over water-baths set at 40oC. The concentrated/dried fractions were stored in a
refrigerator for further analysis.
The pulverized air-dried leaves (600 g) from Psidium guajava were defatted
with n-hexane (2.5L) and the dried marc (450 g) extracted with 5 L of 90 %
methanol for 4 days at room temperature (250C) and the extract concentrated in
vacuo with rotary evaporator. The dried methanol extract (35 g, 7.7 % w/w) was
reconstituted in 20 mL of methanol, made up to 200 mL with distilled water,
shaken for about 30 minutes and subjected to successive liquid-liquid extraction
with chloroform (3 x 750 ml), ethyl acetate (3 x 750 ml) and acetone (3 x 750
ml) to yield PsG-CF (6.0 g; 1.3% w/w), PsG-EF (10.7g; 2.4% w/w) and PsG-
Page 68
68
AF (8.6 g; 1.9 % w/w) fractions respectively. An aqueous portion (6.8 g) was
left behind after the fractionation process.
Another portion (300 mg of the crude powder from L. micranthus) was
macerated in 90% methanol (3.5 L) for 48 hours and the filtrate concentrated in
vacuo to yield the crude methanol extract, CMFM.
Similarly, 100 mg of the crude powder from P. guajava was macerated in 90 %
methanol (1.5 L) for 48 hours and the filtrate concentrated in vacuo to yield the
crude methanol extract, PsG-CMF.
The schematic representaions for the extraction and fractionation procedures for
the plants are presented in Figures 6 & 7.
Page 69
69
Dried Marc; 540g
Methanol; 5.5L
Hexane Fraction
(HFM); 44.2g
Chloroform; 3 X 750 ml
Methanol Fraction
(MFM); 60.0g
N-Hexane; 4.5L
Dried Marc
Acetone Fraction
(AFM); 17.4g
Ethyl acetate Fraction
(EFM); 21.3g
Chloroform Fraction
(CFM); 11.4g
Acetone; 3 X 750 ml
Ethyl acetate; 3 X 750 ml
Methanol;
3.5L
Crude Methanol
Fraction (CMFM);
31.4g 800g
PLANT
MATERIAL 300g
Fig. 6: Schematic Diagram of the Extraction/Fractionation Procedure for L. micranthus Leaves.
Aqueous Residue
(8.7g)
Page 70
70
Plant Material (100g)
Dried Marc; 450g
Methanol; 5L
Hexane Fraction
(PsG-HF); 32.6g
Chloroform; 3 X 750 ml
Methanol Fraction
(PsG-MF); 35g
N-Hexane; 2.5L
Dried Marc
Acetone Fraction
(PsG-AF); 8.9g
Ethyl acetate Fraction
(PsG-EF); 10.9g
Chloroform Fraction
(PsG-CF); 6.2g
Acetone; 3 X 750 ml
Ethyl acetate; 3 X 750 ml
Methanol;
1.5L
Crude Methanol
Fraction (PsG-
CMF); 14.4g 600g
Fig. 7: Schematic Diagram of the Extraction/Fractionation Procedure for P. guajava Leaves.
Aqueous Residue
(6.8g)
Page 71
71
2.2.2 Isolation and Purification of the Active Constituents from PsG-EF
Thin layer and column chromatography
TLC was performed on pre-coated TLC plates with Silica gel 60 F254 (layer
thickness 0.2 mm, E. Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) with either CH2Cl2: MeOH
(9:1) for semi-polar compounds or n-Hexane: EtOAc (8:2) for non-polar
compounds as mobile phase. The compounds were detected by their UV
absorbtion at 254 and 366 nm or by spraying the TLC plates with anisaldehyde
reagent followed by heating at 1100C.
Column chromatography was carried out using Sephadex® LH-20. The ethyl
acetate fraction (PsG-EF) was separated on a sephadex LH-20 column (3 X 60
cm) eluted with Dichloromethane: MeOH (1:1) to afford 10 pooled fractions
PsG-EF1 to PsG-EF 10. Briefly, 200 g of Sephadex LH-20 was sonicated with
300 mL of DCM: MeOH (1:1) for about 30 min and the gel gradually
transferred into column (3 X 60 cm) with the tab open. Solvent was allowed to
drain until the gel was firmly formed. The sample to be separated was dispersed
in 2 mL of DCM: MeOH (1:1) sonicated for 10 min and then centrifuged. The
supernatant was transferred into the column and allowed to permeate the gel,
when fresh DCM: MeOH (1:1) was added and the whole set up connected to
Fraction collector (Retriever II ISCO, Germany) and adjusted to the flow rate of
0.2 mL/min.
Page 72
72
2.2.3 HPLC Analysis of Active Constituents from PsG-EF
Analytical high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC)
The fractions (PsG-EF1 to PsG-EF 10) were subjected to analytical HPLC. The
solvent gradient used started with 10:90 (MeOH: nanopure water (adjusted to
pH 2 with phosphoric acid) increasing to 100 % MeOH in 45 minutes. The
compounds were detected by an UV-VIS Diode Array detector.
Semi-preparative high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC)
Antibacterial bioactive fractions PsG-EF4 and PsG-EF7 were subjected to semi-
preparative HPLC purification to isolate the compounds PsG-EF4A, PsG-EF4B,
PsG-EF7A, PsG-EF7D and PsG-EF7E. Briefly, the separation column (125 x
21.4 mm, ID) was prefilled with Eurospher C-18 (Knauer, Berlin, Germany) or
Dynmax (250 x 21.4 mm, L.ID). The mobile phase used comprised a linear
gradient of nanopure water and methanol. 50 µL of approximately 40 mg/mL
solution of the substance was injected for each time. The flow rate was
stabilized at 5 mL/min, and the paper speed of the recorder was 5 mm/min. The
eluted peaks were collected respectively by manual work based on the records
of a UV-vis detector.
2.2.4 Electron Spray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (HPLC/ESI-MS) of
Isolates
HPLC/ESI-MS was carried out using a ThermoFinningan LCQ-Deca mass
spectrometer connected to an UV detector. The samples were each dissolved in
MeOH and injected to the HPLC/ESI-MS set up. A solution of the sample was
then sprayed at atmospheric pressure through a 2-5 kV potential. HPLC was run
Page 73
73
on a Eurospher C-18 (6 x 2 mm, L. ID) reversed phase column. The mobile
phase was H2O containing 0.1% Formic acid (A), to which MeOH (B) or ACN
(C) was added by a linear gradient: initial, 0% of B; 45 min, 80% of B; 55 min,
100% of B. The flow rate was at 400 μL/min and the absorbance detected at 254
nm. ESI (electrospray ionization) was performed at a capillary temperature of
200 0C and drift voltage of 20eV. Since the molecular ion peak is the most
abundant ion in ESI spectra, it is also possible to perform MS/MS experiments.
Measurements were done at Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and
Biotechnology, University of Heirich-Heine-Düsseldorf.
2.2.5 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) of Isolates
The 1H NMR and
13C NMR spectra were recorded at 300
0K on DRX 500 or
NMR spectrometers. All 1D and 2D spectra were obtained using the standard
Brüker software. The sample was dissolved in a deuterated methanol (CD3OD),
or hexadeuterated dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO-d6) the choice of which is
dependent on the solubility of the sample. TMS was used as internal standard
reference signal. The observed chemical shifts (δ) were recorded in ppm and the
coupling constants (J) were recorded in Hz.
2.2.6 Preliminary Screening of Extracts and Fractions for Antimicrobial
Activity
Antibacterial Activity Testing
Each extract or fraction was screened for antibacterial activity using the
microorganisms provided. The inhibition zone diameters (IZDs) of the extracts
Page 74
74
and reference antibiotics (Ceftriaxone - MAY & BAKER PLC, Nigeria) were
determined by agar-well diffusion method (Lovian, 1980). The standardized
broth culture (0.1ml) of the test microorganism was introduced into a sterile
petri-dish and 20ml of molten agar added. The content was mixed thoroughly
and allowed to solidify. Four 2-fold serial dilutions of each extract (including
the fractions/ sub-fractions) and reference antibiotics were obtained from their
stock solutions (20mg/ml in DMSO). Four quadrants were marked on each
petri-dish and a cup (6mm) was bored on each quadrant using a sterile cork-
borer. Two drops of each dilution were placed in each cup using Pasteur
pipettes, allowed to diffuse for about an hour and then incubated at 37oC. This
procedure was repeated for each of the microorganisms. The IZDs were
recorded after 24 hours of incubation.
2.2.7 Phytochemical Screening of Plant Extracts and Fractions
Phytochemical Tests
Phytochemical tests were carried out to detect the presence of steroids,
alkaloids, tannins, glycosides, reducing sugars, flavonoids and saponins. These
were carried out according to the procedures outlined by Harbourne (1998).
2.2.8 Antibacterial Screening of Isolates
Standard cultures of S. aureus and E. coli in Mueller-Hinton broth that had been
incubated for 24 hours were diluted 1000-fold with the same broth. Aliquots of
the dilution were mixed with 0.1 ml of the solutions of the isolated compounds
that have been dissolved or suspended in 10% aqueous dimethyl sulfoxide
(DMSO) in sterilized culture tubes. The mixtures were incubated for 24 hours at
37oC and the growth of each test bacterium determined by turbidity. The
Page 75
75
minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of each compound against a particular
organism was expressed as the least concentration of that compound which did
not show turbidity. Ceftriaxone was used as the standard antibacterial agent.
2.2.9 Statistical Analyses
Statistical Analysis
All the data obtained were analyzed by GraphPad Prism® (Model 5) using two-
way ANOVA and subjected to Bonferroni post-tests to compare replicate
means. The statistical results were presented as mean ± SEM. Differences
between means were considered significant at P<0.05.
Page 76
76
CHAPTER THREE
RESULTS
3.1 Extraction and Solvent Fractionation Result
The yield from the extraction and fractionation carried out on the leaves of
Loranthus micranthus using various solvents is presented in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Yield from Extracts/Fractions of the leaves of L. micranthus.
Extract/Fraction Weight of
Powder/Marc
(g)
Yield (g) % Yield
HFM 800.0 44.2 5.5
MFM 540.0* 61.0 11.3
CFM 540.0* 11.4 2.1
EFM 540.0* 21.3 3.9
AFM 540.0* 17.4 3.2
CMFM 300.0 31.4 10.5
Key: HFM = Hexane extract, MFM = Defatted Methanol extract, EFM= Ethyl acetate soluble
fraction, AFM = Acetone soluble fraction, CFM = Chloroform soluble fraction, CMFM
= Crude Methanolic Extract; * = Portion of marc obtained after defatting with
hexane.
Page 77
77
The yield from the extraction and fractionation carried out on the leaves of
Psidium guajava using various solvents is presented in Table 3 below.
Table 3: Yield from Extracts/Fractions of the leaves of P. guajava.
Extract/Fraction Weight of
Powder/Marc
(g)
Yield (g) % Yield
PsG-HF 600.0 32.6 5.3
PsG-MF 450.0* 35.7 7.9
PSG-CF 450.0* 6.2 1.3
PsG-EF 450.0* 10.9 2.4
PsG-AF 450.0* 8.9 2.0
PsG-CMF 100.0 14.8 14.8
Key: PsG-HF = Hexane extract, PsG-MF = Methanol soluble fraction, PsG-EF=Ethyl
acetate soluble fraction, PsG-AF = Acetone soluble fraction, PsG-CF = Chloroform
soluble fraction, PsG-CMF = Crude Methanolic Extract; * = Portion of marc obtained after defatting with hexane.
Page 78
78
3.2 Preliminary Phytochemical and Antibacterial Screening Results
The results of the preliminary investigations carried out on the leaf
extracts/fractions of Loranthus micranthus and Psidium guajava are presented
below.
The result of the comparative study on the phytochemical and anti-microbial
properties of leaves of Loranthus micanthus harvested from different host trees
is shown in Tables 4 & 5.
Table 4: Results of Phytochemical Tests on the Leaf extract of Loranthus
micranthus parasitic on different host trees.
HOST TREE Steriods Alkaloids Glycosides Reducing sugars Flavonoids Saponins Tannins
K. acuminata + ++++ + + ++ + ++
P. americana + ++++ ++ + + + ++
B. nitida - + + + + + +
P.macrophylla - + + + + + +
I. gabonensis - ++ + + + + ++
A. indica + + ‽ + + - +
- = Absent; + = Present in small quantity; ++ = moderately present; +++ =
Present in large quantity; ‽ = not detected.
Page 79
79
Table 5: Results of the anti-microbial screening of extracts of mistletoe
from six different host plants.
Each value represents the mean ± SEM;*: P <.05, **: P < 0.01, ***: P < 0.001 significantly lower
when compared with control 1; blank spaces indicate no observable inhibition; IG = I. gabonensis;
PM = P. macrophylla; KA = K. acuminata; AI = A. indica; PA = P. americana; BN = B. nitida; AMX
= amoxicillin; KTZ = ketoconazole
Host tree Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MIC, mg/ml) ± SEM
S. aureus B. subtilis P. aeruginosa S. typhi A. niger C. albicans
IG 4.45±0.20* 4.19±0.30 6.08 ± 2.34 5.55± 0.55 - -
PM 5.76 ± 1.27 4.13 ± 0.59 7.97±1.81 - - -
KA 4.01 ± 0.17* 3.99 ± 0.30** 5.16± 2.03 6.48±.0.68 2.56± 0.14 7.98±1.86
AI 6.08 ± 0.23 4.53 ± 0.19 7.41±1.21 - - -
PA 3.76±0.25* 3.53±0.84** 4.53 ± 2.34*** 4.94± 0.2 4.63±1.0 6.05±0.32
BN 7.28±0.50 7.70±1.38 10.32±0.32 - - -
AMX 4.95±0.64 4.19±0.04 7.05±0.74 2.43± 0.49 - -
KTZ - - - - 0.44±0.07 2.26± 0.05
Page 80
80
The result of the study on the seasonal variations of the phytochemical and anti-
microbial constituents of L. miranthus is presented in Tables 6 & 7.
Table 6: Results of Phytochemical Tests on the Leaf extract of Loranthus
micranthus harvested at different seasons
MONTHS Tannins Flavonoids Alkaloids Reducing sugars
Terpenoids Saponins Glycosides
Jan + + - + + + +
April ++ ++ ++ + + + +
July ++ +++ ++ + + + +
Nov + ++ - + + + +
Key: - = Absent; + = Present in small quantity; ++ = Moderately present; +++ = present
in large quantity.
Page 81
81
Table 7: Results of the anti-microbial screening of leaf extracts of
Loranthus harvested at different seasons.
Months Inhibition Zone Diameter (IZD, mm) ± SEM
S. aureus B. subtilis P. aeruginosa S. kapemba E. coli
Jan. 14.7±0.0.67 13.3±0.33*** 16.0±0.58 10.7±0.67*** 18.3±0.88
April 16.7±1.67 17.0±0.58 17.3±0.67 20.7±0.67 16.0±0.58*
July 16.7±0.67 18.0±0.00 16.0± 0.58 19.7±.0.33 19.0± 0.58
Nov. 14.7±0.33 16.3±0.33* 16.0±1.0 18.7±0.33* 14.7±0.33**
Each value represents the mean ± SEM,*: P < 0.05, **: P < 0.01, ***: P < 0.001
significantly lower when compared with values obtained at the other months.
Page 82
82
The result of the preliminary study to verify the folkloric utilization of the
leaves of the African mistletoe (L. micranthus) as antifungal agent is presented
in Table 8.
Table 8: Result of MIC of L. micranthus against some fungi
Each value represents the mean ± SEM; n = 3.
Extract MIC (mg/ml)
Candida Aspergillus
K. acuminata 7.73 ± 0.59 4.98 ± 2.02
P. americana 5.85 ± 0.26 4.07 ± 1.17
I. gabonensis 9.73 ± 2.31 8.14 ± 1.96
Ketoconazole (control) 1.09 ± 0.13 0.22 ± 0.11
Page 83
83
The results of the phytochemical and antimicrobial investigations on the
fractions from Loranthus micranthus are presented in Tables 9 & 10 below.
Table 9: Results of Phytochemical Tests on the solvent fractions of
Loranthus micranthus leaves harvested from Persea Americana
FRACTIONS Tannins Flavonoids Alkaloids Reducing
sugars
Terpenoids Saponins Glycosides
CMFM + ++ ++ + + + +
HFM + + - - + - -
MFM + + + + + + +
EFM + + - + - - +
AFM + ++ + + + + +
CFM + + - - + - -
Key: - = Absent; + = Present in small quantity; ++ = Moderately present; +++ = Present in
large quantity; CMFM = Crude Methanolic Extract, HFM = Hexane extract, MFM
= Defatted Methanol extract, EFM= Ethyl acetate soluble fraction, AFM = Acetone
soluble fraction, CFM = Chloroform soluble fraction.
Page 84
84
Table 10: Result of Mean IZD (mm) +/- SEM for L. micranthus
Extracts/Fraction
FRACTIONS
{20mg/ml} S. aureus B. subtilis P. aeruginosa E. coli
CMFM 16.00 ± 0.58*** 18.00 ± 0.58 18.00 ± 0.58*** 10.00 ± 1.16***
HFM 1.98 ± 0.88*** 3.82 ± 1.20*** 2.10 ± 0.33*** 0.00 ± 0.00***
MFM 9.67 ± 1.20*** 13.00 ± 2.31*** 10.00 ± 2.08*** 5.67 ± 1.20***
EFM 4.67 ± 1.20*** 6.67 ± 1.20*** 6.67 ± 0.33*** 6.33 ± 0.88***
AFM 7.33 ± 1.20*** 9.67 ± 1.20*** 7.67 ± 0.88*** 5.00 ± 1.15***
CFM 2.67 ± 0.33*** 5.67 ± 0.67*** 3.00 ± 0.58*** 1.33 ± 0.33***
Control (10mg/ml)
26.00 ± 0.58 20.00 ± 0.58 33.67 ± 2.03 27.00 ± 1.15
CMFM = Crude Methanolic Extract, HFM = Hexane extract, MFM = Defatted Methanol
extract, EFM= Ethyl acetate soluble fraction, AFM = Acetone soluble fraction,
CFM = Chloroform soluble fraction, Control = Ceftriaxone; * P<0.05; ** P<0.01 and
*** P<0.001 significantly lower when compared with Control
Page 85
85
Fig. 8.0: Graph of Mean IZD (mm) ± SEM of the extracts/fractions of L.
micranthus leaves against bacteria.
Page 86
86
The results of the phytochemical and antimicrobial investigations on the leaves
of Psidium guajava harvested at differents seasons prevalent in Nigeria are
presented in Tables 11 & 12 below.
Table 11: Results of Phytochemical Tests on the Leaf extract of Psidium
guajava harvested at different seasons
MONTHS Tannins Flavonoids Alkaloids Reducing sugars
Terpenoids Saponins Glycosides
Jan ++ - + + + - +
April ++ + - ++ + + +
July ++ ++ - ++ + + +
Nov ++ + + ++ + - +
- = Absent; + = Present in small quantity; ++ = Moderately present; +++ = Present in
large quantity
Page 87
87
Table 12: Results of the anti-microbial screening of leaf extracts of Psidium
guajava harvested at different seasons
Months Inhibition Zone Diameter (IZD, mm) ± SEM
S. aureus B. subtilis P. aeruginosa S. kapemba E. coli
Jan. 31.0 ± 1.40 19.3 ± 0.47* 16.0 ± 1.40*** 26.0 ± 1.41 20.33 ± 0.40
April 31.0 ± 1.0 20.3 ± 0.44 20.0 ± 0.00 29.5 ± 0.45 22.3 ± 0.45
July 25.7 ± 0.24* 24.0 ± 1.41 18.7 ± 0.40* 15.3 ± 0.04*** 18.7 ± 0.59*
Nov. 19.3 ± 0.45*** 20.3 ± 0.04 24.7 ± 0.45 18.7 ± 0.04** 21.7 ± 0.47
Each value represents the mean ± SEM,*: P < 0.05, **: P < 0.01, ***: P < 0.001 significantly
lower when compared with values obtained at the other months
Page 88
88
The results of the phytochemical and antimicrobial investigations on the
fractions from Psidium guajava leaf are presented in Tables 13 & 14 below.
Table 13: Results of Phytochemical Tests on the solvent fractions of
Psidium guajava leaves
FRACTIONS
Tannins Flavonoids Alkaloids Reducing sugars
Terpenoids Saponins Glycosides
PSG-CMF ++ ++ + ++ + + ++
PSG-MF ++ ++ + + + + ++
PSG-EF ++ ++ - + - + ++
PSG-AF ++ + - + - + +
PSG-CF + - - + + + +
Key: PSG-CMF = Crude Methanolic Extract, PSG-MF=Methanol soluble fraction, PSG-
EF=Ethyl acetate soluble fraction, PSG-AF = Acetone soluble fraction, PSG-CF =
Chloroform soluble fraction;- = Absent; + = Present in small quantity; ++ = Moderately
present; +++ = Present in large quantity.
Page 89
89
Table 14: Table of Mean IZD (mm) +/- SEM for P. guajava
Extracts/Fractions
Fractions
(10mg/ml)
S. aureus B. subtilis P. aeruginosa E. coli
PSG-CMF 23.67 +/- 0.88 17.67 +/- 0.88 14.33 +/- 0.88*** 6.67 +/- 0.67***
PSG-MF 16.67 +/- 0.72*** 14.67 +/- 0.54*** 12.33 +/- 0.62*** 10.00 +/- 0.94***
PSG-EF 25.00 +/- 1.25 19.00 +/- 0.82 15.00 +/- 1.25*** 12.00 +/- 0.94***
PSG-AF 21.00 +/- 0.94** 17.33 +/- 0.27 14.33 +/- 0.72*** 9.67 +/- 0.54***
PSG-CF 9.67 +/- 0.54*** 7.00 +/- 0.94*** 5.67 +/- 0.72*** 1.67 +/- 0.27***
Control (10mg/ml)
26.00 +/- 0.58 20.00 +/- 0.58 33.67 +/- 2.03 27.00 +/- 1.15
Key: PSG-CMF = Crude Methanolic Extract, PSG-MF=Methanol soluble fraction, PSG-
EF=Ethyl acetate soluble fraction, PSG-AF = Acetone soluble fraction, PSG-CF =
Chloroform soluble fraction; Control = Ceftriaxone; * P<0.05; ** P<0.01 & ***
P<0.001 significantly lower when compared with Control.
Page 90
90
3.3 Isolation of Bioactive Constituents
The ethyl acetate fraction (PsG-EF) from P. guajava that gave the best
antibacterial bioassay result was subjected to further Sephadex-LH 20
chromatographic fractionation and purifications to afford ten pooled fractions
(PsG-EF1 to PsG-EF10). Fractions PsG-EF4, PsG-EF5 and PsG-EF7 that had
good antibacterial potential were subjected to semi-preparative reverse phase
HPLC purification to isolate the phenolic compounds I - V.
The structures of these compounds were elucidated using a combination of
analytical and spectral techniques which included: UV, 1H-NMR,
13C-NMR,
DEPT, 1H
1HCOSY, HMQC, HMBC and ESI-MS analyses (see Appendices for
spectra details).
A summary of the spectral data and the elucidated structures of the isolates are
presented in pages 74- 82 while the detailed interpretation of analytical data
leading to the predicted structures is presented in chapter 4 under “Discussion”.
Page 91
91
3.4 Structure Elucidation of Isolated Compounds
3.4.1 PsG-EF4A (Compound I: Yellow semi-solid; 3.0mg)
1H-NMR (500 MHz, MeOD) δ = 7.70 (m, 2H), 7.52 (t, J=7.4, 1H), 7.41 (t, J=7.7, 2H), 6.21
(d, J=2.1, 1H), 6.07 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 4.81 (d, J=7.7, 1H), 3.85 (m, 1H), 3.66 (dd, J=5.7, 12.1,
1H), 3.22 (m, 1H), 2.83 (m, 1H).
1H-NMR (600 MHz, MeOD) δ = 7.70 (m, 2H), 7.52 (m, 1H), 7.42 (t, J=7.8, 2H), 6.22 (d,
J=2.1, 1H), 6.07 (d, J=2.1, 1H), 4.81 (d, J=7.8, 3H), 3.85 (dd, J=2.2, 12.1, 1H), 3.66 (dd,
J=5.6, 12.1, 1H), 3.22 (dd, J=6.6, 11.1, 1H), 2.84 (dd, J=7.8, 9.1, 1H).
EI.MS m/z: 392.8 [M+1], 391.3 [M-1], 231.1 [M+1 - 162]
UV λmax (MeOH) nm (Ɛ): 254; 296.
O O
HO OH
O
OH
OHHO
OH
[Molecular Formula: C19H20O9; Formula Mass = 392.4]
Fig. 9a: Structure of Compound I
Page 92
92
Table 15: 1H and
13C-NMR data of compound I
Position δδδδH δδδδC HMBC
1 - 107.7
2 - 161.0
3 6.07 d (2.1) 96.6 1, 2, 4, 5
4 - 162.0
5 6.22 d (2.1) 94.2 1, 3, 4, 6
6 - 156.9
7 - 194.8
8 - 138.7
9/13 7.7 d 128.9 7, 11, 10, 12
10/12 7.42 t (7.8) 128.2 8, 9, 13
11 7.52 t 132.4 9, 13
1' 4.81 d (7.8) 100.6 6
2' 2.83 dd 73.1 1', 3'
3' 3.32 # 76.5 2', 4'
4' 3.22 t 69.4 6'
5' 3.34 # 77.1 4'
6' 3.66 dd Ha
3.86 dd Hb
60.6 5'
4'
NMR was measured at 500 MHz (1H) and 150 MHz (13C) (CD3OD). # = overlapped with the broad solvent peak.
Fig. 9b: Numbering of Carbon Skeleton for Compound I [XXVII]
Page 93
93
3.4.2 PsG-EF4B (Compound II: Yellow semi-solid; 3.5mg)
1H NMR (500 MHz, MeOD) δ = 7.57 (m, 2H), 7.48 (t, J=7.4, 2H), 7.38 (dd, J=7.7, 15.3,
2H), 6.20 (s, 1H), 4.72 (d, J=7.7, 1H), 3.87 (dd, J=2.1, 12.0, 1H), 3.65 (dd, J=5.9, 12.0, 1H),
3.25 (d, J=9.1, 1H), 3.14 (t, J=9.4, 1H), 2.51 (dt, J=7.1, 14.3, 1H), 2.02 (s, 3H).
1H NMR (600 MHz, MeOD) δ = 7.58 (dd, J=3.4, 5.0, 2H), 7.49 (m, 1H), 7.39 (m, 3H), 6.20
(s, 1H), 4.73 (d, J=7.7, 1H), 3.87 (dd, J=2.2, 12.0, 1H), 3.66 (dd, J=6.0, 12.0, 1H), 3.28 (ddd,
J=5.8, 10.9, 19.6, 2H), 3.16 (m, 2H), 2.52 (dt, J=8.2, 16.3, 1H), 2.02 (d, J=5.7, 3H).
EI.MS m/z: 406.8 [M+1], 405.3 [M-1], 245.2 [M+1 - 162]
UV λmax (MeOH) nm (Ɛ): 250; 302.
O O
HO OH
O
OH
OHHO
OH
[Molecular Formula: C20H22O9; Formula Mass- 406.38328]
Fig. 10a: Structure of Compound II
Page 94
94
Table 16: 1H and
13C-NMR data of compound II
Position δH δC HMBC
1 - 107.5
2 - 158.0
3 - 113.6
4 - 160.1
5 6.20 d (2.1) 94.2 1, 3, 4, 6
6 - 155.3
7 - 197.1
8 - 140.4
9/13 7.58 d (3.4; 5.0) 128.7 7, 11, 10, 12
10/12 7.39 m 127.6 8, 9, 13
11 7.49 m 131.5 9, 13
1' 4.73 d (7.7) 100.1 6
2' 2.52 dt 72.9 1', 3'
3' 3.28 # 73.4 2', 4'
4' 3.16 m 69.9 6'
5' 3.30 dd 77.0 4'
6'
3-CH3
3.66 dd Ha
3.87 dd Hb
2.02 s (5.7)
61.4
7.9
5'
4'
2, 3, 4 NMR was measured at 500 MHz (
1H) and 150 MHz (
13C) (CD3OD).
# = overlapped with the broad solvent peak.
Fig. 10b: Numbering of Carbon Skeleton for Compound II
Page 95
95
3.4.3 PsG-EF7A (Compound III: Brownish-yellow semi-solid; 2.5mg)
1H NMR (500 MHz, MeOD) δ = 7.50 (m, 2H), 7.41 (d, J=7.4, 1H), 7.27 (t, J=7.7, 2H), 7.10
(s, 1H), 6.15 (s, 1H), 4.76 (d, J=7.7, 1H), 4.55 (d, J=11.9, 1H), 4.34 (m, 1H), 3.50 (s, 2H),
2.50 (m, 1H), 2.02 (s, 3H).
1H NMR (600 MHz, MeOD) δ = 7.50 (d, J=7.3, 2H), 7.41 (q, J=7.4, 1H), 7.27 (t, J=7.7,
2H), 7.10 (s, 1H), 6.15 (s, 1H), 4.77 (d, J=7.7, 2H), 4.55 (dd, J=1.9, 11.9, 2H), 4.35 (dd,
J=4.6, 12.0, 1H), 3.51 (m, 1H), 3.32 (dd, 1H), 3. 28 (dd, 1H), 2.51 (dd, J=9.1, 17.8, 1H), 2.02
(s, 3H).
EI.MS m/z: 545.0 [M+1], 543.3 [M-1]
UV λmax (MeOH) nm (Ɛ): 262; 362
[Molecular Formula: C26H24O13; Formula Mass- 544.46]
Fig. 11a: Structure of Compound III
Page 96
96
Table 17: 1H and
13C-NMR data of compound III
Position δH δC HMBC
1 - 105.0
2 - 157.3
3 - 115.5
4 - 161.3
5 6.15 s 93.6 1, 3, 4, 6
6 - 156.4
7 - 177.7
8 - 138.5
9/13 7.50 d (7.3) 128.4 7, 11, 10, 12
10/12 7.27 t (7.7) 127.6 8, 9, 13
11 7.41 q (7.4) 134.2 9, 13
1' 4.77 d (7.7) 101.8 6
2' 2.51 dd 72.8 1', 3'
3' 3.28 dd 76.2 2', 4'
4' 3.32 dd 70.3 6'
5' 3.51 m 73.7 4'
6'
1''
2''
3''
4''
5''
6''
3-CH3
4.35 Ha (dd)
4.55 Hb (dd)
-
-
-
-
-
7.10 s
2.02 d (5.7)
69.0
148.4
145.6
120.7
145.2
165.8
108.6
8.0
5'
4'
4, 1'', 2'', 4'', 5''
2, 3, 4
NMR was measured at 600 MHz (1H) and 150 MHz (
13C) (CD3OD).
Fig. 11b: Numbering of Carbon Skeleton for Compound III
Page 97
97
3.4.4 PsG-EF7D (Compound IV: Brownish-Yellow, needle-like solid; 4.5mg).
1H NMR (500 MHz, MeOD) δ = 7.52 (1H,s), 7.50 (1H,d,J=8.3), 6.9
(1H,d,J=8.4), 6.39 (1H,s), 6.20 (1H,s), 5.47 (1H,s), 4.85 (1H, d, J=7.3), 4.33
(1H, d, J=2.8), 3.90 (1H, d, J=3.1),3.87 (1H, m), 3.81 (1H, m), 3.50 (2H, t,
J=3.6), 3.35 (1H, m).
EI.MS m/z: 435.0 [M+1], 433.1 [M-1], 303.1 [(M+1) - 132]
UV λmax (MeOH) nm (Ɛ): 257 (26, 595), 354 (23, 595).; m.p. 252-2630C.
PsG-EF7D was elucidated as the previously reported compound: Quercertin-
3-O-αL- arabinofuranoside with the chemical name: 2-(3,4-Dihydroxy
phenyl)-5,7-dihydroxy-4-oxo-4H-chromen-3-yl-α-L-arabinofuranoside. [Trivial name: guaijaverin].
Fig. 12: Structure of Compound IV
Page 98
98
3.4.5 PsG-EF7E (Compound V: Yellow semi-solid; 2.1mg)
1H NMR (500 MHz, MeOD) δ = 7.61 (d, J=8.4, 2H), 7.44 (s, 1H), 7.31 (t,
J=7.8, 2H), 7.09 (s, 1H), 6.16 (s, 1H), 6.05 (s, 1H), 4.50 (s, 1H), 4.33 (s, 1H),
3.58 (s, 1H), 2.77 (s, 1H).
UV λλλλmax (MeOH) nm (ƐƐƐƐ): 265; 294.
O O
OH
O
OH
OHOH
O
O O
OH
OH
OH
[Molecular Formula: C25H22O13; Formula Mass- 530.43]
Fig. 13: Structure of Compound V
Page 99
99
Table 18: 1H and
13C-NMR data of compound V
Position δH δC HMBC
1 - 105.0
2 - 157.3
3 6.16 s 115.5
4 - 161.3
5 6.05 s 93.6 1, 3, 4, 6
6 - 156.4
7 - 177.7
8 - 138.5
9/13 7.61 d (8.4) 128.4 7, 11, 10, 12
10/12 7.31 t (7.8) 127.6 8, 9, 13
11 7.44 s 134.2 9, 13
1' 4.70 s 101.8 6
2' 2.77 s 72.8 1', 3'
3' 3.18 s 76.2 2', 4'
4' 3.42 s 70.3 6'
5' 3.58 s 73.7 4'
6'
1''
2''
3''
4''
5''
6''
4.33 dd Ha
4.50 dd Hb
-
-
-
-
-
7.09 s
69.0
148.4
145.6
120.7
145.2
165.8
108.6
5'
4'
4, 1'', 2'', 4'', 5''
NMR was measured at 500 MHz (1H) and 150 MHz (13C) (CD3OD).
Page 100
100
3.5 Antibacterial Profile of Bioactive Constituents
Table 19: Antibacterial profile of the isolated compounds against
Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli.
Compound
MIC (µg/ml)
S. aureus E. coli
I 250 650
II 400 900
III 850 1950
IV 250 750
V 650 1200
Ceftriaxone 20 25
Page 101
101
CHAPTER FOUR
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
4.1 Discussion
The results of the preliminary investigations carried out on the leaf
extracts/fractions of Loranthus micranthus and Psidium gajava gave some basic
but revealing data that proved very vital for further assay on the plant materials.
First, the comparative study of the phytochemical and anti-microbial properties
of leaves of Loranthus micanthus harvested from different host trees showed
significant variations in the parameters reviewed (Tables 4 & 5). The extracts
from K. acuminata and P. americana exhibited appreciable activities against
some of the bacteria, but, showed only mild activity against the fungi. The
extract from P. americana showed significant activity (P < 0.05) against some
Gram-negative bacteria (P. aeruginosa) while maintaining moderate activity
against the Gram-positive bacteria. Also, alkaloids, terpenoids and tannins were
found to be relatively preponderant in the extracts from P. americana and K.
acuminata as against that from other hosts. Thus, the study indicated that L.
micranthus leaves to be used for the treatment of non-specific infections should
be preferentially sourced from either P. americana or K. acuminata.
In the same vein, the study on the seasonal variations of the phytochemical and
anti-microbial constituents of the plants revealed some interesting parameters.
The investigation on leaves of L. micranthus (parasitic on P. americana)
harvested at different seasons of the year showed variations across the seasons
(Tables 6 & 7). Some phytoconstituents like alkaloids, terpenoids and tannins
Page 102
102
were found to show significant variations across the seasons. These constituents
were found to be more abumdant in the extracts from the leaves harvested in
April and July. Higher antimicrobial activities were also observed within these
seasons. In effect, better antimicrobial activity was exhibited by the extracts of
the leaves harvested in April and July. This might then suggest that Loranthus
leaves intended for use in the treatment of non-specific infections may be
preferentially harvested either at the onset (April) or the peak (July) of the rainy
season. On the other hand, the seasonal variation study data (Tables 11& 12) on
the phytochemical and antimicrobial activities of Psidium guajava were non-
significant, even though the extracts harvested in April (onset of rainy season)
showed slightly better bioactivities than the other seasons. This may be as a
result of the relatively similar amount of the major phytoconstituents like
terpenoids, tannins, flavonoids, etc. found in the extracts across the seasons.
The results (Table 8) of the study for determination of the folkloric utilization of
the leaves of the African mistletoe (L. micranthus) as an all-purpose
antimicrobial agent showed that it had negligible antifungal activity and thus its
paste should not be recommended for the treatment of wounds or any other
topical infections where pathogenic fungal organisms might be implicated.
Tables 9 & 10 on the investigation of the crude extract and various fractions of
L. mircranthus for antibacterial activity showed that although the plant had
some level of activity against the test organisms, when compared to the control,
all the extracts/fractions showed statistically lower values (up to P<0.001)
suggestive of a generally weak antibacterial action. Among the
extracts/fractions, there was a conspicuous and progressive loss of antibacterial
Page 103
103
activity with the initial methanol extracts (CMFM and MFM) having the highest
activities while the other solvent fractions showed diverse but significantly
lower values (Figure 8.0). For the fractions, that of acetone (AFM) exhibited the
highest level of antibacterial activity. The activity trend is therefore CMFM >
MFM > AFM > EFM > CFM > HFM. An attempt at further fractionation of the
acetone soluble fraction (AFM) from Loranthus yielded sub-fractions with no
observable zones of inhibition. This suggested total loss of antibacterial activity
at this stage, and consequently, the bioactivity-guided isolation process could
not proceed any further. The phytochemical screening results followed the same
trend as above with CMFM and MFM showing the presence of most of the
constituents screened (Table 9). CFM and HFM only showed traces of
terpenoids and phenolic compounds. AFM with a slightly higher activity than
the other fractions tested positive for such constituents like tannins, alkaloids,
terpenoids and saponins, while the presence of tannins and flavonoids in EFM
might have contributed to its improved antibacterial activity over CFM and
HFM.
The prevailing data for L. micranthus assay showed therefore that the observed
antibacterial activity in mistletoe might have arisen as a result of interactions
among the various plant constituents identified rather than that of any one in
isolation. As previously reported by different researchers, the antimicrobial
activity of several extracts from plants has been linked to compounds belonging
to more than one chemical group. For instance, the chewing sticks which are
widely used in many African countries as an oral hygiene aid come from
different species of plants, and within one stick, the chemically active
Page 104
104
component may be heterogeneous (Akpata and Akinrimisi, 1977). Also, the
active component of one of the Nigerian chewing sticks (Fagara
zanthoxyloides) was found to consist of various alkaloids (Odebiyi and
Sofowora, 1979). Pawpaw (Carica papaya) yields a milky sap, often called
latex, which is a complex mixture of chemicals (Cowan, 1999). All the
compounds in papaya have been shown to contribute to the antimicrobial
properties of its latex which was found to be bacteriostatic to B. subtilis,
Enterobacter cloacae, E. coli, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus and
Proteus vulgaris (Osato et al, 1993). It follows therefore, using bioassay as a
guide, that the utilization, in isolation, of any of the constituents present in
Loranthus for the management of microbial infections might not only lead to
treatment failure but could equally result to the development of resistance
among pathogenic organisms being treated. We therefore recommended the use
of the crude, aqueous or alcoholic extracts of mistletoe leaves in the
management of non-complicated community acquired bacterial infections
(Ukwueze et al, 2013; Ukwueze and Osadebe, 2013).
Conversely, the results of the antimicrobial screening of the solvent fractions
and extracts from P. guajava yielded very positive significant data (Table 14).
Compared with control, all the test materials (except the chloroform-soluble
fraction, PsG-CF) showed antibacterial activities comparable to that of
ceftriaxone at similar concentrations. Most of the fractions from P. guajava
showed similar or slightly higher antibacterial activity than the crude methanol
extract (PsG-CMF) with the ethylacetate-soluble fraction (PsG-EF) exhibiting
the highest antibacterial activity against the test organisms and also showing a
statistically comparable activity with the control. Phytochemical analysis of the
P. guajava extracts/fractions showed that flavonoids and phenolic compounds
Page 105
105
might be mainly responsible for the antimicrobial activities as the highly active
fractions had a preponderance of these phytoconstituents (Table 13). These
findings were in consonance with literature reports on the plant (Limsong et al.,
2004; Olajide et al 1999; Xavier et al., 2002; Arima and Danno, 2002; Begum
et al., 2004).
The ethyl acetate fraction (PsG-EF) from P. guajava that gave a satisfactory
bioassay result was subjected to further Sephadex-LH 20 chromatographic
fractionation and purifications to afford ten pooled fractions (PsG-EF1 to PsG-
EF10). Fractions PsG-EF4, PsG-EF5 and PsG-EF7 that had good antibacterial
yield were subjected to semi-preparative reverse phase HPLC purification to
isolate the phenolic compounds I - V. The structures of these compounds were
elucidated using a combination of analytical and spectral techniques which
included: UV, 1H-NMR,
13C-NMR, DEPT,
1H
1HCOSY, HMQC, HMBC and
ESI-MS analyses.
The phytochemical and spectral analysis of the isolated compounds indicated
that they were mainly phenolic glycosides having either hexose or pentose
sugars as the glycone portion. Ultraviolet (UV) spectral analysis of most
reported phenolic glycosides show that the nucleus of chromone (benzo-γ-
pyrone) constitutes the parent chromophore in flavonoids and other related
phenolic compounds like xanthones and anthocyanins. These chromones which
occur naturally in the hydroxylated or glucosylated forms have in general two or
three UV bands near 250, 300 and 350 nm. They represent the principal bands
but could be modified by substitutions as could be seen in the UV spectral of
these isolates. Also, the presence of prominent mass peaks of fragments in the
EI-MS spectra of the compounds indicative of loss of either pentose (-132 m/z)
or pyranose (-162 m/z) molecules confirm that they were glycosides. Other
spectral data of the compounds equally supported this assertion (figures 9-13
and the appendices).
Page 106
106
Compound I was isolated as yellowish viscous liquid with UV maxima at λmax
254.0 and 296.0 nm. The molecular formula of I was deduced as C19H20O9
based on the ESI-MS molecular ion peak at 392.8 [M+H]+. The
1H-NMR
spectrum of compound I showed aromatic signals of an AA’BB’X system at δH
7.7 (m, 2H), δH 7.42 (t, J=7.8 Hz) and δH 7.52 ((t, J=7.4 Hz) respectively. Each
of the AA’BB’ signals were found to be integrating for two protons assigned to
H-9/H-13 and H-10/H-12 respectively while the X signal at δH 7.52 integrated
for one proton assigned to H-11 (Table 15 & figure 9b). These five protons are
assigned to ring A of the aglycone nucleus as shown in the structure below
(XLIII).
XLV
Another set of aromatic signals at δH 6.22 (d, J=2.1) and δH 6.07 (d, J=2.1)
integrating for one proton each were assigned to H-5 and H-3 respectively
attached to ring B of the phenolic nuclei (fig. 9b). The 2D-COSY spectrum and
the coupling constant (J = 2.1) of these protons indicated that they were meta-
coupled, while the HMBC showed no correlation between these protons and the
carbonyl carbon (δC 194.8; C-7). The various spectral correlations including the
fragmentation pattern of the ESI-MS spectrum correctly predicted the structure
of ring B of the aglycone backbone as shown (XLVI).
Page 107
107
XLVI
The correlations equally showed that unlike in many traditional flavonoid nuclei
where we have fused structures, rings A & B were actually linked by a carbonyl
group. A careful correlation of the HMBC spectrum as presented in Table 15
informed our proposal of a benzophenone skeleton as shown (XLVII).
XLVII
The 1H-NMR of compound I further showed signals from oxygenated C-Hs (δH
2.84-4.81). This strongly suggested the presence of a sugar moiety [Hobley et
al., 1996]. The signal at δH 4.81 is typical of proton attached to the anomeric
carbon (δC 100.6) assigned to H-1'. The signals at δH 3.85 (dd, J=2.2, 12.1),
3.66 (dd, J=5.6, 12.1), 3.34 (dd), 3.32 (dd), 3.22 (dd, J=6.6, 11.1), 2.84 (dd,
Page 108
108
J=7.8, 9.1) were assigned to H-6'b, H-6'a, H-5', H-3', H-4' and H-2' respectively.
The spectral correlations and the molecular ion fragment peak at 231.1 m/z
[M+1 (- 162)] indicated the presence of a pyranose sugar, which could be either
glucose or galactose [Qian et al., 2008; Al-Fadhli et al., 2006]. The HMBC
spectrum of the compound that showed no correlation between H-4'of the sugar
moiety and signal at δH 6.07 (H-5) of ring B confirmed this sugar to be d-
glucose [Li et al., 2013]. Galactose with its proton at C-4' projecting outwards
would have produced the reverse correlation. This is evident from the structures
of these sugars (XLVIII).
XLVIII
The attachment of the d-glucopyranosyl moiety (sugar unit) at the C-6 position
of the benzophenone was based on the HMBC correlations of H-5 signal to C-1,
C-3, C-4 and C-6 and that of H-1' to only C-6. Also, in the 1H-NMR spectrum,
the anomeric proton signal of glucose was observed as a doublet at δH 4.81 with
diaxial coupling constant J1’,2’ = 7.7 Hz, which confirmed a β configuration and
the pyranose form of sugar unit [Markham and Geiger, 1994; Olszewska and
Wolbis, 2002]. Compound I was thus elucidated as a benzophenone glycoside
Page 109
109
with the name 2,4-dihydroxy-6-O-β-D-glucopyranosylbenzophenone for which
the trivial name guajaphenone A is proposed. To the best of our knowledge,
this compound is being isolated for the first time from Psidium guajava plant.
Our search also revealed that compound 1 is closely related to another
benzophenone glycoside, 2,6-dihydroxy-4-O-β-d-glucopyranosylbenzophenone,
which was isolated for the first time from the leaves of Psidium guajava. (Fu et
al., 2010).
Compound II was isolated as brownish-yellow viscous liquid with UV maxima
at λmax 250.0 and 302.0 nm and a molecular formula of C20H22O9 which was
deduced based on the ESI-MS molecular ion peak at 406.8 [M+H]+. This puts
the difference between the mass of I and II at exactly +14. This value is
equivalent to the mass of a methylene group (-CH2) and could imply the
replacement of a proton in compound I with a methyl (-CH3) group. A
comparison of the 1H and
13C NMR data of I and II showed that their spectra
have similar chemically equivalent signals in almost all the regions with just
few variations (Table 16). The 1H-NMR spectrum of compound II showed only
one signal at δH 6.20 (1H, s) assigned to H-5 of ring B as against two signals at
δH 6.22 (d, J=2.1, 1H) and 6.07 (d, J=2.1, 1H) assigned respectively to H-5 and
H-3 in compound I (figure 10b). This confirms the replacement of a proton in
compound II at the ring B region. The 1H-NMR spectrum of II also showed an
additional signal at the SP3 hybridized C-H region (δH 2.02: d, J=5.7) integrating
for three protons indicating the presence of a methyl group. 2-D COSY, DEPT,
Page 110
110
HMQC and HMBC correlations confirmed the assignment of groups in ring B
of the compound as illustrated in this structure (XLIX):
XLIX
A strong HMBC correlation of the methyl proton signals to C-3 supported a
methyl group substitution at this position. Further 1H-
1H COSY, DEPT, HMQC
and HMBC correlations confirmed II as a methyl substituted analogue of I and
was elucidated as 2,4-dihydroxy-3-methyl-6-O-β-D-glucopyranosylbenzophen-
one, for which we have proposed the trivial name guajaphenone B. This
compound is being reported for the first time in literature.
Compound III spectra are a little bit different from the previous ones, even
though there exists reasonable degree of symmetry among the spectra. It was
isolated as brownish viscous liquid with UV maxima at λmax 262.0 and 362.0 nm
and a molecular formula of C26H24O13 which was deduced based on the ESI-MS
molecular ion peak at 545.0 [M+H+]. The
1H-NMR spectrum of this compound
showed signals similar to that of Compound II in most of the analytical regions.
The proton signals at δH 7.50, 7.41 and 7.27 were basically identical as those
Page 111
111
found at the same region in the previous compounds which corresponded to the
proton arrangement already discussed for ring A of the glycosides. Compared to
compound II, however, there was an aromatic singlet proton signal at δH 7.10
which neither 2D-COSY nor other heteronuclear correlations were able to
assign it as part of rings A or B of that compound. This suggested the presence
of another aromatic nucleus (ring C) in compound III. Its 13
C-NMR spectrum
confirmed this ring with signals between δC 115-125 ppm which were clearly
absent in the spectra of Compounds I & II (Appendices 6, 13 & 18). HMBC
spectrum of the compound showed that this ring C proton is remotely linked to
the signals at δC 108.6. Thus, HMBC and COSY correctly predicted the
structure of ring C of Compound III as in (L) below:
L
The EI-MS spectrum also showed a prominent fragment peak of about 153 m/z
which was closely linked to ring C fragment (Appendix 14). A combination of
all the spectral correlations thus elucidated Compound III as 2,4-dihydroxy-3-
Page 112
112
methyl-6-O-βD-glucopyranosylbenzophenone (4→5", 6'→1") benzene-
2",3",4",5"-tetraol.
Compound IV spectra presented quite a different correlation from the
compounds so far discussed. The positive ionization from the EI-MS data was
435 [M+1] while the negative ionization gave 433 [M-1] implying that the
molar mass was 434. The major fragment of 435 was 303 [(M+1) -132]. This
signified a loss of 132 m/z corresponding to the loss of a pentose sugar. The
mass of the aglycone was thus 302 m/z. This with the UV absorption spectrum
confirmed the compound to be a glycoside. The 1H-NMR spectrum suggested
that there were two aromatic spin systems [one ABX (δ 7.52, 7.50 and 6.90: two
are otho-coupled while two are meta-coupled) and one AX (δ 6.39 and 6.20: the
two are meta-coupled)]. The 2D-COSY therefore predicted the structures (LI) of
the AX (ring A) and ABX (ring C) aromatic systems to be:
LI
However, the EI-MS data and other spectral information indicated the presence
of another conjugated system (ring B) without proton signals. This presented the
possibility of a fused system, typical of most flavonoids as indicated below
(LII):
Page 113
113
LII
The spin system from δH 5.45, 4.33, 3.90, 3.87 and 3.50 belonged to the sugar (a
pentose) protons. From the spectral correlations and literature reports, this could
either be rhamnose or arabinose. The absence of a C-methyl signal in the 1H-
NMR spectrum rules out the presence of rahmnose whose occurrence could
equally have caused an upfield shift of H-2' and H-6' signals of the flavonoid
nucleus (Markham and Geiger, 1994). Comprehensive analysis of the NMR
data of IV showed that the compound is the previously reported quercertin-3-O-
α-L-arabinofuranoside with the trivial name, guaijaverin. The structure of the
compound was confirmed by comparison of its 1D and 2D NMR data with
those reported in the literature (Olszewska and Wolbis, 2002; Sanches et al.,
2005; Begum et al., 2002a).
Compound V was isolated as golden-brown viscous liquid with UV maxima at
λmax 265.0 and 294.0 nm and a molecular formula of C25H22O13 which was
deduced based on the ESI-MS molecular ion peak at 531.4 [M+H+]. As
observed with compound II, the difference between the calculated positive
ionization peak for III and V is -14, a value that is equivalent to the mass of a
Page 114
114
methylene group (-CH2) and which could imply the loss of a methyl (-CH3)
group for a proton in this instance. The 1H-NMR spectrum of the compound
showed signal for this additional proton at δH 6.05 (1H, s) assigned to H-3 of
ring B as against the single signal at the same aromatic region in compound III
(Table 18). Other analytical data were very similar to that of Compound III in
most of the regions. Compound V was thus elucidated as the demethylated
analogue of Compound III with the name 2,4-dihydroxy-6-O-βD-
glucopyranosylbenzophenone (4→5", 6'→1") benzene-2",3",4",5"-tetraol.
The antibacterial profiling of the isolated compounds showed that they all had
activities against S. aureus and E. coli but at different degrees. Compounds I &
IV showed activities closest to that of ceftriaxone against both organisms at
similar concentrations (Table 19). It appeared, however, that substitution (in this
case methylation) generally decreased antibacterial action in each case as can
be seen between I versus II and V versus III with the demethylated forms
showing lower MIC values against the bacteria. It was equally observed that the
compounds all had better antibacterial action against Staphylococcus aureus
than against Escherichia coli.
Page 115
115
4.2 Conclusion
Several medicinal plants have been used in traditional practice across Africa to
combat infectious disorders prevalent in that region. Currently, many of these
herbal remedies are available in Nigerian and other West African markets with
bogus claims of efficacy, hence the need for scientific validation of these claims
and establishment of the principle components and mechanisms behind their
activities.
Several works have been carried out in the past to verify the folkloric use of the
African mistletoe in the management of microbial infections. Previous works by
our research team on the crude plant powder and some of its fractions have
established low levels of antibacterial activity by L. micranthus, but with
negligible anti-fungal property. The optimal harvesting seasons as well as the
host trees of choice for mistletoe as an antimicrobial agent were equally well
documented. Further bioactivity-guided analysis on the antibacterial potential of
mistletoe, however, showed that the observed antibacterial activity in mistletoe
might have arisen as a result of interactions among the various plant
constituents identified rather than that of any one in isolation. We therefore
recommended the use of the crude, aqueous or alcoholic extracts of mistletoe
leaves in the management of non-complicated community acquired bacterial
infections.
The ethyl acetate fraction, as well as the Sephadex LH-20 fractions from P.
guajava exhibited significant (P < 0.05) antibacterial activity. The isolated
compounds (I-V) from the active fractions of P. guajava displayed moderate
antibacterial activities. The chemical names of the isolated compounds were
Page 116
116
elucidated as : 2,4-dihydroxy-6-O-βD-glucopyranosylbenzophenone (I); 2,4-
dihydroxy-3-methyl-6-O-βD-glucopyranosylbenzophenone (II); 2,4-dihydroxy-
3-methyl-6-O-βD-glucopyranosylbenzophenone (4→5", 6'→1") benzene-
2",3",4",5"-tetraol (III); quercertin-3-O-α-L-arabinofuranoside (IV) and 2,4-
dihydroxy-6-O-β-D-glucopyranosylbenzophenone (4→5", 6'→1") benzene-
2",3",4",5"-tetraol (V). Compounds I, II, III and V are new natural products
which have not been previously reported in literature, and the trivial names
guajaphenone A, B, C and D were proposed, while Compound IV has been
previously reported. Compound I was found to be closely related to a new
benzophenone glycoside, 2,6-dihydroxy-4-O-β-d-glucopyranosylbenzophenone,
isolated for the first time from the leaves of Psidium guajava (Fu et al., 2010).
All the isolated compounds from P. guajava were also found to have moderate
antibacterial activities against E. coli and S. aureus in comparison to
ceftriaxone, with I and IV showing lower MICs than that of the other isolates
against the organisms.
The results of this study are therefore a major contribution to the field of
medicinal chemistry of drugs used in infectious disease states, considering the
observed limitations of the contemporary antibiotic agents. It is expected that
these isolated compounds could be optimized and developed into useful
therapeutic agents in management of infectious disease states and that further
works should be carried out in order to maximize the full potentials of this
study.
Page 117
117
REFERENCES
Abdelrahim SI, Almagboul AZ, Omer ME, Elegami A. (2002). Antimicrobial
activity of Psidium guajava L. Fitoterapia, 73(7-8): 713-715.
Agbo MO, Lai D, Okoye FBC, Osadebe PO, Proksch P. (2013). Antioxidative
polyphenols from Nigerian mistletoe Loranthus micranthus (Linn.)
parasitizing on Hevea brasiliensis. Fitoterapia; 86:78–83
Akpata ES, Akinrimisi EO. (1977). Antibacterial activity of extracts from some
African chewing sticks. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol, 44:717-722.
Al-Fadhli A, Wahidulla S, D’Souza L. (2006). Glycolipids from the red alga
Chondria armata (Kütz.) Okamura. Glycobiology, 16 (10): 902-915.
Amaral JA, Ekins A, Richards SR, Knowles R. (1998). Effect of selected
monoterpenes on methane oxidation, denitrification, and aerobic
metabolism by bacteria in pure culture. Appl Environ Microbiol, 64:520-
525.
Apisariyakul A, Chaichana N, Takemura H. (1999). Dual effects of quercetin on
contraction in cardiac and skeletal muscle preparations. Res Commun
Molecul Pathol P, 105:129-138.
Arima H, Danno GI. (2002). Isolation of antimicrobial compounds from guava
(Psidium guajava L.) and their structural elucidation. Biosci Biotechnol
Biochem, 66:1727-1730.
Atal CK, Sharma ML, Kaul A, Khajuria A. (1986). Immunomodulating agents
of plant origin. I: Preliminary screening. J. Ethnopharmacol, 18: 133-141.
Bakana P, Claeys M, Totte J, Pieters LA, Van Hoof C, Tamba-Vemba L, van
Den Berghe DA., Vlie-Tink AJ. (1987). Structure and chemotherapeutical
activity of a polyisoprenylated benzophenone from the stem bark of
Garcinia huillensis. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 21, 75–84.
Balls AK, Hale WS, Harris TH. (1942). A crystalline protein obtained from a
lipoprotein of wheat flour. Cereal Chem, 19:279-288.
Batista O, Duarte A, Nascimento J, Simones MF. (1994). Structure and
antimicrobial activity of diterpenes from the roots of Plectranthus
hereroensis. J Nat Prod 57:858-861.
Page 118
118
Becker ED. (2000). High Resolution NMR-Theory and Chemical Applications.
Maryland: Academy Press; pp 251-277.
Begum S, Hassan SI, Ali SN, Siddiqui BS. (2004). Chemical constituents from
the leaves of Psidium guajava. Nat Prod. Res, 18(2): 135-140.
Begum S, Hassan SI, Siddiqui BS. (2002b). Two new triterpenoids from the
fresh leaves of Psidium guajava. Planta Med, 68, 1149-1152.
Begum S, Hassan SI, Siddiqui BS, Shaheen F, Ghayur AH. (2002a).
Triterpenoids from the leaves of Psidium guajava. Phytochemistry, 61,
399-403.
Borris RP. (1996). Natural products research: perspectives from a major
pharmaceutical company. J Ethnopharmacol, 51:29-38.
Brantner A, Males Z, Pepeljnjak S, Antolic A. (1996). Antimicrobial activity
of Paliurus spina-christi mill. J Ethnopharmacol, 52:119-122.
Brownlee HE, McEuen AR, Hedger J, Scott IM. (1990). Antifungal effects of
cocoa tannin on the witches’ broom pathogen Crinipellis perniciosa.
Physiol Mol Plant Pathol, 36:39-48.
Butler MS. (2004). The role of natural product chemistry in drug discovery. J
Nat Prod, 67:2141-2153.
Canada. (1989). Drugs Directorate guidelines. Ottawa: Health Protection
Branch, Health and Welfare Canada.
Casley-Smith JR. (1997). Coumarin in the treatment of lymphoedema and other
high-protein oedemas. In R. O’Kennedy and R. D. Thornes (eds.),
Coumarins: Biology, Applications and Mode of Action. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, p. 348.
Chaichana N, Apisariyakul A. (1996). Cholinergic blocking effect of quercetin.
Thai J Pharmacol, 18:1-15.
Chaurasia SC, Vyas KK. (1977). In vitro effect of some volatile oil against
Phytophthora parasitica var. piperina. J Res Indian Med Yoga Homeopath,
24-26.
Cheng JT, Yang RS. (1983). Hypoglycemic effect of guava juice in mice and
human subjects. Am. J. Clin Med, 11(1-4): 74-76.
Page 119
119
Cichewicz RH, Thorpe PA. (1996). The antimicrobial properties of chile
peppers (Capsicum species) and their uses in Mayan medicine. J
Ethnopharmacol, 52:61-70.
Conde-Garcia EA, Nascimento VT, Santiago-Santos AB. (2003). Inotropic
effects of extracts of Psidium guajava L (guava) leaves on the guinea pig
atrium. Braz J Med Biol Res, 36: 661-668.
Cowan, MM. (1999). Plant products as antimicrobial agents. Clinical
Microbiology Reviews, 12 (4): 564-582
Cseke LJ, Kirakosyan A, Kaufman PB, Warba S, Duke JA, Brielmann HL.
(2006). Natural Products from Plants (2nd. ed.), CRC/Taylor & Francis,
Boca Raton, FL.
Dalziel JM. The Useful Plant of West Tropical Africa. (1955). Crown Agents
for Overseas Governments and Administration: London, p. 297.
De Bolle MF, Osborn RW, Goderis IJ, Noe L, Acland D, Hart CA, Torrekens
S, Van Leuven F, Broekart NF. (1996). Antimicrobial properties from
Mirablis jalapa and Amaranthus caudalus: expression, processing,
localization and biological activity in transgenic tobacco. Plant Mol Biol,
31:993-1008.
Dixon RA, Dey PM, Lamb CJ. (1983). Phytoalexins: enzymology and
molecular biology. Adv Enzymol, 55:1-69.
Duke JA. (1985). Handbook of medicinal herbs. CRC Press, Inc.: Boca Raton,
Fla.
Fernandes de Caleya R., Gonzalez-Pascual B. Garcia-Olmedo F, Carbonero, P.
(1972). Susceptibility of phytopathogenic bacteria to wheat purothionins in
vitro. Appl Microbiol, 23: 998-1000.
Fernandez MA, Garcia MD, Saenz MT. (1996). Antibacterial activity of the
phenolic acids fraction of Scrophularia frutescens and Scrophularia
sambucifolia. J Ethnopharmacol, 53:11-14.
Fu HZ, Luo YM, Li CJ, Yang JZ, Zhang DM. (2010). Psidials A-C, three
unusual meroterpenoids from the leaves of Psidium guajava L . Org Lett,
12: 656-659.
Geissman TA. (1963). Flavonoid compounds, tannins, lignins and related
compounds. In M. Florkin and E. H. Stotz (eds.), Pyrrole pigments,
isoprenoid compounds and phenolic plant constituents, vol. 9. Elsevier:
New York, p. 265.
Page 120
120
Ghoshal S, Krishna Prasad BN, Lakshmi V. (1996). Antiamoebic activity of
Piper longum fruits against Entamoeba histolytica in vitro and in vivo. J
Ethnopharmacol, 50:167-170.
Gill FB. (1973). The Machiavellian Fronter’s, 38 (2), pp. 2-5.
Granowitz EV, Brown RB. (2008). Antibiotic adverse reactions and drug
interactions. Crit Care Clin, 24:421-42.
Griggs P. (1991). Mistletoe, Myth, magic and medicine. The Biochemist, 13:3-
4.
Grover IS, Bala S. (1993). Study on anti-mutagenic effects of guava in S.
typhimurium. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology, 300(1): 1-3.
Habtemariam S, Gray AI, Waterman PG. (1993). A new antibacterial
sesquiterpene from Premna oligotricha. J Nat Prod, 56:140-143.
Hamburger H, Hostettmann K. (1991). The link between phytochemistry and
medicine. Phytochemistry, 30:3864-3874.
Harborne, JB. (1998). Phytochemical methods: a guide to modern techniques of
plant analysis, 3rd
ed. Chapman and Hall, London.
Hasegawa H, Matsumiya S, Uchiyama M, Kurokawa T, Inouye Y, Kasai R,
Ishibashi S, Yamasaki K. (1994). Inhibitory effect of some triterpenoid
saponins on glucose transport in tumor cells and its application to in vitro
cytotoxic and antiviral activities. Planta Med, 6:240-243.
Haslam E. (1996). Natural polyphenols (vegetable tannins) as drugs: possible
modes of action. J Nat Prod, 59:205-215.
Hendricks K, Nemeth L. (Eds.). (2010). Handmark concise medical dictionary
(8th ed.). Oxford: Market House Books Limited.
Himejima M, Hobson KR., Otsuka T, Wood DL, Kubo I. (1992). Antimicrobial
terpenes from oleoresin of ponderosa pine tree Pinus ponderosa: a defense
mechanism against microbial invasion. J Chem Ecol, 18:1809-1818.
Hobley P, Howarth O, Ibbett RN. (1996). 1H and
13C-NMR shifts for
aldopyranose and aldofuranose monosaccharides: Conformational analysis
and solvent dependence. Magn. Reson. Chem., 34:755–760.
Page 121
121
Hoult JRS, Paya M. (1996). Pharmacological and biochemical actions of simple
coumarins: natural products with therapeutic potential. Gen Pharmacol,
27:713-722.
Hufford CD, Jia Y, Croom EM Jr., Muhammed I, Okunade AL, Clark AM,
Rogers RD. (1993). Antimicrobial compounds from Petalostemum
purpureum. J Nat Prod, 56:1878-1889.
Hui-Yin Chen, Gow-Chin Yen. (2007). Antioxidant activity and free radical-
scavenging capacity of extracts from guava (Psidium guajava L.) leaves,
Food Chemistry, 101(2): 686-694.
Jaiarj P, Khoohaswan P, Wongkrajang Y, Peungvicha P, Suriyawong P, Saraya
MLS, Ruangsomboo O. (1999). Anticough and antimicrobial activities of
Psidium guajava Linn leaf extract. J Ethnopharmacol, 67: 203-212.
Jaiarj P, Wongkrajang Y, Thongpraditchote S, Peungvicha P, Bunyapraphatsara
N, Opartkiattikul N. (2000). Guava leaf extract and topical haemostasis.
Phytother Res, 14: 388-391.
Jawetz E, Melnick JL, Adelberg EA. (1989). Medical Microbiology; 8th
ed.
USA: Prentice-Hall Int’l Inc., pp. 143-172.
Jones GA, McAllister TA, Muir AD, Cheng KJ. (1994). Effects of sainfoin
(Onobrychis viciifolia scop.) condensed tannins on growth and proteolysis
by four strains of ruminal bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol, 60:1374-1378.
Jones NL, Shabib S, Sherman PM. (1997). Capsaicin as an inhibitor of the
growth of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. FEMS Microbiol Lett,
146:223-227.
Kadota S, Basnet P, Ishii E, Tamura T, Namba T. (1997). Antibacterial activity
of trichorabdal from Rabdosia trichocarpa against Helicobacter pylori.
Zentbl Bakteriol, 286: 63-67.
Kafaru E. (1993). Herbal Remedies, The Guardian, Thursday June 3, p 24.
Kavanagh F. (1963). Analytical Microbiology, Vol. 1; California: Academic
Press.
Kazmi MH, Malik A, Hameed S, Akhtar N, Noor Ali S. (1994). An
anthraquinone derivative from Cassia italica. Phytochemistry, 36:761-763.
Page 122
122
Kinghorn AD. (2008). Drug Discovery from Natural Products, In, Lemke TL,
Williams DA (eds.) FOYE's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry (6th Ed.)
India: Wolters Kluwer (India ) Pvt. Ltd, Pp 12-25.
Knittel JJ, Zavod RM. (2008). Drug design and relationship of functional
groups to pharmacologic activity. In: Lemke TL, Williams DA (Eds.),
Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry, (6th ed.). Philadelphia, PA:
Lipincott Williams & Wilkins, pp. 26-53.
Koehn FE, Carter GT. (2005). The evolving role of natural products in drug
discovery. Nat Rev Drug Discov, 4:206-220.
Kubo I, Muroi H, Himejima M. (1993). Combination effects of antifungal
nagilactones against Candida albicans and two other fungi with
phenylpropanoids. J Nat Prod, 56:220-226.
Li X, Huang G, Zhao G, Chen W, Li J, Sun L. (2013). Two new monoterpenes
from Tithonia diversifolia and their anti-hyperglycemic activity. Rec. Nat.
Prod., 7: 351-354.
Lewis WH, Elvin-Lewis MP. (1995). Medicinal plants as sources of new
therapeutics. Ann Mol Bot Gard, 82:16-24.
Limsong J, Benjavong kulchai E, Kuvataanasuchati J. (2004). Inhibitory effects
of some herbal extracts on adherence of S. mutans. J Ethnopharmcol, 92(2-
3): 281-289.
Lovian I. (1980). Antibiotics in Laboratory Medicine. London: Williams and
Williams, Baltimore. 7-22 p.
Lozoya X, Becerril G, Martinez ML. (1990). Model of intraluminal perfusion of
the guinea pig ileum in vitro in the study of the antidiarrheal properties of
the guava (Psidium guajava). Arch Invest Med, 21(2): 155-162.
Lozoya X, Meckes M, Abou-Zaid M, Tortoriello J, Nozzolillo C, Amason JT.
(1994). Quercetin glycosides in Psidium guajava L. leaves and
determination of spasmolytic principle. Arch Med Res; 25:11-15.
Lutterodt GD. (1992). Inhibition of Microlax-induced experimental diarrhea
with narcotic-like extracts of Psidium guajava leaf in rats. J
Ethnopharmacol, 37(2): 151-157.
Lutterodt GD, Maleque A. (1988). Effects on mice locomotor activity of a
narcotic-like principle from Psidium guajava leaves. J Ethnopharmacol.
24(2-3): 219-231.
Page 123
123
Manosroi J, Dhumtanom P, Manosroi A. (2006). Anti-proliferative activity of
essential oil extracted from Thai medicinal plants on KB and P38 cell
lines. Cancer lett, 235(18): 114-120.
Martin AR. (1988) Antibacterial Antibiotics, In: Delgado JN, Remers WA
(eds.), Wilson and Gisvold's Textbook of Organic Medicinal and
Pharmaceutical Chemistry (10th Ed.). USA: Lippincott-Raven Publishers,
pp 253-325.
Markham KR, Geiger N. (1994) 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of
flavonoids and their glycosides in hexadeuterodimethylsulfoxide, In:
Harborne JB (ed.), The Flavonoids Advances in Research since 1986. New
York: Chapman and Hall; pp 441-473.
Matsuo N, Hanamure, Koyoko SY, Nakamura, Tomita I. (1994) Identification
of (+) gallocatechin as a bio-antimutagenic compound in Psidium guajava
leaves, Phytochemistry, 36(4): 1027-1029.
Meckes M, Calzada F, Tortoriello J, González JL, Martinez M. (1996).
Terpenoids isolated from Psidium guajava hexane extract with depressant
activity on central nervous system. Phytother Res, 10: 600-603.
Mendoza L, Wilkens M, Urzua A. (1997). Antimicrobial study of the resinous
exudates and of diterpenoids and flavonoids isolated from some Chilean
Pseudognaphalium (Asteraceae). J Ethnopharmacol, 58:85-88.
Mitscher LA, Lemke TL, Gentry EJ. (2008). Antibiotics and Antimicrobial
Agents, In: Lemke TL, Williams DA (eds.), FOYE's Principles of
Medicinal Chemistry (6th Ed.) India: Wolters Kluwer (India ) Pvt. Ltd, Pp
1028-1083.
Morton J. (1987). Guava. In: Fruits of warm climates, Julia F. Morton, Miami
FL, 356-363
Obatomi DK, Aina VO, Temple VJ. (1996). Effect of African Mistletoe on
blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Intl J pharmacog, 34
(2): 124-127.
Obatomi DK, Bikomo EO, Temple VJ. (1994). Anti-diabetic properties of
African Mistletoe in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. J
Ethnopharmacol, 43:13-17.
Odebiyi OO, Sofowora EA. (1979). Antimicrobial alkaloids from a Nigerian
chewing sticks (Fagara zanthoxyloides). Planta Med, 36:204-207.
Page 124
124
Oh WK, Lee CH, Lee MS, Bae EY, Sohn CB, Oh H, Kim BY, Ahn JS. (2005).
Antidiabetic effects of extracts from Psidium guajava. J Ethnopharmacol,
96(3): 411-415.
Ojewole JA. (2005). Hypoglycemic and hypotensive effects of Psidium guajava
L, (Myrtaceae) leaf aqueous extracts. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol,
27(10): 689-695.
Okoye FBC, Ebi GC. (2007). Preliminary antimicrobial and phytochemical
investigation of the plant extracts and column fractions of Alchornea
floribunda leaves. J Pharm Allied Sci, 4(1): 395-402.
Olajide OA, Awe SO, Makinde JM. (1999). Pharmacological studies on the
leaves of Psidtum guajava. Fitoterapia, 70: 25-31.
Oliver-Bever B. Medicinal Plants of Tropical West Africa. (1986). Cambridge
University: London, p. 375.
Olszewska M, Wolbis M. (2002). Further flavonoids from the flowers of Prunus
spinosa L, Acta Polon Pharm-Drug Res, 59 (2): 133-137.
Omeje EO, Osadebe PO, Esimone CO, Nworu CS, Kawamura A, Proksch P.
(2012). Three hydroxylatedlupeol-based triterpenoid esters isolated from
the Eastern Nigeria mistletoe parasitic on Kola acuminata. Natural
Product Research; 26 (19):1775-1781.
Omulokoli E, Khan B, Chhabra SC. (1997). Antiplasmodial activity of four
Kenyan medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol, 56:133-137.
Osadebe PO, Abba CC, Agbo MO. (2012). Antimotility effects of extracts and
fractions of Eastern Nigeria mistletoe (Loranthus micranthus Linn). Asian
Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine; 5(7):556-560
Osadebe PO, Akabogu IC. (2006). Antimicrobial activity of Loranthus
micranthus harvested from Kolanut tree. Fitoterapia, 77: 54-56.
Osadebe PO, Dieke CA, Okoye, FBC. (2008). A study of the seasonal variation
in the antimicrobial constituents of the leaves of the leaves of Loranthus
micranthus sourced from Persea americana. Research Journal of
Medicinal Plant, 2 (1): 48-52.
Osadebe PO, Okide GB, Akabogu IC. (2004). Study on anti-diabetic activities
of crude methanolic extracts of Loranthus micranthus (Linn.) sourced from
five different host trees. J Ethnopharmacol, 95: 133-138.
Page 125
125
Osadebe PO, Omeje EO, Uzor PF, David EK, Obiorah DC. (2010). Seasonal
variation for the antidiabetic activity of Loranthus micranthus methanol
extract. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, 3(3):196-199.
Osadebe PO, Ukwueze SE. (2004). A comparative study of the Phytochemical
and Antimicrobial properties of the Eastern Nigeria species of African
Mistletoe (Loranthus micranthus) sourced from different host trees.
Journal of Biological Research and Biotechnology, 2(1): 18-23.
Osato JA, Santiago LA, Remo GM, Cuadra MS, Mori A. (1993).
Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of unripe papaya. Life Sci, 53:
1383-1389.
Osman AM, Younes ME, Sheta AE. (1974). Triterpenoids of the leaves of
Psidium guajava . Phytochemistry, 13: 2015-2016.
Phillipson JD, O’Neill MJ. (1987). New leads to the treatment of protozoal
infections based on natural product molecules. Acta Pharm. Nord, 1:131-
144.
Parekh J, Chanda, S. (2007). In vitro screening of antibacterial activity of
aqueous and alcoholic extracts of various Indian plant species against
selected pathogens from Enterobacteriaceae. Afr J Micro Res, 1(6):92-99.
Qadan F, Thewaini AJ, Ali DA, Afifi R, Elkhawad A, Matalka KZ. (2005). The
antimicrobial activities of Psidium guajava and Juglans regia leaf extracts
to acne-developing organisms. Am J Chin Med, 33(2): 197-204.
Qian H, Nihorimbere V. (2004). Antioxidant power of phytochemicals from
Psidium guajava leaf. J Zhejiang Univ Sci; 5(6): 676-683.
Qian WL, Khan Z, Watson DG, Fearnley J. (2008). Analysis of sugars in bee
pollen and propolis by ligand exchange chromatography in combination
with pulsed amperometric detection and mass spectrometry. Journal of
Food Composition and Analysis, 21: 78–83.
Rao, KV, Sreeramulu K, Gunasekar D, Ramesh D. (1993). Two new
sesquiterpene lactones from Ceiba pentandra. J Nat Prod, 56: 2041-2045.
Ríos JL, Recio MC, Villar A. (1988). Screening methods for natural products
with antimicrobial activity: a review of the literature. Journal of
ethnopharmacology, 23: 127-149.
Page 126
126
Rodriguez RC, Cruz PH, Rios HG. (2001). Lectins in fruits having
gastrointestinal activity: their participation in hemagglunating property of
Escherichia coli O157. Arch.Med.Res, 32(4): 251-257.
Rojas A, Hernandez L, Pereda-Miranda R, Mata R. (1992). Screening for
antimicrobial activity of crude drug extracts and pure natural products from
Mexican medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol. 35:275-283.
Rotimi VO, Laughon BE, Bartlett JG, Mosadami HA. (1988). Activities of
Nigerian chewing stick extracts against Bacteroides gingivalis and
Bacteroides melaninogenicus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 32: 598-
600.
Roy CK, Kamath JV, Asad M. (2006). Hepatoprotective activity of Psidium
guajava L leaf extract, Indian J Exp Biol, 44(4): 305-311.
Rwangabo PC, Claeys M, Pieters L, Corthout J. (1988). Umuhengerin, new
antimicrobially active flavanoid from Lantana trifolia. J Nat Prod, 51:
966-968.
Ryan KJ, Ray CG (eds.) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.).
McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-8385-8529-9.
Sakanaka S, Kim M, Taniguchi M, Yamamoto T. (1989). Antibacterial
substances in Japanese green tea extract against Streptococcus mutans, a
cariogenic bacterium. Agric Biol Chem, 53: 2307-2311.
Sakanaka S, Shimura N, Aizawa M, Kim M, Yamamoto T. (1992). Preventive
effect of green tea polyphenols against dental caries in conventional rats.
Biosci Biotechnol Biochem, 56: 592-594.
Sanches NR, Cortez DAG, Schiavini MS, Nakamura CV, Filho BPD. (2005).
An evaluation of antibacterial activities of Psidium guajava (L.). Brazilian
Arch Biol Tech, 48 (3): 429-436.
Scalbert A. (1991). Antimicrobial properties of tannins. Phytochemistry, 30:
3875-3883.
Schultes RE. (1978). The kingdom of plants, In: Thomson WAR (ed.),
Medicines from the Earth. McGraw-Hill Book Co.: New York, N.Y, p.
208.
Seshadri TR, Vasishta K. (1965). Polyphenols of the leaves of Psidium guajava:
quercetin, guaijiaverin, leucocyanidin and amritoside. Phytochemistry, 4:
989-992.
Page 127
127
Shaheen HM. (2000). Effect of Psidium guajava leaves on some aspects of
central nervous system in mice. Phytother Res, 14(2): 107-111.
Sharon N, Ofek I. (1986). Mannose specific bacterial surface lectins, In:
Mirelman D (ed.), Microbial lectins and agglutinins. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc: New York, N.Y, p. 55-82.
Shruthi SD, Roshan A, Timilsina SS, Sunita S. (2013). A review on the
medicinal plant Psidium guajava Linn. (Myrtaceae). Journal of Drug
Delivery & Therapeutics, 3(2): 162-168.
Singh RB, Rastogi SS, Singh NK, Ghosh S, Gupta S, Niaz MA. (1993). Can
guava fruit intake decrease blood pressure and blood lipids? J Hum
Hypertens, 7(1): 33-38.
Singh RB, Rastogi SS, Singh NK, Ghosh S, Niaz MA. (1992). Effects of guava
intake on serum total and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and on
systemic blood pressure. Am J Cardiol, 70(15): 1287-1291.
Snavely SR, Hodges GR. (1984). The neurotoxicity of antibacterial agents. Arch
Intern Med, 101: 92-104.
Steinbeck C. (2004). Recent developments in automated structure elucidation of
natural products. Nat Prod Rep, 21:512-518.
Stern JL, Hagerman AE, Steinberg PD, Mason PK. (1996). Phlorotannin-protein
interactions. J Chem Ecol, 22:1887-1899.
Sun, HD, Qiu SX, Lin LZ, Wang ZY, Lin ZW, Pengsuparp T, Pezzuto JM,
Fong HH, Cordell GA, Farnsworth NR. (1996). Nigranoic acid, a
triterpenoid from Schisandra sphaerandra that inhibits HIV-1 reverse
transcriptase. J Nat Prod, 59: 525-527.
Sunttornusk L. (2002). Quantitation of vitamin C content in herbal juice using
direct titration. J Pharm Biomed Anal, 28(5): 849-55.
Tassou C, Drosinos EH, Nychas GJE. (1995). Effects of essential oils from mint
(Mentha piperita) on Salmonella enteritidis and Listeria monocytogenes in
model food systems at 4°C and 10°C. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 78:
593–600.
Tassou C, Koutsoumanis K, Nychas GJE. (2000). Inhibition of Salmonella
enteritidis and Staphylococcus aureus in nutrient broth by mint essential
oil. Food Research International, 33: 273–280.
Page 128
128
Taylor RSL, Edel F, Manandhar NP, Towers GHN. (1996). Antimicrobial
activities of southern Nepalese medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol, 50:
97-102.
The wealth of India (Vol X). (2003). National Institute of science
communication and Information Resources, New Delhi, 411-413.
Thea LC, Kelvin MW, Chris M. (2008). Herbal Medicine, 212 (4) Retrieved
from http:// www.kcc.cc.il.us/full/url.
Thomson WAR (ed.). (1978). Medicines from the Earth. McGraw-Hill Book
Co.: Maidenhead, United Kingdom.
Toda M, Okubo S, Ohnishi R, Shimamura T. (1989). Antibacterial and
bactericidal activities of Japanese green tea. Jpn J Bacteriol, 45: 561-566.
Tona L, Kambu K, Ngimbi N, Mesia K, Penge O, Lusakibanza M, Cimanga K,
De Bruyne T, Apers S, Totte J, Pieters L, Vlietinck AJ. (2000).
Antiamoebic and spasmolytic activities of extracts from some
antidiarrhoeal traditional preparations used in Kinshasa, Congo.
Phytomedicine, 7(1): 31-38.
Tsuchiya H, Sato M, Miyazaki T, Fujiwara S, Tanigaki S, Ohyama M, Tanaka
T, Iinuma M. (1996). Comparative study on the antibacterial activity of
phytochemical flavanones against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus. J Ethnopharmacol, 50:27-34.
Ukwueze SE, Osadebe PO. (2012). Determination of anti-fungal properties of
the African mistletoe species: Loranthus micranthus L. International
Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences, 3(1): 454-458.
Ukwueze SE, Osadebe PO. (2013). Bioassay-guided fractionation for the
isolation of the antibacterial compounds from Loranthus species of the
mistletoe plant, In: Gupta VK. (ed.); Utilization and Management of
Medicinal Plants Vol. 2; New Delhi: Daya Publishing House, pp 421-430.
Ukwueze SE, Osadebe PO, Ezenobi NO. (2013). Bioassay-guided evaluation of
the antibacterial activity of Loranthus species of the African mistletoe. Intl
J Pharm Biomed Research, 4(2): 79-82.
Vanden-Berghe DA, Vlietinck AJ. (1991). Screening for antibacterial and
antiviral agents, In: Hostettmann K. (ed.); Methods in Plant Biochemistry,
Vol. 6, Assays for Bioactivity; London: Academic Press, pp 47-69.
Page 129
129
Vijaya K, Ananthan S, Nalini R. (1995). Antibacterial effect of the aflavin,
polyphenon 60 (Camellia sinensis) and Euphorbia hirta on Shigella spp-a
cell culture study. J Ethnopharmacol, 49: 115-118.
Wagner ML, Teresa F, Elida A, Rafeal AG. (1996). Micromolecular and
macromolecular comparison of Argentina mistletoe (Ligaria Cuneifolia).
Acta Farmacentica Babaerense, 15 (2): 99 – 105.
Wei L, Li Z, Chen B. (2000). Clinical study on treatment of infantile rotaviral
enteritis with Psidium guajava L. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi,
20(12): 893-895.
Wild R. (ed.) (1994). The complete Book of Natural and Medicinal Cures.
Rodale Press, Inc., Emmaus, Pa.
Xavier Lozoya, Hortesia Reyes, Soto-Gonzalez Y, Doubova SV. (2002).
Intestinal anti-spasmodic effect of a phytodrug of Psidium guajava folia in
the treatment of acute diarrheic disease. J Ethnopharmacol, 83(1-2): 19-24.
Ya, C, Gaffney SH, Lilley TH, Haslam E. (1988). Carbohydrate-polyphenol
complexation, In: R. W. Hemingway and J. J. Karchesy (eds.), Chemistry
and Significance of Condensed Tannins. Plenum Press, New York, N.Y., p.
553.
Zhang Y, Lewis K. (1997). Fabatins: new antimicrobial plant peptides. FEMS
Microbiol. Lett., 149:59–64
Page 130
130
APPENDICES
Appendix 1: ESI-MS /UV Spectra of Compound I
Page 131
131
Appendix 2: H-NMR Spectrum (500MHz; MeOD) of Compound I
Page 132
132
Appendix 3: H-NMR Spectrum (600MHz; MeOD) of Compound I
Page 133
133
Appendix 4: H-NMR Spectrum (600MHz; DMSO-d6) of Compound I
Page 134
134
Appendix 5: 2-D COSY of Compound I
Page 135
135
Appendix 6: C-13 NMR Spectrum of Compound I
Page 136
136
Appendix 7: HMQC Spectrum of Compound I
Page 137
137
Appendix 8: HMBC Spectrum of Compound I
Page 138
138
Appendix 9: ESI-MS /UV Spectra Compound II
Page 139
139
Appendix 10: H-NMR Spectrum (500MHz;MeOD) of Compound II
Page 140
140
Appendix 11: H-NMR Spectrum (600MHz; DMSO) of Compound II
Page 141
141
Appendix 12: 2-D COSY of Compound II
Page 142
142
Appendix 13: C-13 NMR Spectrum of Compound II
Page 143
143
Appendix 14: ESI-MS /UV Spectra Compound III
Page 144
144
Appendix 15: H-NMR Spectrum (500MHz; MeOD) of Compound III
Page 145
145
Appendix 16: H-NMR Spectrum (600MHz; DMSO) of Compound III
Page 146
146
Appendix 17: 2-D COSY of Compound III
Page 147
147
Appendix 18: C-13 NMR Spectrum of Compound III
Page 148
148
Appendix 19: HMQC Spectrum of Compound III
Page 149
149
Appendix 20: HMBC Spectrum of Compound III
Page 150
150
Appendix 21: UV Spectrum of Compound IV
Page 151
151
Appendix 22: ESI-MS Spectra of Compound IV
Page 152
152
Appendix 23: H-NMR Spectrum (500MHz; MeOD) of Compound IV
Page 153
153
Appendix 24: 2-D COSY of Compound IV
Page 154
154
Appendix 25: H-NMR Spectrum (500MHz; MeOD) of Compound V
Page 155
155
Appendix 26: 2-D COSY of Compound V
Page 156
156
Appendix 27: 2-D COSY [aromatic region] of Compound V