Ubuntu in African Traditional Religion Anja Aga Ulvestad Master’s Thesis in History of Religion (60) Department of Cultural Studies and Oriental Languages UNIVERSITY OF OSLO SPRING 2012
UbuntuinAfricanTraditionalReligion
AnjaAgaUlvestad
Master’sThesisinHistoryofReligion(60)DepartmentofCulturalStudiesandOrientalLanguages
UNIVERSITYOFOSLO
SPRING2012
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III
UBUNTUINAFRICANTRADITIONALRELIGION
IV
©AnjaAgaUlvestad
Year:2012
Title:UbuntuinAfricanTraditionalReligion
Author:AnjaAgaUlvestad
http://www.duo.uio.no/
Print:Reprosentralen,UniversityofOslo
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ABSTRACT
Thisthesisproposestoprovetheauthenticityofubuntuthroughinvestigatingitsmeanings
andorigins,aswellaswhereubuntucanbelocated.Therehasbeensomeconfusioninthe
Westconcerningwhatubuntuis.Thewordhasbeentranslatedinto‘humanity’andhas
freelybeenusedfordifferentpurposes.Althoughunrestricteduseofthewordisofcourse
permissible,thiswayofunderstandingubuntuistoosimple.Therefore,thisthesiswill
presentdifferentinterpretationsofubuntu,aswellasprovideastapleunderstandingof
ubuntuinareligiouscontext.Thethesiswillmainlyproveubuntu’sauthenticitythrough
discoveringitwhereitcannotbeheard.Ubuntucanbelocatedinpeople’slivesandithasa
clearfunction.Thispresenceandfunctioncanalsobeseenspecificallyinpostapartheid
SouthAfrica,whereithasalsobeenvisiblyvocalised.Althoughithasbeenproposedby
othersthatthispresenceandfunctionisautopianacademicconstruct,thisthesiswillprove
otherwise.Onecannotexplainawaysomethingthatisalreadythere.
VI
VII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SigurdHjeldehasbeenmyeminentsupervisor,challengingandencouragingme.Without
yourhelpIdonotthinkIcouldhaveorganisedmythoughts.Ithankyouprofuselyforyour
excellentcommentsandsuggestions.
In2009ItookaclasscalledAfricanTraditionalReligionduringmysemesteratthe
UniversityofCapeTown.Myprofessor,Dr.SibusisoMasondo,sparkedthelingeringfireand
forthatIwillbeeternallygrateful.
Threemenhaveoccupiedaninspiringplaceinthebackofmymindmostofmylife.Icannot
hidetheirinfluenceonmychoices.NelsonMandela,DesmondTutuandKofiAnnan:Youare
wonderful.
Mostimportantly,themagnificentFredMartinhasstoodbymeandbeenpatientthrough
thickandthin,readpageafterpageandnotallowedmetogiveup.Iwouldmostcertainly
havebeenlostwithoutyourloveandsupport.Thankyou.
Andlastly:Nelson,myfriendandaccompliceinlife.Hewillneverlearntoread,asheisa
dog,buthisexistencehasmeantthatIcanstandbythisthesisandbeproud.
VIII
IX
TABLEOFCONTENTS
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….…..…..……1
1. AFRICANTRADITIONALRELIGION…………………………………………………..……………………..6
1.1 DEVELOPMENTANDCHANGE……………………………………………………………………………….7
1.2 MAINCHARACTERISTICS…………………………………………………………………………………….11
1.2.1 THESUPREMEBEING…………………………………………………………………………..............12
1.2.2 THEVITALFORCE…………………………………………………………………………………..........13
1.2.3 SPIRITS……………………………………………………………………………………………………..13
1.2.4 THECONCEPTOFTIME………………………………………………………………………………….13
1.3 SOUTHAFRICA……………………………………………………………………………………………………14
1.3.1 THEROLEOFCHRISTIANITY……………………………………………………………………..........15
1.3.2 THEAFRIKANER…………………………………………………………………………………….........16
1.3.3 ENDOFAPARTHEID……………………………………………………………………………………...17
2. UNDERSTANDINGUBUNTU………..……………………………………………………………………..…..20
2.1 ACADEMICAPPROACHES………………………………………………………………….…………………21
2.1.1 UBUNTUASARELIGIOUSCONCEPT…………………………………………………………………..22
2.1.2 ETYMOLOGY……………………………………………………………………………………………….24
2.1.3 UBUNTUANDPERSONHOOD…………………………………………………………………………...26
2.1.4 UBUNTU:ANAFRICANVALUE………………………………………………………………………….29
2.1.5 UBUNTUINSOUTHAFRICA……………………………………………………………………………..33
2.1.6 MORALTHEORYOFUBUNTU…………………………………………………………………………..34
3.2CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………38
3. PERFORMINGUBUNTU………………………..………………………………………………………..……….403.1 COMMUNITY…………………………………………………………………………………………………….…42
3.1.1 RITUALS……………………………………………………………………………………………….……44
3.1.2 PRAYER……………………………………………………………………………………………….…….45
3.1.3 SPECIALISTS………………………………………………………………………………………….……47
3.2 THEVITALFORCE……………………………………………………………………………………….………48
3.2.1 MARRIAGE………………………………………………………………………………………………....49
3.2.2 BRIDEWEALTH……………………………………………………………………………………………51
3.2.3 INITIATIONANDTABOOS………………………………………………………………………….……53
3.3 ANCESTORS………………………………………………………………………………………………………..55
3.3.1 NAMING…………………………………………………………………………………………………….56
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3.4 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………58
4. UTILISINGUBUNTU………………….……………………………………………………………………..……..59
4.1 NATIONBUILDING……………………………………………………………………………………………...59
4.1.1 THENATION‐STATE…………………………………………………………………………………......61
4.1.2 THEIMAGINEDCOMMUNITY…………………………………………………………………………..62
4.1.3 PROCESSESINNATIONBUILDING…………………………………………………………………….63
4.1.4 UBUNTUANDHISTORICALNARRATIVE……………………………………………………………..65
4.2 TRUTHANDRECONCILIATIONCOMMISSION………………………………………………………68
4.2.1 THEMANDATE……………………………………………………………………………………………68
4.2.2 WHYRECONCILIATION,NOTRETRIBUTION?………………………………………………………70
4.2.3 RELIGIONANDTHETRC………………………………………………………………………………...72
4.2.4 RECONCILIATIONASNATIONBUILDING…………………………………………………………….74
4.2.5 INTERCONNECTEDNESS‐TOWARDS‐WHOLENESS…………………………………………………75
4.2.6 ANEXAMPLEOFRECONCILIATIONTODAY………………………………………………………….78
4.3 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………………………79
CONCLUSIONS…………...……………………………………………………………………………….………….…………...81
BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..82
XI
1
INTRODUCTIONUbuntuisawordoutofAfrica.IthasincreasinglybecomeatruthintheWestthatthisword
means‘humanity,’andisespeciallylinkedtoforgivenessandreconciliationduetotheSouth
AfricanTruthandReconciliationCommission.Thewordcanbeseenonfairtradegoodsin
one’slocalsupermarket1,asthenameofaverysuccessfulcomputeroperatingsystem2or
heardduringbasketballorhandballgamesinbothNorthAmericaandEurope.3However,
thereismoretoubuntuthanbeingaslogan,abusinessideaoralifecoachingphilosophyfor
thestrengthofforgiveness.Therefore,thisthesisisbuiltonthreequestions:
Whatisubuntu?
Wheredoesubuntucomefrom?
Howcanubuntubelocated?
Withinthesequestionsliesthedebateonwhetherornotubuntuisanauthentic,historical
andrelevantelementofAfricanTraditionalReligion,orindeedAfricanlife.Therefore,this
thesiswilllookathowubuntuisunderstood,performedandutilised.Throughanswering
thesequestions,awideronewillalsobeanswered:
Isubuntuauthentic?
Inaskingthesequestions,whatdoIhopetoachieve?AccordingtoLeonhardPraeg,4
expectingaconstantiveresponseisnotgoingtoprovideuswithanythingusable.Ubuntuis
oftenexplainedthroughshowinganexaggerateddifference,mainlyfromtheWest,orby
whatPraegreferstoasa‘collapseddifference’,whichmeansequatingubuntutoalready
familiarphilosophies,suchassocialismorcommunalism.Inordertoachievesomething
representativewiththesequestionsthefocusneedsrathertobeontheperformativeor
politicalfunctionofubuntu.Praeginsistsweask:‘Whataretheconditionsofits
possibility?’5Thisthesiswilllocatetheconditionsthatmakeubuntupossible.Ratherthan
givingupexplainingtheinexplicable,whichubuntuoftenissaidtobe,orsideliningit
completelywithcommunitarianism,socialismorhumanism,Iwillexplainubuntuthrough
action.Whereisubuntuseen,heardanddone?Themainfocusofthisthesiswillbetosee
1TheUbuntuTradingCompany2011.2CanonicalGroupLtd.2012.3WilliamC.Rhoden2008.‘CelticsWearingtheBannerofUnity,’inTheNewYorkTimes,TormodBrenna2012.’Derforroperhåndballgutta’ubuntu!’ettertimeout.’Dagbladet.4LeonhardPraeg2008.’AnAnswertotheQuestion:Whatis[ubuntu]?’SouthAfricanJournalofPhilosophy.5Ibid:370‐371.
2
ubuntuthroughSouthAfricanpoliticalandeverydaylife,aswellasawiderAfrican
approach.Thisthesiswillalsofocusonthearrayofacademicdefinitionsand
understandingsofubuntu.Thisisimportantinunderstandingwhatubuntuisandwhat
pretextithasforexistenceinpeople’slives.Aswellasthis,ubuntuisplacedwithina
religiouscontextastherootofAfricanTraditionalReligion.Thisthesiswilloperatewiththe
followingdefinitionofAfricanTraditionalReligion,putforwardbyJuliusMutugiGathogo:
‘…it[is]anindigenoussystemofbeliefsandpracticesthatareintegratedintocultureandtheworldviewsoftheAfricanpeoples.Likeinotherprimalreligions,oneisbornintoitasawayoflifewithitsculturalmanifestationsandreligiousimplications.AfricanReligionisthusanintegralpartoftheAfricanethosandculture.’6
Idonotwishtoreduceubuntutooneparticularessence.Ubuntuisnotrestrictedtothe
communityandmyintentionistotreatubuntuinthecontextofSouthAfrica,aswellas
amongmanyothercountriesofAfrica.AlthoughmyculturalbackgroundisEuro‐Christian,I
havenodesiretouniversaliseubuntu.Iamattemptingtoexplainubuntuasaphenomenon
aswellasareligiouselementinAfricanTraditionalReligionthroughaperformative
approach.ThroughthisIwillproveubuntu’sauthenticityandrelevance.Ibelievethatno
phenomenonexistswithoutacontext.Thephenomenonofubuntucannot,anddoesnot,
existsolitarily.Asubuntuspeakstointerconnectedness,sodothechaptersofthisthesis.
Interconnectednessisanimportantcontextinwhichtounderstandubuntu,anditiswithin
thisthatubuntumanagestoexist.
‘Iam,becauseweare;andsinceweare,thereforeIam.’7‘IamhumanbecauseIbelong.’8‘Peoplearepeoplethroughotherpeople.’9
Thesethreequotesdonotspecificallysayubuntu,yetubuntuiswhattheyrepresent.
Therefore,thisthesiswillinvestigatethemeaningsandusesofubuntubyitselfandin
relationtoitssurroundings.Inordertoaccomplishthis,Idrawonphenomenology.Asfaras
itispossibleIwillattempttosidelinemyculturalbiasanddesiretocompare.Toachieve
whatthisthesissetsoutto,Iwillmakeuseofbothmorphologicalphenomenology,aswellas
hermeneuticalphenomenology.10Through‘eideticvision’11thisthesiswillclassifythe
6JuliusMutugiGathogo2007.’TheRelevanceandInfluenceofAfricanReligioninPostApartheidSouthAfricaandBeyond–Part1.’Churchman.164.7JohnS.Mbiti2008.AfricanReligionsandPhilosophy.Harlow:Heinemann.106.8DesmondTutu2000.Ingenfremtidutentilgivelse.Oslo:Pax.429Gathogo2007:170.10JacobK.Olupona1991.’MajorIssuesintheStudyofAfricanTraditionalReligion,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.29‐30.
3
essencesandthestructuresofubuntuinlinewithmorphologicalphenomenology.The
hermeneuticalphenomenologywilllocatetheessencesofmeaninginsidethephenomenon.
Thisthesiswillconsistofasystematic,historicalanddescriptiveapproach,12through
comparingthescholarlywork,maintainingthespecifichistoricalandculturalcontextsas
wellasdescribingthereligiousphenomenon.
Thesourcesusedtoanswerthesequestionsaremainlyamixbetweenjournalarticlesand
books.ThereisabalancedmixbetweenAfricanandEuropeanauthorsandscholars,also
includingsomefromNorthAmerica.Themostimportantauthorsforchapteroneandthree
havebeenKenyanscholarandpriestJohnS.MbitiandTanzanianscholarandpriest
LaurentiMagesa.Thereisawiderangeofsourcesusedinchaptertwo,wherethemost
widelyusedarearticlesbySouthAfricanscholarMogobeRamose,Dutchanthropologist
WimvanBinsbergen,AmericanphilosophyprofessorThaddeusMetzandGhanaian
philosopherKwameGyekye,aswellasNigerian‐AmericanscholarMichaelOnyebuchiEze’s
bookIntellectualHistoryofContemporarySouthAfrica.Thefinalchaptermakesmostuseof
thepreviouslymentionedbook,inadditiontoKwameGyekye’sbookTraditionand
Modernity,andCanadianscholarKennethChristie’sbookontheSouthAfricantruth
commission,alsoincludingSouthAfricanwriterAntjieKrog’sarticleaboutreconciliation
andforgiveness.Thiswidearrayofacademicbackgroundsandnationalitieswillprovidea
balancedportrayalofubuntu.
Thefirstchapterisdescriptiveincharacter.Forawholesomeunderstandingofubuntuone
needstounderstandAfricanTraditionalReligion(ATR),asubuntuisareligious
phenomenon.IchoosetodiscussthechangeanddevelopmentofATRfirst,asitprovestobe
anaturalstartingpointforafieldofstudythathasseenmanyinfluencesanddevelopments.
Themainfocushereishowcommonfeaturescanbelocatedinsuchalargeanddiverse
continent;thereligiousaspects;thepluralityofATR;andtheimpactofglobalpowerson
AfricanTraditionalReligion.FollowedbythemaincharacteristicsofATR.Iwillalsogivea
briefsummaryofthehistoryofSouthAfrica,andtheinfluencesthathasprovenimportant
forthepresentday.Allcountriesofsub‐SaharanAfricahaveacolonialpast,althoughthey
allpossessuniqueelementstotheirhistory.ThehistoryofSouthAfricawillnotserveasa
generaltaleofcolonialismandoppressioninAfrica,althoughitisareminderofthecontext
inwhichATRhassurvived.ThehistoryofSouthAfricamainlybenefitsthelastchapter, 11DouglasAllen2010.’PhenomenologyofReligion,’inJohnR.Hinnells(ed.):TheRoutledgeCompaniontotheStudyofReligion.NewYork:Routledge.209.12Ibid:215.
4
whichdiscussesubuntuinpostapartheidSouthAfrica.Itwillprovevaluableinthe
understandingoftheproblemsfacingSouthAfricaaftertheendofapartheid,andhow
ubuntuhasbecomeapartofthepublicimaginary.
Chaptertwowilldescribeanddiscussdiverseunderstandingsofubuntu,mainlybyscholars.
Thispartofthethesisisinmanywaysthecoreofunderstandingthemeaninginherentin
ubuntu.Thechapterwillstartbyplacingubuntuintotworeligiouscontextswhereubuntu
canbelocated.OneisinAfricanTraditionalReligionandtheotherisinformerArchbishop
DesmondTutu’sownubuntutheology.Thisfocusesonthemeaningsandvaluesofubuntu
withinTutu’sAnglicanChristianity.Includingthisviewisimportantbecauseitshows
differentaspectsofubuntu,aswellasexplainingTutu’svaluebasisduringhisparticipation
intheTruthandReconciliationCommission(TRC).Followingthis,theetymologyofthe
wordubuntuwillbepresented,mainlythroughaphilosophicalapproachoftheAfrican
scholarMogobeRamose.Presentingthiscreatesafoundationforthefurtherdiscussionof
ubuntu.Chaptertwoalsocontainsasalientdebateontheselfinrelationtotheapparent
communalnatureofubuntu,whichwillleadusclosertowardsafullunderstandingof
ubuntu.Anotherimportantpathtowardsanunderstandingofubuntuisthedebateon
whetherornotubuntuisaninventedconcept.CanonesaythatubuntuisanAfricanvalue?
Orisitalostvalue,erodedbyglobalisationand/orcolonialism?Somescholarsproposethat
ubuntuhasbeeninventedbycontemporaryacademicsforthebenefitofthenewly
globalisedAfricancountries.EspeciallyinthecontextofSouthAfrica,itisarguedthat
ubuntuhasbeenusedtosuppressfeelingsofangerandresentmentintheirpostapartheid
society.Thisleadsusfurther,wherethefocusisSouthAfricaandtheappearanceofubuntu
inapreandpostapartheidsociety.Thechapterwillconcludebyfocusingonsixtheoretical
interpretationsofubuntu,putforwardbyAmerican‐bornphilosophyprofessorThaddeus
Metz.13Thisfinalexerciseofthechapterwillhelpusdifferentiatebetweenthevarious
availableandmostrelevantdefinitionsofubuntu.Theseinterpretationsfocusonhuman
rights,utilitarianism,communitarianismandpersonhood.Thiswillleaveuswithaviewof
ubuntutocarryfurtherintothenextchapter.
Thethirdchapterwillprovetheexistenceofubuntuinpeople’slivesandinthecommunity.
Inpurportingtheauthenticityandrelevanceofubuntu,thischapterpresentsvital
information.TheexamplespresentedinthischapteraretakenfrompeoplesinSouthAfrica,
butalsofromdifferentcommunitiesinAfrica.Thereasonforthiswiderreachisthatthe
13ThaddeusMetz2007.’TowardanAfricanMoralTheory.’JournalofPoliticalPhilosophy.
5
understandingandinterpretationofubuntuisnotonlyfoundinSouthAfrica.Incorporating
examplesfromseveralcommunitiesprovidesuswithawiderimageofubuntu.Thisserves
twopurposes,whereoneexpandsthegeneralviewofhowubuntucanbeunderstood,
whereubuntucomesfromandhowitcanbelocated.Theotherpurposeistobenefitthelast
chapterinparticular.InexplainingtheAfrican,intricateandsocio‐religiousnatureof
ubuntu,onecanmoreeasilyseehowithasbecomesuchanapparentpartofSouthAfrica’s
publicimaginary.ThechapterwillfocusonthreemainelementsofAfricanTraditional
Religion.Theexamplesofstructuresandprocessesinthecommunityherewillprovethe
immediacyofubuntu,aswellasitsprominenceandauthenticity.Itdoesthisthrough
showinguswhereandhowubuntucanbelocatedinthecommunity.
ThefinalchapterdealswithubuntuinthecontextofSouthAfricannationbuildingafterthe
endofapartheid.AnimportantquestionhereishowSouthAfricahasmanagedtheproject
ofnationbuilding,andwhereubuntucanbefoundinthisendeavour.Thischapterwillfocus
ondefiningthebordersofthenation‐state,theprocessesofnationbuildingandwhatis
requiredforachievingunity.Further,therewillbeafocusonhowubuntuhasfeaturedin
thehistoricalnarrativethatSouthAfricalackedpostapartheid.Thefinalpartofthischapter
isconcernedwiththeTruthandReconciliationCommission(TRC)ofSouthAfrica.This
commissionwasgivenamandatebythegovernmentinordertoworktowardsnational
unity.Themandateandthechoiceofreconciliationoveramnestyorretributionwillbe
discussedinitially.Ubuntucanbetracedinthechoices,responsesandthestructureofthe
commission.Therewillalsobeafocusontheimportanceofreligiousacknowledgementin
theproceedingsoftheTRC.Manyofthosewhodiedduringapartheidwerelocatedasa
directresultoftheTRCproceedings,providingtheirfamilywiththeopportunitytobury
theirkinproperly.Aswellasthis,thefollowingquestionsneedtobeaddresses:whenand
howcanreconciliationbeanelementofnationbuilding;andwhenisthereconciliation
expectedtooccur?Finally,thischapterfocusesonhowubuntuwasexpressedduringthe
proceedingsoftheTRC,aswellasonhowthoseparticipatingintheproceedingsactedin
relationtoreligionandubuntu.Finally,toillustratethatubuntuispresenttodayinSouth
Africa,althoughnotspokenoutloud,Iwillpresentanexamplefromrecentyearsfeaturinga
universityprofessorinordertoshowthatubuntuexistsamongordinarypeopleinmodern
daySouthAfrica,furtherprovingubuntu’sauthenticityandrelevance.
6
1 AFRICANTRADITIONALRELIGIONDescribingwhatAfricanTraditionalReligionisprovesaprecarioustask.Sincethemid
1900stherehasbeenatugofwarbetweenWesternandAfricanrepresentations,andeven
betweenAfricanscholars:whograspstheauthenticAfricanreligion?Atthesametime,elite
Africanscouldnotwaituntilthecolonialdusthadsettledbeforeattemptingtoprovethat
AfricawasjustasgoodasEurope.TherewasadesirebyAfricansfromtheelitetocorrect
thefalseimagetheWesthadcreatedofAfrica,butaccordingtoRosalindShaw‘…endedup
reinforcingtheinterlopingtradition.’14BothansweringbacktotheWesternscholarsand
provingAfricathroughtheirwordswilldetractfromthetopicathand,whichisAfrican
TraditionalReligion.AccordingtoChidesteret.al.,onlywhenoneturnsawayfromthe
attentionoftheWestaltogetherwilltheAfricancometotheforefront.Now,this‘African’is
notsupposedtobeanuntouchedentity,freefromalloutsideinfluences,suchas
Christianity,Islamormodernity.Takingthehistoricalcontextintoconsiderationwill
promotetherealityofthe‘African’.15WellawarethatIamaWesternacademicIcando
nothingbutmyutmostinordertonotfallintothistrap.Mywishisnottonecessarilymake
thistopicmoreunderstandabletothereaderthroughtheacademiccontext,butastrulyasis
possibleIwishtopresentAfricanTraditionalReligiononitsownterms.ThereligionIam
presentingisnotafixedbeing,neverhavingdevelopedorevolved.Itis,however,a
representationofonlythereligiouspartsofthisbeliefsystem,asitshouldbe.Politicsdo
factorin,especiallyinthiscontextwhentalkingofcolonialismandapartheid,butitdoesnot
infuseeverything.AsIampresentingubuntuasareligiousconceptIwillattempttostripthe
religiondowntothebareboneinordertomoreclearlyshowhowubuntufitsin.Iwillof
coursediscussthevariousareasofcontention,likethepluralnatureofthereligion,the
religion’snameandwhatadefinitioncouldsoundlike.Inadditiontothis,howthereligious
pictureofSouthAfricaispresentedtodayisofgreatinterest,andwillbeaddressedbriefly.
ThereafterIwilllookatthemaincharacteristicsofAfricanTraditionalReligion.Infocusing
onthesimilaritiesfoundalloversub‐SaharanAfrica,whataretheimportantpartsofthe
religionandhowcanweseethem?Thelastsectionofthischapterwillfocusonthehistory
ofchurchstaterelationsinSouthAfrica,colonialmissionariesandabriefhistoryofSouth
Africafromwhenthefirstsettlersarriveduntiltoday,includinganoverviewofthediverse
groupsandlanguagesinhabitingSouthAfricatoday.
14DavidChidester,ChirevoKwenda,RobertPetty,JudyToblerandDarrelWratten1997.AfricanTraditionalReligioninSouthAfrica:AnAnnotatedBibliography.Westport/London:Greenwood.2.15Ibid.
7
2.1DEVELOPMENTANDCHANGE
AfricanTraditionalReligiondoesnothavewrittenrules,orasetofdogmastoacceptand
adhereto.ThetraditionsthatmakeupAfricanreligionhavebeenpasseddownfor
generationsthroughtheforbearsofeachcommunity.Eachgenerationencountersdifferent
challengesandexperiences,whichaltersthewayofpractisingtheirreligioninsuchaway
thatitisalwaysmovingforwardandevolving.16Overtimecommunitieshavecrossedpaths,
forinstancethroughmarriageorasthecauseofadisaster.Thishasseemedtocreate
commoncharacteristicsofreligiouspracticesacrossthecountriesofsub‐SaharanAfrica.
Thishasbeenanorganicprocesswhereeachcommunityisuniqueatthesametimeas
believingandviewingtheworldinmuchasimilarway.Sosimilarinfactthatonecanuse
thesingularwhenaddressingAfricanreligion.17Otherreligionsoftheworld,whichhavea
singularname,alsopossessuniquenessintheirmanydifferentgroupsofpeoplepractising
thatreligion.OtherAfricanscholarsechothisbelief,inasingularfocus.NokuzulaMndende
stressesthatpeoplecanlookatcommonfeaturesofreligion,withoutsayingthatreligionis
monolithic.ThishasbeendonewithChristianity,Islam,Hinduism,sowhyshouldAfrican
religionbepluralwhenoneneverhearstalkofChristianities,andsoforth.Hestressesthat
theunderlyingprincipleofAfricanReligionremainsthesame,eventhoughcustomsand
objectsdonot.18
LaurentiMagesaarguesthatAfricanreligionisaworthyworldreligion.Tohim,African
religionfulfilsallthecriterianeededinordertobecharacterisedasaworldreligion,
includinguniversality.Hedoes,however,pointoutthattoanAfrican,religionismuchmore
thana’believingwayoflife’,or’anapproachtolife’leadbythewritingsofbooks.Itisa‘way
oflife’,orindeedlifeitself.Thereisnodistinctionorseparationbetweenreligionandother
areasofhumanexistence.Further,Magesastatesthatwhentalkingofinspirationand
revelationthesecannotbelocatedinabook,normainlyintheoraltraditionsofthepeopleit
concerns.Itwillbelocatedinthepeoples’lives.19Thisiswhereonecanfindthecoreof
Africanreligion:fortheAfrican,religionisquiteliterallylifeandlifeisreligion.20African
religionbelongstowhatMbiticallstribalornationalplaces.Therearenomissionaries,and
onecannotconverttoAfricanreligion,asitispartoflifeineachcommunity.Africanreligion
16Mbiti2008:2‐3.17Ibid:4.18Gathogo2007:166.19LaurentiMagesa1997.AfricanReligion:TheMoralTraditionsofAbundantLife.Maryknoll:OrbisBooks.24‐26.20Ibid:26.
8
hasnofounders,noreformers,exceptsomehighlythoughtofhistoricalpersons,suchas
formerkingsorpoliticalleaders.21
LouisBrennerarguesthatthereislittleevidenceleadingonetobelievethattheparticipants
inreligiouspracticeinAfricahavethemselvesperceivedtheirreligionasexclusiveand
autonomous.Infact,hestresses,theredoesnotappeartobeawordinanyAfricanlanguage
thatistranslatableto‘religion’.22Othersclaimtherearenoequivalentsatallinother
culturesfortheword‘religion’.Someproposetogetridofthewordaltogetherwhen
researchingnon‐Westernreligions.23ThephraseAfricanTraditionalReligion(ATR)is
debatedandcontested.Formany,theinclusionof‘traditional’linksthephraseto
ChristianityandtheWest.ThosewhoprofessthisbelieveitwillportrayAfricanreligionas
beingarchaicandoutdated,whichtranslatestoitbeingirrelevant.Othersfavourleavingthe
wordoutasitdoesnotappearinanyoftheotherworldreligions,andshouldthereforejust
becalledAfricanreligion.However,theproblemwiththisisthatAfricanReligioninmodern
Africaisnotstraightforward.ChristianityhasbecomeasignificantAfricanreligion,which
invitesconfusionastowhatconstitutesAfricanreligionbyitself.Thesamecanbesaidof
Islam,whichisalsoasubstantialreligioninAfrica.Thequestion,successfullyposedby
JuliusGathogoisthen;howdowedecideanddevisethedifferencesbetweenthepresent
andthepre‐Christianorpre‐MuslimreligiousdiscoursesofAfrica?24AccordingtoRobin
Horton,ChristianityandIslamweremerecatalystsforchangeinAfricanreligion.African
religionwasalreadyrespondingtosocialchangeatthetimeofnewreligiousinfluencesin
thecommunities.ThistheorydebunkspreviousclaimsthatChristianityandIslam
themselveschangedAfricanreligionproposingthatthechangetheywereinvolvedinwas
alreadyinprogress.ThisprovesthestrengthinherentinAfricanreligionanditsabilityto
changebyitself.AsJacobOluponapointsout:‘…Africantraditionalreligionwasnotjusta
houseofcardsthatcollapsedattheinstanceofchange.’25Thisisnottosaythatchangehas
notproducedChristianproductsinAfricancommunities.TheadventofIndependentAfrican
Churchesisproofofthis.26AccordingtoBennettaWashingtonJules‐Rosette,therearemore
thanseventhousandnewreligiousmovementsinsub‐SaharanAfrica.Morethan32million
adherentsfollowtheseseventhousandplusmovements,whichamountsto15percentof
thetotalsub‐SaharanChristianpopulation.Jules‐Rosettearguesthatthesenewreligious 21Mbiti2008:4.22LouisBrenner2000.‘HistoriesofReligioninAfrica.’JournalofReligioninAfrica.143‐44.23JacobBeyers2010.‘WhatisReligion?AnAfricanUnderstanding.’HTSTeologieseStudies.1.24Gathogo2007:164.25Olupona1991:32.26Ibid:32.
9
movementsprimarilyexistinplaceswheretherehasbeenintensivecontactwith
Christianitythroughmissionaries.However,thesemovements,markedbybeingprophetic
andrevitalistic,didexistpriortoEuropeancontact,althoughtherewasastronger
emergenceafterthewidespreadEuropeancontact.27AccordingtoJules‐Rosettethereare
threemajortypesofnewreligiousmovementsinsub‐SaharanAfrica:‘(1)indigenous,or
independentchurches;(2)separatistchurches;and(3)neotraditionalmovements.’28They
alltakeondifferentformsdependingonwhereonthecontinenttheybelong,buttheyall
blendtraditionalreligionwithinfluencesofbothhistoricalandmodernchurches.The
reasonfortheiremergenceandcontinuedgrowthhasdifferentsources.Itmayhavebeen
convertswhoweredisappointedwiththepremisesandoutcomesofChristianity,
translationoftheBibleintolocalAfricanlanguages,failurebyChristiandenominationsto
meetlocalneeds,influenceofWesternmedicineinfavourofspiritualhealing,orthefailure
ofChristianitytocreatestrongandnecessarycommunitybonds.AccordingtoJules‐Rosette,
thenewchurchesnowemergefromandremainingrowthduetothelossofsenseof
communityinurbanareas.29ThesenseofcommunityisofvitalimportancetotheAfrican,
andthesesocialstructurestendtobreakapartinurbansituations.Althoughthelevelof
urbanpopulationinAfricaislow,therateatwhichitistakingplaceisamongthehighestin
theworld.AccordingtoOosthuizen,urbanisationinAfricantodayismoreextensivethan
bothinChinaandIndia.30Hedoes,however,stressthatbothmodernandtraditional
worldviewsareprevalentinAfricatoday,withChristianityandIslaminfluencedbythe
traditionalAfricanreligion,andallthreeinfluencedbysecularisation.Thisbeingsaid,
OosthuizenpointsoutthatthemodernistworldviewoftheWesthasnotaffectedAfricaina
significantway.HecallsthisWesternworldview‘…closed,essentiallycompleteand
unchangeable,basicallysubstantiveandfundamentallynon‐mysterious…’,whichisforeign
toAfricawherereligionstillisanimportantpartofpeopleslives.31
InaddressingchangeinAfricanreligion,RosalindHackettarguesthatitisnotthewhole
religioussystemwhichchangesbutratherconcepts,practicesandsymbols.CitingRobin
Horton,shecontinuesbysayingthatwhentheenormityoftheworldentersintothesmall
27BennettaWashingtonJules‐Rosette1991.’TraditionandContinuityinAfricanReligions:TheCaseofNewReligiousMovements,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.150,151.28Ibid:150.29Ibid:151.30GehardusCornelisOosthuizen1991.‘ThePlaceofTraditionalReligioninContemporarySouthAfrica,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.36.31Ibid:36.
10
communitythelocalspiritsarethefirsttobedevalued.Insteadthecommunityfocuses
moreontheSupremeBeingandplacesmoreimportanceinoneplace.Othersclaimthatitis
the‘…cultic,collective,orcalendricalaspects’32thatdiminishfirst.Thisisbecausethe
communitysuffersalossofidentityandalsoofpower.However,accordingtothesewriters
importantriteslikehealing,divinationandmagickeeptheirimportanceastheycontinueto
behelpfulinthechallengesofachangingworld.AccordingtoHackett,themainwaves
affectingthechangeofAfricanreligionare:universalisation,modernisation,politicisation,
commercialisationandindividualisation.Thereisanattemptofscholarsandothersto
universaliseAfricanreligionsoastoequateittootherWorldreligions.Tothem,making
Africanreligionavailablearoundtheworldwilltherebylegitimateitsexistence.33This
contradictswhatMbitisaysofAfricanreligionhavingnomissionaries,andoutsidersnot
beingabletoconverttoAfricanreligion,asitishighlylocal.34ModernisationofAfrican
religionisresultinginsmallerchurchesusingChristianformsinexpressingthemselves,at
thesametimeastheyclaimtobeauthenticallyAfrican,accordingtoHackett’sresearchin
Nigeria.Inadditiontothis,modernisationiscreatingencountersbetweenAfricanreligious
sitesorspiritsthatneedtobeincorporatedintocorporatesituations.Thisincludescreating
staticshrineswithopeninghoursforworship,aswellasperformingritualstopleasethe
spiritsofaplacewhereacementcompanyisbeingconstructed.Politiciansandgovernment
officialspourlibationattheopeningofhospitalsorotherbuildingsormonuments.35This
doesprovethoughthatAfricanTraditionalReligionfeatures,sometimesmore
predominantlythannot,inAfricanurbancommunitiesandcities.Thisiscontrarytowhat
WimvanBinsbergenclaims.Hearguesthatvaluesfoundinruralvillagelifearelostwhen
peoplemovetowardsthecities.36
Theageoftechnologyalongwithheavyurbanisation,Westernstylepoliticsandtradeareall
veryimportantandverymuchapartofdailylifeinmanyAfricancountries.Although
ChristianityisthelargestreligioninSouthAfrica,researchshowsthatboththoseaffiliated
witheitherChristianityorIslamstillrefertoelementsofAfricanreligionaspartoftheirlife,
forinstancethecommunicationwithancestors.37DavidAdamoarguesthatAfrican
TraditionalReligionhasexperiencedresurgenceinpostapartheidSouthAfrica.Hemainly
32RosalindI.J.Hackett1991.’RevitalizationinAfricanTraditionalReligion,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.136.33Ibid:136‐38.34Mbiti2008:4.35Hackett1991:139‐142.36WimvanBinsbergen2001.‘UbuntuandtheGlobalisationofSouthernAfricanThoughtandSociety.’Quest.62.37TheEconomist2010.’Islam,ChristianityandAfrica:ABeaconofFaiths.’
11
creditsthistoATRpracticallybeingoutlawedduringapartheid,andnowcanbepractices
freely.HementionshealthworkersapproachingtheSouthAfricanParliamentinorderto
giverecognitiontoAfricanhealers.HealsonotesthatChristianchurcheshavebeenmore
thanopenfordialoguewiththosepracticingAfricanTraditionalReligion.38Accordingtothe
WorldReligionDatabase,thedeclineinadherentstoAfricanTraditionalReligionseemsto
havestopped,justastheriseofChristianityseemstobeonasimilarpause.Ithereforethink
wecansaythatAdamo’suseofthewordresurgenceisoverlyoptimistic.However,asis
pointedoutbytheresearchfromWorldReligionDatabase,peopleregisteredasChristians
dostillturntotheirAfricanTraditionalReligion,whichhasinallprobabilityplayedamajor
roleintheirupbringing,whetherurbanornot.AsacompromisebetweensayingATRis
experiencingaresurgenceandATRisexchangedforChristianity,wecansaythatChristian
churchesregistertheirfollowersbutdonotlaydownsetrulesofhowtopersonallyrelateto
thepreachedChristianity.AfricanTraditionalReligioncanthereforestillbeapartoflife.
2.2MAINCHARACTERISTICS
ManisatthecentreofAfricanreligioneventhoughthereligiondoesnotexistprimarilyfor
theindividual,butratherforthewholecommunitytheindividualisapartof.JohnMbiti
statesthattobehumanistobelongtoacommunity.Inbelongingtothecommunityone
takespartintherituals,ceremonies,festivalsandbeliefsofthatcommunity.Thiswaya
personwillalwaysbereligious,astheywillalwaysbelongtotheircommunity,atleastthisis
trueintheory.Butalsointheory,severingoneselffromthecommunitywillentailuprooting
oneselftothefullest.Acommunityisinasenseasetof‘others’;theymakethepersonaware
oftheirownexistence.Inseparatingoneselffromthecommunity,the‘others’willnolonger
beavailableinordertomakethepersonawareofhisownexistence,andthereforebecomea
fullerhumanbeing.Thismeansthatavitalpartofthepicturewillbemissingasthisperson
navigatesthroughlife.ThiswouldbenearimpossibletodoasMbitistresses;beingwithout
religionisakinto’selfexcommunication’fromsociety.AndaccordingtoMbiti,African
peoplesdonotknowhowtoexistwithoutreligion.Evenso,education,urbanisationand
industrialisationareallchangingthefaceofAfricanreligion,asmoreandmorepeopleare
beingdetachedfromtheirtraditionalbackgroundsandenvironments.39
38DavidT.Adamo2008.’ChristianityandtheAfricanTraditionalReligion(s):ThePostcolonialRoundofEngagement.’VerbumetEcclesia.2.39Mbiti2008:4.
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2.2.1THESUPREMEBEING
AnimportantelementinAfricanReligionisthe‘incomprehensibleandmysterious’40
SupremeBeing.Theentitythatdidordidnotcreatetheworld,dependingonwhatscholars
oneagreewith,41doesnotusuallyhaveaname.Ifithasaname,itisseldomspoken.Naming
meansassertingcontrol,andleavingthedeitywithoutanamemaintainsitsdignity.This
alsohelpswithseparatingtheSupremeBeingfromhumanity.ContactwiththeSupreme
Beingcanonlybedonethroughcouncillorsandmediators.However,theSupremeBeingis
‘intheorytranscendent,butinpracticeimmanent.’42EmefieIkenga‐Metuhattemptsto
explainAfricanreligiouscosmogonyinfocusingontheessentialdifferencebetweena
WesternGodandanAfricanSupremeBeing.WestAfricansystemsofbeliefdonotseethe
SupremeBeingascreator,eventhoughthereexistsanimageofasuperiorbeing.Despite
believinginaSupremeBeing,Africanreligioncannotbereferredtoasamonotheistic
religion.Itcannotbecalledapolytheisticreligioneither,asotherdivinitiesarenotequalin
positiontotheSupremeBeing.ThereforetherearenowordsinWesternphilosophythat
cancorrectlyexplainAfricanreligion.43ProfessorGloriaEmeagwaliarguesthatAfrican
religionreflectsmonotheisticorientationsinapolytheisticform.Sheexplainsthisthrough
OrisaandIfa,deitiesoftheYoruba,whicharecharacterisedbypayinghomagetoancestors
andconstructingshrines,atthesametimeassubmittingthemselvestothedifferent
manifestationsoftheSupremeBeing.44TheancestorscancommunicatewiththeSupreme
Beingonbehalfofpersonsinthestill‐livingfamilyoftheancestor(s).JuliusGathogouses
examplesfromSouthernandEasternAfricatoexplainhowcommoncharacteristicsof
AfricanReligioncanbefoundacrossAfrica.TheXhosaofSouthAfricacalltheirSupreme
BeingQamataandtheancestorsmediatebetweenQamataandthehumanbeings.Thissame
worldviewimageryisfoundamongtheKikuyuofEastAfrica,wheretheancestorsmediate
betweenthehumansandNgai.45
40Mbiti2008:4.41Mbiti2008:4,EmefieIkenga‐Metuh1982.’ReligiousConceptsinWestAfricanCosmogonies:AProblemofInterpretation.’JournalofReligioninAfrica.21.42MbitiquotedinBeyers2010:4.43SandraE.Greene1996.’Religion,HistoryandtheSupremeGodsofAfrica:AContributiontothedebate.’JournalofReligioninAfrica.123‐124,Ikenga‐Metuh1982:21‐23.44GloriaEmeagwali2006.’AfricaandtheTextbooks,’inGloriaEmeagwali(ed.):AfricaandtheAcademy:ChallengingHegemonicDiscoursesonAfrica.Trenton/Asmara:AfricaWorldPress.8.45Gathogo2007:166.
13
2.2.2THEVITALFORCE
MbitidividesAfricanontologyintofivecategories:God,spirit,man,animalsandplants,and
phenomenaandobjectswithoutbiologicallife.This‘anthropocentric’ontologyisin
completeunitywhereallelementsareequallyco‐dependent.Keepingthesecategoriesin
continuedbalancetooneanother,noonegrowingbiggerorsmallerthantheother,isavery
importantactofmaintainingharmony.Thiswillmakeitpossibletogainasmuchoutoflife
inthepresent.AccordingtoMbiti,thereisaforcepermeatingtheuniverse.TheSupreme
Beingcontrolsthisforce,allowingsomespiritsandancestorsaccesstoit,althoughnottoall
ofit.46Thevitalforce47iscrucialinAfricanTraditionalReligion.Alllivingthingsaregiven
theirlifeforcebytheSupremeBeingtosustainlife.Alllivingthingsareconnectedthrough
thisvitalforce,andlifeisallaboutcaringforitandpassingiton.Thisvitalforceisimportant
inmaintainingthebalanceandharmonybetweenthevisibleandtheinvisibleworld,which
isagreatethicalobligationdeterminingqualityoflife.48
2.2.3SPIRITS
AccordingtoKrüger,threecategoriescanbeidentifiedaspartofthespiritworld;theyare
thespiritsoftheancestors,naturespiritsanddeities.Spiritsbelongontheearth,whereas
thedeitiesresidemostlyawayfromearth.TheancestorsarevitalinAfricanTraditional
Religion,andisdirectlylinkedtothepreservationandpassingonofthevitalforce.
Ancestorshavepersonalrelationshipswiththeirdescendants,andcanactasmediators
betweenhumansandtheSupremeBeing.Becominganancestorisaprivilegenoteveryone
canobtainastheyareconsiderededucatorsforpropersocialbehaviour.Theunified
communitypointedoutasacharacteristicbyKrügerreferstoa‘…naturalbondbetweenthe
individual,theextendedfamily,theclanorthetribe,andtheancestors,natureandGod.’49
2.2.4THECONCEPTOFTIME
AccordingtoMbiti,theAfricanconceptoftimeisatwo‐dimensionalphenomenon.Thereisa
longpast,apresent,andnofuture.Healsodifferentiatesbetweenpotentialandactualtime.
Theremightbeaninevitableeventtotakeplaceinthefuture,partofthe‘rhythmofnatural
phenomena’,whichwillbeplacedwithinpotentialtime,notactualtime.Eventsthathave
46Mbiti2008:15‐16.47Magesa1997:39.Itisalsoknownbythenameoflifeforce,lifeessence,dynamismormana.AlthoughMbitistatesthatmanadoesnotrelatetothevitalforceinthisdefinition.Mbiti2008:16.48Magesa1997:73‐74.49Beyers2010:5.
14
notyetoccurredcannotconstitutetime.Oncethefutureeventshavepassed,itisnolonger
inthefuture,butalreadyinthepresentorpast.Mbitiarguesthattimemovesbackward
ratherthanforward.Oneismindfulofthepastinordertoincorporateitintothepresent,
ratherthanthefuture.Theexperienceoftimecomespartlythroughtheindividualand
partlythroughtheadherentcommunity.Thereisanawarenessofallthepastgenerations.
Thepastgenerationsarere‐experiencedinthepresentbythoselivinginthecommunityin
ordertomakethebestonecanoutofthepresent.50Thisviewoftimeisusefulforuswhen
talkingabouttheimmanenceinherentintheAfricanworldview.Thisimmediacyaffectsall
partsoflife,andthereforereligiouslife,explainingtoadegreewhytheharmonyinthe
statusquoisofsuchimportance.Thefocusonthehereandnowdoesnottakeawayfrom
thebiggerpicture.ThisbiggerpictureispartoftheAfricanworldview,asthevitalforceisof
greatimportanceinordertocontinuethebloodlineandmaintaintheforce,whichisalong‐
termproject.However,neglectingtodosowillaffectthehereandnowagreatdeal,which
willnotmakepossibleafuture.In1969,whenJohnMbitipublishedhisbookonAfrican
religionhewrotethatAfricanpeoplesarediscoveringthefuturedimensionoftimethrough
‘…Christianmissionaryteaching,…western‐typeeducation,…[and]theinvasionofmodern
technologywithallitinvolves.’51Invariouscountriesthesecularlevelsofgovernmentare
affectedastheyplanforeconomicgrowth,politicalindependenceandextensionof
educationalfacilities,amongotherthings.Mbitiarguesthatthischangecouldbeattheroot
ofmuchoftheinstabilityseeninAfrica’scountries.Heseespotentialinextendingthefuture
dimensionoftimeasmuchasheseespossibletragedyifthisdiscoveryisnotharnessedand
channelledproductively.52
2.3SOUTHAFRICA
AccountingforthehistoryofSouthAfricaisaformidabletask.WhichiswhyIwillfocuson
threewaysoftalkingaboutthehistoryofSouthAfricathatwillbenefitthisthesis.Firstofall
Iwillbrieflyandsuperficiallytalkabouttheroleofthechurchinstaterelationssincethe
firstDutchEuropeansarrivedontheshoresoftheCapein1652,andhowthisbecamea
usefultoolduringtheapartheidyears.Iwillalso,brieflyandsuperficiallyaddresshow
colonialmissionariesactedinthefaceofAfricanTraditionalReligion,andhowthey
underminedthepoliticalorderamongtheTshidioftheTswanapeople.FollowingthisIwill
50Mbiti2008:17.51Ibid:27.52Ibid:27.
15
sketchoutabroaderhistoryofSouthAfrica,fromthearrivalofthecolonists,totheGreat
Trek,ontoapartheidupuntiltoday,focusingonhowthecolonistsmanagedtocontrolthe
wholeofthecountry.ThemainfocusofthelastchapterofthisthesisisSouthAfrica.The
otherchaptersdolookatSouthAfricaaswellbuttheyalsohaveawiderfocus.Whentalking
oftheunderstandingofubuntuandthepracticingofubuntu,abroaderapproachis
necessaryandusefulinproperlyexplainingubuntuintheroleofAfricanTraditional
Religion.Thelastchapterfocusesonhowubuntuhasbeenutilisedinpost‐apartheidSouth
Africa.Therefore,asummaryofthehistoryofthecountryisessentialinordertofully
understandhowubuntuhasenteredandimpactedtheprocessestobediscussedinchapter
four.ThisviewofhistoryincludeslookingattheroleofChristianityfromwhentheCape
Provincewasfirstcolonised,thehistoricalreasoningforapartheid,aswellastheendofthe
apartheidregime.
2.3.1THEROLEOFCHRISTIANITY
TherehasalwaysbeenacloserelationshipbetweenthechurchandthestateinSouthAfrica.
FromthetimetheDutchEuropeansarrivedin1652therewasnocleardistinctionbetween
politicsandreligion.Thisrelationshiponlygrewstrongerduringthe1700s,andmirrored
whatwasthecaseintheNetherlandsfromwhencetheycame:protectionandcontrolofthe
church.WiththeCapeProvincegoingbackandforthbetweentheDutchandtheBritish,
whoarrivedforthefirsttimein1795,thereweremadelittlechangestotheclosebond
betweenchurchandstate.Theyinsteadattemptedtoanglicisetheexistingmajoritychurch.
WhentheNationalPartytookpowerin1948thechurchesseemedanaturalplaceinwhich
toteachtheapartheidworldview.TheDutchReformedChurch(DRC)wasalreadyinvolved
inspreadingteachingsofseparatismbeforetheapartheidgovernmentwasareality,but
nowtheyreceivedofficialactstodecreeinthechurchrooms,suchastheProhibitionof
MixedMarriagesAct55of1949.TheDRCprovedanindispensibleaffiliateoftheapartheid
government.53AfterbeingdeemedhereticalbytheWorldAllianceofReformedChurchesin
1982,theDutchReformedChurchcounterfiredbysayingthatapartheidwasthewillof
God.54Duringtheapartheidyearstherewasnoconstitutionalrightforfreedomofreligion,
howeversomeChristiandenominationsandsomereligionsweretoleratedbythestate.But
53PieterCoertzen2008.’FreedomofReligioninSouthAfrica:ThenandNow1652‐2008.’VerbumetEcclesia.350‐354.54MichaelOnyebuchiEze2009.IntellectualHistoryinContemporarySouthAfrica.NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan.55.
16
accordingtotheapartheidstateandtheDRC,theonlycorrectformofChristianity,and
indeedreligion,waswhatwaspracticedofficially.55
TheBritish,amongmanyothers,broughtmissionariestotheAfricancontinentasthey
expandedtheirempire.UnlikewhattheBritishmetintheCapeProvince,aDutchChristian
church,otherpartsofSouthernAfricaproveddifferent.Incommunitieswheretherewasno
Christianitytherewasperceivedtobenothing,andthemissionariesstartedtheworkof
convertingpeopletothisEuropeanreligion.Inmostinstancesthelocalreligionwas
suppressed,asitwasconsideredworthless,ignorantanddevilish.AccordingtoJeanand
JohnComaroff,whatattractedthenativepeoplestothemissionariesweretheirtechnical
skillsandtheirweaponrymorethantheirreligion.TheComaroff’sstatethatthe
missionariesbecameaprizedresourceandthedifferentcommunitiesclosetoamission
stationtriedtoattractthemissionariestothem.OntheborderbetweenSouthAfricaand
BotswanatheTshidioftheTswanapeoplewereconfrontedwithMethodistmissionariesin
themid1800s.AstheChristianfaithattractedsomemembers,tensionanddisagreement
startedaffectingthetribe.Themissionariessawthatthechiefswiththeirritualsuccessheld
themostauthority.Inordertoadoptthisauthority,themissionariesneededtotakeastand
againsttherituals.HereamongtheTshidi,asthroughoutSouthernAfrica,thecommunity
brokeapart.AccordingtotheComaroffs,byadvancingChristianitythemissionaries
attemptedtoweakenorerasethespiritualaspectsofwhattheyhadencountered,andended
uperodingtheentirefoundationofthe‘chiefship’andwhattheTswanasawasthe
inseparabledimensionsofpowerandlegitimacy.Authoritybecamesplit,wherethechief
wasnolongerthecentreofthesocialandsymbolicworld,theChristianchurchclaimed
authoritativespaceaswell.Thisdivisionofpower,includingthechurchtakingonapolitical
position,createdmanytroublesforthecommunitiesthemissionariesactedin.56
2.3.2THEAFRIKANER
WhentheDutchEuropeansarrivedinthemid1600´s,SouthAfricawasacountrymainly
madeupofhunter‐gathererslivingoffandwiththeland.TheDutchcolonisedtheCapeand
importedslavesfromWestAfrica,MadagascarandSouthEastAsia.Thereweremoreslaves
thancolonisedcitizensontheCape.TheDutchpaidlittleattentiontothenativesoutsidethe
bordersoftheCape,andexertedpressureandcontrolwhereneededinsidetheCape.
55Coertzen2008:358.56JeanComaroffandJohnComaroff1986.’ChristianityandColonialisminSouthAfrica’.AmericanEthnologist.2‐6.
17
Towardstheendofthe1700´sallslaveswererequiredtowearpasses,sotheywouldbe
abletoidentifythemselveswheneverneeded.Thiswasalsoagoodwayofcontrollingwho
wentwhereanddidwhat.Inthebeginningofthe1800´sthegreatscrambleforAfrica
commenced.ThisbroughttheBritishtotheCape,makingtheAfrikanersfightforwhatthey
hadmadetheirland.TheAfrikanersweremadetofleefromtheCapeby1836.Theysetout
acrossSouthAfricaonwhatwastobecomeknownastheirGreatTrek.57Whentheyarrived
ontheothercoastofthecountry,theyencounterednativeSouthAfricansthere.The
Afrikanersawitastheirdutytoeducateandtakecareofthenatives,astheywere
consideredtoounintelligenttoliveuptothestandardsoftheEuropeans.Despitebeing
chasedofftheCapebytheBritish,fellowEuropeans,theAfrikanerrefusedtorelinquish
theirviewofthemselvesasEuropean.DuringtheGreatTrek,mythhasitthattheonlybook
thetravellershadtoreadwastheChristianbible.Thishelpedfermenttheirideasof
themselvesasakintoGod’schosenpeople,alsostrugglingthroughharshandunwanted
times,onlytocomeoutstrongerontheotherside.Thisiswhatdrovethemonacrossthe
difficultterrainofSouthAfrica,anddrovethemtomakethedecisionstheymadeoncethey
startedmakingahomeforthemselvesinNatal.Later,theAfrikanergovernmentswere
enforcingandstrengtheningtheideaofraceinordertosecurethemassivewealthpresent
inSouthAfrica.Theblackworkerswereslowlymarginalisedbeforeitturnedinto
systematicgovernmentalexclusionoftheAfricanfromallspheresofbusinessandpublic
life.Controllingthenaturalresourcesandallthewealthinthecountryaidedthe
developmentofaracialsegregationideology.Thewhitestateworkedtediouslyfortheblack
mantorealisehisstanceinlife,andhisfuture.Afterfailedattemptsatfreedomtowardsthe
endofthe19thCentury,theblackAfricansassignedtoneverbeingabletofightthepower,
andbegunconsideringthemselvesstupidandlesserthantheirwhitecounterparts.This
startedchanginginthe20thCentury.58
2.3.3ENDOFAPARTHEID
Inthebeginningofthe1990’snegotiationsforanewgovernmentcommenced.This
followedaftertheunbanningofalloppositionpartiesandthereleaseofNelsonMandela,as
wellasotherpoliticalprisoners.Thenegotiationswereprimarilyleadbytheleaderofthe
liberationgrouptheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC),NelsonMandelaandtheleaderofthe
apartheidrulingpartytheNationalParty(NP),F.W.deKlerk.Thenegotiationsspanneda 57AllAfrikanersdidnottraveltogetherinonesingleGreatTrek,anddidnotarriveinoneplaceatthesametime,althoughtheuseoftheword’trek’inthesingularmaycreateconfusionaboutthis.58Eze2009:14‐34.
18
longperiodoftime,andtheNPwasreluctanttorelinquishasmuchpowerastheANC
craved,anddidnotwanttostepdownwithoutcertainconditions.Oneofthebest‐known
conditionsforparticipatinginthetransitionofpowerwasamnesty.Initially,theNational
Partwantedtoleavethepastinthepastandmoveforward.TheANCdidnotfeelthiswasan
adequatesolutiongiventheseverityofthedecadesofoppression.Thecompromisebecame
theTruthandReconciliationCommission,whereamnestywouldbegrantedinreturnfor
fullhonestyandresponsibilityforcrimescommittedinthenameofthepoliticalagendaof
apartheid.59Upuntiltheelectionof1994,NelsonMandelaandF.W.deKlerkservedina
jointgovernment.AfterMandelabecamepresident,deKlerkservedasdeputypresident
alongsideThaboMbeki.Throughactionslikethis,theyshowedtheywerewillingtojoin
forcesinordertomoveforward.Morethanthis,itshowedblackandcolouredSouth
Africansamanwhohadbeentreatedsounjustlyriseaboveandforgive.In1994South
Africaheldtheirfirstfreeanddemocraticelection,withtheANCwinningthevote.Nelson
MandelawaselectedpresidentastheleaderoftheANC,andhewasthefirstblackpresident
ofSouthAfrica.Otherparties,includingtheNPwererepresentedinthegovernmentaswell,
althoughtheANCpossessedaclearmajority.60Amassivetaskawaited,andthecountryhad
totackletheseveresituationsofviolence,seriousfinancialtroublesandthegrosssocial
inequalitiescreatedovermanydecadesbytheapartheidgovernment,andevenearlier.
MandelawasveryconsciousofthemajordividesofSouthAfricansocietyandworkedto
bridgethesegapsandbringallthepeoplestogethertofacethefutureinunity.61Inessence,
allthosethatlivedinthecountrybelongedthere;nomatterwhattheylookedlikeorwhat
languagetheyspoke.WhiteSouthAfricansshouldnotfearthechangeinleadership,and
blackandcolouredSouthAfricansshouldnotfearthewhiteman.Itisnowondertheworld
thoughtitmiraculous,62whattookplaceinSouthAfrica.Withtherealityofan
uncompromisingandsystematicallyunjustruleforahighnumberofyears,colonialismand
theviolentturmoiloftheearly1990s63,whathappenednextmusthaveappearednearly
unbelievable.TherewasnocivilwarinSouthAfrica.Todaytherepublicisoneofthemost
successfulandeconomicallysoundcountriesoftheAfricancontinent.Althoughthereare
stillmajortobeaddressed,andthepoliciesoftheapartheidregimearestillvisible.
59KennethChristie2000.TheSouthAfricanTruthCommission.Basingstoke:Macmillan.16‐17,68‐80.60Ibid:18.61AfricanNationalCongress2012,TinyikoSamMaluleke1997.’Truth,NationalUnityandReconciliationinSouthAfrica:Aspectsoftheemergingagenda.’Missionalia.3.62JonathanAllen2001.’BetweenRetributionandRestoration:JusticeandtheTRC.’SouthAfricanJournalofPhilosophy.22.63JamesL.Gibson2006.’TheContributionsofTruthtoReconciliation:LessonsfromSouthAfrica.’JournalofConflictResolution.413.
19
Afterapartheid,allgroupsofpeopleweretobeequallyrecognisedwithequalrights.
EveryonewastoberepresentedbytheTruthandReconciliationCommission,andtakepart
innationbuildinginSouthAfrica.Withsuchawiderarrayofdifferentviewpointsand
memories,thiswasamassivetask.Thislastpartofthischapterexplainssomethingthatis
neededinfullyunderstandingthechallengesposedinthefinalchapter.Howdoesone
addressthenewSouthAfrica?TodaySouthAfricaisanationthatrecognisestheplural
realities,andtoaccountforthemthisnextpartfocusesonexactnumbers.TheRepublicof
SouthAfricahasapopulationofroughly50,5millionpeople.Ofthese79,5%,are
categorisedasAfrican.9%arewhite,andcoloureds,meaningpeopleofmixedheritage,64
similarlyamountto9%.TheIndian/Asianpopulationconstitute2,5%,or1,2millionofthe
totalof50,5.TheblackAfricanpopulationcanbedividedintofourgroupings.Thisincludes
theNguni,theSotho‐Tswana,theTsongaandtheVenda.TheNgunipopulationgroup
includestheZulu,Xhosa,NdebeleandSwazi.Theidiommostusedwhentalkingofubuntu,
‘ubuntuungamntungabanyeabantu’,hailsfromtheNgunilanguagegroup.Thisidiomis
herewritteninisiXhosa.65
TheSotho‐TswanapopulationgroupiscomprisedoftheSouthern,NorthernandWestern
Sotho.OfWhiteSouthAfricanstherearedescendantsofDutch,GermanandFrench
Huguenots,descendantsfromtheBritishandotherimmigrantsanddescendantsfromother
Europeancountries.InthecreationofthenewSouthAfrica,oftenreferredtoasthe
RainbowNation,11languageswererecognisedasofficialtotheRepublicofSouthAfrica.
TheseareisiNdebele,isiXhosa,isiZulu,SesothosaLeboa,Sesotho,Setswana,Tshivenda,
Xitsonga,AfrikaansandEnglish.OfthesethewideuseofisiZulurevealsthattheZuluarethe
largestpopulationgroup,followedbytheXhosa.Afrikaansisthethirdmostcommon
language,asitisusedbothbytheWhitedescendantsfromDutch,GermanandFrenchas
wellasthecolouredpopulation.66
64’Coloured’isacontestedcategory.TheyaremainlydescendedfromslavesbroughtfromeastandcentralAfrica,aswellastheindigenousKhoisan,andothers.TheymostlyspeakAfrikaans.SouthAfrica.info2012.65SouthAfrica.info2012.’SouthAfrica’sPopulation.’66Ibid.
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2 UNDERSTANDINGUBUNTUInvestigatingthecontentofthemanydefinitionsofubuntuisacrucialsteptowards
discoveringwhatubuntuisandwhetherornotitislegitimate.Thedefinitionsaremany,
andtheyfocusondifferentaspectsofubuntu.Whatothersleaveout,someadd,what
contextubuntuisplacedinchanges,andwhatthefocusisdiffers.Thisbeingsaid,thefact
thatubuntulivesoutsidetheacademicspheredoesneedtobeaddressed,whetherornot
theycoincidewiththedefinitionsanddescriptionsofscholars.Thespreadofubuntu
globallydoescoincidewithitbeingusedactivelyinpost‐apartheidSouthAfrica.What
happenedinSouthAfricaaftertheapartheidregimewasset‐asidewasviewedbymanyasa
miracle,bothatthetimeandyearslater.67Theprospectsforthewell‐beingofthecountry
andthepeopleinitwerebleak.Notonlyweretheregravefinancialtroubles,violencewas
alsorapidlyescalating.68Whatensuedinformofpoliticalnegotiationtowardsanewagenda
andfairelectionsalongsidetheproceedingsoftheTruthandReconciliationCommission,
showedtheattentiveworldsomethingoutoftheordinary,andindeed,quitemiraculous.
Therewasturmoilallaroundtheworld,andinothercountriesinAfricaaswellduringthe
timewhenSouthAfricastartedrebuilding.Ilieuofthis,thefocusonexactlyhowSouth
Africamanagedwhattheydidwasmassive.Ubuntuispresentedassomethinginfinitely
goodandhelpful,aswellasrepresentingallwhatpeoplewishtheyhadandhowtheworld
ideallyshouldbe.Ubuntu,inthisuniversalform,representsthebestofhumansandthe
humansituation.Wewouldallwanttobekind,generous,patient,considerateandforgiving.
Ubuntuhasessentiallybecomefreetobeusedbyallinwhatevercontextpeoplewish,
whetherasasportscryorafreeeasy‐to‐sharecomputersoftware,evenifitmeans
capitalisingonit.
Thischapterwillfocusmainlyonthedifferentacademicdefinitionsofubuntu.Theacademic
definitionsaretrulyatthecoreofdiscoveringubuntu,anditsdefinition.Scholars,and
especiallyAfricanscholars,ofubuntuhaveelaboratedonubuntusignificantlysincethestart
ofthe1990s.Scholarshaveelaboratedonthequestionsofwherethewordcomesfrom,
whatitmeans,whyitmeansthesethings,whyitisrelevantandhowitcanbeanaidinthe
newSouthAfrica,orindeedglobally.Allofwhichhavebeenpertinentissuesinpost‐
apartheidSouthAfricaandotherAfricancountriesexploringtheirheritageandtheirfuture
outsidethecolonialhegemony.Thisisnottosaythatscholarsonlydiscussubuntuforthe
67Tutu2000:34,Allen2001:22.68Gibson2006:413.
21
benefitofpost‐colonialdevelopment.Thereisalsoanattempttodescribewhatubuntuisfor
theWestinparticular.Especiallyaftertherewasincreasingattentiondrawntothisword
anditsmeaningintheprocessofre‐buildingSouthAfrica.Inadditiontotheacademic
definitionsofubuntuIhavealsoincludedformerArchbishopDesmondTutu’sown
definitionofubuntuasapartofhisChristiantheology.Hehasbeeninstrumentalininsisting
onubuntuasbeingavitalpartofrebuildingorindeedjustbuildingthenewSouthAfrica.
Tutuhasadeepseededbeliefthatrecoveringallwhatubuntuentailswillbeaninvaluable
assetingoingforward.Healsobelievesthattheentireworldwillbenefitfromembracing
ubuntu,andhasattemptedtoexportubuntu.TutuarguesthatAfricaisfinallyinaposition
toexportsomethingpositiveandlifeenhancingandnotonlythedeath,famineand
destructionofthepastdecades.Heisessentiallyworkingonre‐brandingsub‐Saharan
Africa,andusingubuntutodoso.Thispartofthetextwillnot,however,focusonthis,but
ratheronthecontentofhistheologyandhowhefusesubuntuandChristianity.
3.1ACADEMICAPPROACHES
Therearemanywaysofunderstandingubuntu.Academics,AfricanandEuropean,have
beenattemptingtodefinethisconceptforthepast30years.Toillustratethediversity
initially,Iwillputforwardseveraldefinitionsandviewsacademicsonwhatubuntuisor
whatitrepresents.MulekiMnyakacallsubuntuanoldphilosophyoflife,whichhasbeen
presentandsustaininglifeinAfricaforcenturies.Blankenberglinksubuntuto
contemporarySouthAfricansociety,asitsuseinrebuildingthecountryshowshowopen
ubuntuistointerpretation.Ofubuntuitself,heseesitasaphilosophyandanideallong
beingcirculatedinAfricanhistoryoftradition,primarilyorally.Broodrykcallsubuntua‘…
comprehensiveancientAfricanworldview.’Thisworldviewisbasedonvaluestryingto
ensurea‘…happyandqualitativehumancommunitylife.’Thecommunitywillbebasedon
family,focusingonhumanness,caring,sharing,respectandcompassion.Broodrykgoeson
tosaythateverythingapersonsays,thinksanddoesisinfluencedifnotdeterminedby
ubuntu.Thisis,accordingtoBroodryk,becausethenormsofubuntuhavebeenorally
transferredacrossgenerations.Saulekeepstothistoneinsayingthatubuntuisstillaround
becauseofestablishedtraditionalinstitutions.Heseesubuntuas‘…somethingthatsprings
fromwithinoneselforbetterstill,withinsociety.’69Teffogoesinadifferentdirection,
arguingthatubuntuisnotatalluniquetoAfrica,andthatsuchaclaimwouldbe
69Eze2009:91‐92.
22
ethnocentric.Hecontinuesinsayingthatthephilosophyofubuntuisfoundinallthe
philosophiesoftheworld,however,notcalledthesame.70Nyanthuviewsubuntuasthe
backboneofmanyAfricansocieties,referringtoitasa‘…statementofbeingthat
encapsulatesthefundamentalelementsthatqualifyanypersontobehuman.’71Murithi
viewsseesubuntuasawayofviewingtheworldwhichistryingtocapturetheessenceof
whatitistobehuman.Dandalacallsubuntuacosmology.‘Itdefinesthe‘harmonic
intelligence’thatisanintrinsicpartoflocalSouthernAfricancommunities,’anditisan
AfricanhumannessindirectoppositiontotheWesternhumanness.72Thereareclaimsof
universalitybyTeffo,andAfricanownershipbyBroodryk,Mnyaka,DandalaandNyathu.
Thereareclaimsofcosmologyandphilosophy,andofubuntubeingacontemporarytoolfor
rebuildingSouthAfrica.However,beforethischaptercanmoveforwardonedistinctionhas
tobemade.Thecommonwordubuntuderivesfromthefollowingproverb,intwodifferent
languages:
isiZulu:Umuntungumuntungabanye.
isiXhosa:Ubuntuungamntungabanyeabantu.
Thistranslatesinto‘peoplearepeoplethroughotherpeople.’73Thisisthestartingpointfor
thischapter’ssearchforanunderstandingofubuntu.
3.1.1UBUNTUASARELIGIOUSCONCEPT
IagreewithJuliusGathogothattheWesternermightnotseethereligiousaspectofthe
saying‘apersonisapersonthroughotherpersons’;however,thisdoesnotmeanthatthere
isnone.IntheAfricancontextthismaximhasadeepreligiousmeaning.Ubuntuisfoundin
manyAfricancommunities,liketheKikuyuwhohaveasimilaridiomtotheonealready
mentioned;MunduniMunduniunduwaandu,or‘ahumanbeingisapersonbecauseofthe
otherpeople.’TheSothosayMothekemothokabatho,whichcanbetranslatedinasimilar
way.74Mnyanduexplainsubuntuasnotonlyapackageofpositivequalities,butalsothe
essenceitself,whichenablespeopletobecomeabantu,whichinshortmeansbecominga
humanisedbeing.AboutbecomingahumanisedbeingMnyanduwritesthatpeopleliveina
70Eze2009:92‐93.71JohnHailey2008.’Ubuntu:ALiteratureReview.’TheTutuFoundation.3.72Ibid:3‐4.73Gathogo2007:170,MichaelBattle2009.Reconciliation:TheUbuntuTheologyofDesmondTutu.Cleveland:ThePilgrimPress.39.Theword‘people’issometimesexchangedwith‘person’or‘human’,oracombinationofthese.74Gathogo2007:170.
23
worldofself‐expressioninordertocreateharmoniousrelationshipsintheircommunity,
andtheworldbeyond.WhereasMichaelEzeclaimsthisisanessentialistdefinition,75
becauseitisplacingubuntuintoareligiousframe.Thoughthereareelementsherethatcan
beused.Ubuntuistheessenceitself;itisthebasisforareligiousexpressioninAfrican
societies.Itispartofthatwhichwishestoenablethehumanbeingtotakeresponsibilityfor
thewell‐beingofothersoutsideofoneself.Thehealthandprosperityofone’sfamilyand
surroundingsarethemostimportantthingsinatraditionalAfricanhome.Ubuntudoesnot
actalone,andispartofamuchmorecomplexsetofrulesoflife,ifyouwill.76
Dutchanthropologist,withakeenandlonginterestinAfrica,WimvanBinsbergenprofesses
thatubuntuisirrelevantintheday‐to‐daylifeofAfricanpeople.Itisonlydrawnon,
accordingtovanBinsbergen,whenperformingritesoraspartofconflictsettlement,orin
divination.77Thetroublewiththisviewisthatheisseparatingtheobviouslyreligiousparts
ofthecommunityfromtheeveryday.InallmajorwritingsonAfricanreligionthereis
consensusinthefactthatreligionpermeatesallspheresoflifeinAfricansocieties.Religion
islife,andlifeisreligion.Bydividingthesetwo,vanBinsbergeniseffectivelyunderscoring
theimportanceofreligioninAfrica,aswellasattemptingtobringWesternunderstandingof
religionintoanAfricanmindset.Onecannotseparatetheritessurroundingawedding,
initiation,namingordeathfromtheworkingsofthecommunity.
DesmondTutuapproachesubuntudifferently.Tutustrivestolegitimiseubuntuthrough
Christianity.Hehascreatedanubuntutheology,whereGodfeaturesprominently.This
theologywasthebackdropforhisworkwiththeTruthandReconciliationCommission,
promotinginterconnectednessandtogethernessinthewakeofthefalloftheapartheid
regimeinSouthAfrica.AlthoughChristianitywasnotaprominentfactorintheproceedings.
Aspartofhistheology,TutupreachesthatJesustaughthumansfriendship,towhichthe
basisisamutualunderstandingofeachother.ToTutu,ubuntucanbesidelinedwiththis
teaching.Ubuntubreakstheracialclassificationofpeoples,whichinturnbreaksthe
relationshipofoppressorandoppressed.78TutuexplainsubuntuastherootoftheAfrican
worldview,whichheusedtointroducetheconceptofracialreconciliationinSouthAfrica.In
orderforthecommissiontosucceedheneededtocommunicatethatnohumancanbe
75Eze2009:91.76Ibid:91.77vanBinsbergen2001:65,68.78Battle2009:5.
24
fulfilledwithouttheircommunity,whetherblackorwhite.79Tutu’subuntutheologyhas
evolvedsidebysidewithapartheidinSouthAfrica.Hisviewisthatlosingthefoundational
thoughtthathumansarecreatedinGod’simageaswellasfindingwhatweneedinGod,
turnsinto‘secularprosperity’.Onaccountofthislosswejudgeothersasiftheylackthe
inherenthumanvalue.Thismaterialistunderstandingcreatesasocietywhereracial
differencetranslatestofear.MichaelBattlestatesthatinordertounderstandTutu’s
theologyonemustviewitthroughubuntu,ashebelieveswecanonlybehumanin
community.80
Tutusaysthatbeinga‘self‐sufficienthumanbeingissubhuman…Godhasmadeussothat
wewillneedeachother…tobeistoparticipate…personsareendsinthemselvesonly
throughthediscoveryofwhotheyareinothers.’81TutuusesthegenesisoftheOld
Testamenttoexplainhowwehumans,fromthebeginning,weremeanttolivein
communitieswitheachother.Inhisview,GodfeltAdammustbelonelyandtherefore
createdEve,anotherhumanbeing,forthemtoexistandlivetogether.82WhatmakesTutu’s
viewpointuniqueisthemeldingtogetheroftheChristianfaith,andtraditionalAfrican
beliefs.HeisattemptingtobringtheWest,particularlyEurope,andAfricatogether.Tutu
focusesontheinterdependentcommunity,whichiscommoninallwritingsonAfrican
religion.Healsofocusesonaperson’sdistinctiveidentity,releasingthepersonfromarigid
viewofcommunity,commoninmanywritingsonAfricancommunitarianism.Allthis
togetherwasgoingtooverthrowapartheid.83Tutuprovedindispensableinthestruggle
againstapartheid,spreadingthewordandplacinghimselfinharmsway.Heprovedequally
importantafterapartheidended,andhasbeencalledthemoralconscienceofSouthAfrica.84
3.1.2ETYMOLOGY
UbuntuhailsfromtheNgunilanguagegroup,whichincludesisiXhosaandisiZulu,already
seeninthebeginningofthischapter.InSesothoitisknownasbotho.85AccordingtoDion
Forster,thewordubuntu‘…qualifiesthenounumuntu.’86Umuntutranslatestothehuman
personinisiZulu.Inthisfamilyof–ntu,onealsofindsuluntu–thevitalforceandisintu–
79Battle2009:40.80Ibid:581DesmondTutuquotedinMichaelBattle2009:35,39,43.82Battle2009:67‐68,41‐42.83Ibid:40.84TheElders2011.85Tutu2000:42.86DionA.Forster2010.’AGenerousOntology:IdentityasaProcessofIntersubjectiveDiscover:AnAfricanTheologicalContribution.’HTSTeologieseStudies.8.
25
humanity.87Kamwangamalustatestheseotherphonologicalvariantsofubuntuinseveral
Africanlanguages:
‘…umunduinKiyukuandumuntuinKimeru,bothlanguagesspokeninKenya;bumuntuinkiSukumaandkiHaya,bothspokeninTanzania;vumuntuinshiTsongaandshiTswaofMozambique;bomotoinBobangi,spokenintheDemocraticRepublicofCongoandAngolarespectively.’88
AccordingtoDeTejada,recountedbyAugustineShutte,ubuntu’sgeographicaldemarcation
stretchesfromtheNubianDesert,totheCapeofGoodHopeandfromSenegaltoZanzibar,
includingtheareaoftheSaharabeforethedesertdeveloped.Inanefforttoexplainthe
inherentqualitiesofthewordubuntuandtherelevancetothelargeraspectofAfrican
ontologyandepistemology,MogobeRamosebreakstheworddown.Ramoseargues
philosophicallyforhyphenatingubuntu,intoubu‐ntu.Thiswillshedlightontheword,and
howweachieveitfrom‘umuntungumuntungabantu’,whichdoesnotfeaturetheword
ubuntu,butstillisseenastherootfromwhencethetermhascome.FollowingRamose,ubu‐
istheprefixand–ntuisthestemoftheword.Ramosecontendsthatumuntuandubu‐
belongtogether,‘…thespeechofumuntuisthusanchoredin,revolvesaround,andis
ineluctablyorientedtowardsubu‐.’Umuntufocusestheepistemologicaltowardsthe
ontologicalubu‐through‘umuntungumuntungabantu’.89
Whileubu‐denotesageneralsenseofbe‐ing,‐nturepresentsthepointwherethegeneral
senseofbeingtakesonconcreteform.Orrepresentsaprocessof‘continualunfoldment’.
Ubu‐isalwaysdirectedtowards–ntu,asubu‐wantstounfoldintoconcretemanifestations.
Ubu‐and–ntuareawholeandinseparableoneness.FromthisRamoseseesubu‐as
ontologicaland–ntuasepistemological,togethertheyrepresentthefoundationsofAfrican
thoughtamongtheBantuspeakingpeoples.Ramoseinsiststhatumu‐sharesanidentical
ontologicalfeaturewithubu‐,althoughumu‐ismorespecificthanthegeneralubu‐.Umu‐
ntutranslatesintohumanbeing,andshowsheretheconcretemanifestationsofumu‐.This
isbecausethereismovement,notageneralviewofahumanbeing.Itisratherthe
emergenceofthehumanasthemakerofpolitics,religionandthelaw.Thismakesitan
entity‘…whichcontinuestoconductaninquiryintobeing,experience,knowledge,andtruth’
87MfuniselwaJohnBhengu1996.Ubuntu:TheEssenceofDemocracy.CapeTown:NovalisPress.2.88Eze2009:91.89MogobeRamose2003.’ThePhilosophyofubuntuandubuntuasaPhilosophy,’inP.H.CoetzeeandA.P.JRoux(eds.):TheAfricanPhilosophyReader.NewYork/Abingdon:Routledge.230,231.
26
whichconstitutesanactivity.Ramosearguesthatthisallmeansthatubu‐canbeviewedas
be‐ingbecoming.90
Ubuntuisunderstoodasbeinghumaninakindrelationtoothers.Ubu‐ntuthen,Ramose
stresses,isasmuchaconditionofbe‐ingasitisarecognitionofbe‐ingbecoming.However,
throughthemaxim‘umunutungumunungabantu’,Ramoseclaimsthat‘ngabantu’reveals
thatjustbeinghumanisnotsufficient;onehastobecomeahumanbeing.Onehastoprove
thatoneistheembodimentofubu‐ntu.Hebasesthisonthetermskemothoandgasemotho,
whichtranslatesliterallyinto‘he/sheisahumanbeing’,orthenegationofthis,whichgoes
beyondthebiologyofthehumantothe‘…ethical,social,andlegaljudgementofhuman
worthandhumanconduct.’91ThisleadsustothedebateofpersonhoodinAfricanthought.
3.1.3UBUNTUANDPERSONHOOD
Themainquestionstodealwithherearewhetherubuntuisstrictlycommunitarian?Does
thiscommunalnaturebelittletheautonomyandidentityoftheindividual?Canonefailat
personhood,andthereforeloseornevergainubuntu?Ifnot;whendoesonebecomea
person?However,intalkingofpersonhoodinAfricanthought,wefirstneedtodifferentiate
betweencommunalismandcommunitarianism,astheycoincidewitheachother.The
differencebetweenthetwoisthedegreeofpoliticsandorganisation.Thedefinitionof
communalismisbasedonfederatecommunesinapoliticalorganisation,whichdictateshow
peoplelivesuccessfullytogetherinsharing.Itcanalsobecentredonthe‘ethnic’group,
whereallegiancelieswiththemratherthanthewidercommunity.Communitarianismon
theotherhandisatheoryofsocialorganisationinsmallself‐governingcommunities,andit
canalsobedescribedasanideologywheretheresponsibilityoftheindividualinregardsto
thecommunityandthefamilyisemphasised.Onthebasisofthis,communitarianismiswhat
candescribetheAfricancommunity,whereascommunalismcanatbestbeattributedtothe
politicalleadersinAfricawhooftenpurportedAfricansocialismwhenfirstindependent.92
Themaincontentioninthedebateonpersonhoodiswhetherornotthecommunalfocusof
Africansocietybelittlestheautonomyandidentityoftheindividualperson.Bothpolitical
leadersSenghorandKenyattaobservedandreiteratedtheinherentcommunalstructureof
Africanlifeandsociety.Kenyattawentevenfurtherinsayingthat‘…individualismandself‐
90Ramose2003:230‐231.91Ibid:232.92NewOxfordAmericanDictionary2005,KwameGyekye2003.’PersonandcommunityinAfricanthought,’inP.H.CoetzeeandA.P.JRoux(eds.):TheAfricanPhilosophyReader.NewYork/Abingdon:Routledge.299.
27
seekingwasruledout.’93Thisstatementdoesappeartoostrictinitsunderstandingof
communitarianism.Fromacommunitarianstartingpoint,thepersonisintrinsicallysocial
orcommunal,notanisolatedindividual.Thecommunitythereforeconsistsofpeoplewho
areinterconnectedthroughcommonvalues,goalsandinterests.‘Theyhaveintellectualand
ideological,aswellasemotional,attachmentstothosegoalsandvalues;aslongasthey
cherishthem,theyareeverreadytopursueanddefendthem.’94DesmondTutuhaswarned
againstglorifyingAfricancommunitarianism.Heviewsitasabreedinggroundforboth
conservatismandconformity.TutuarguesthatthetraditionofcommunalisminAfrica,
especiallyamongnewlyemancipatedstatesparticularlyfrommid‐1900s,isthebasisfor
dictatorship.ThisformofgovernmenthasravagedmanyAfricancountriesoverthepast60
years.AccordingtoTutu,thistraditionallowspowerfulmembersofsocietytoeasilytake
controlofthepublicsphereandexercisetheirownwillinsteadofthatofthepeople.Tutu
claimstheWesthaslawstocombatpitfallslikethis,andinthiswayensuresthewillofthe
peopletobeexercisedbythegoverningforces.Ontheotherhandhealsocriticisesthe
West’soverlyindividualisticworldview,wheretheperson’sultimatewayofviewinghimself
orherselfcomesfromwithin.InAfrica,Tutuargues,onelearnsbesttoknowoneself
throughothers.However,hepromotesbalancingAfricancommunalismwiththethoughtof
thehumanbeing’s‘inalienableuniqueness’,ashewantstheWest’sviewtobebalancedwith
thehuman’sneedtoconnect.95
Menkitiassertsthatthecommunitydefinestheperson,butthepersonhastoacquireand
achievepersonhoodanditispossibleforapersontofailatgainingpersonhood.Withouta
processofincorporationthedescriptionofpersondoesnotapply.Whenapersonis
incorporatedandearnstheirpersonhoodtheybecomemoreandmoreofapersontheolder
theygrow.96Thisiscontested.KwameGyekyearguesthatthepersoncanbeanindividualin
Africancommunitarianism,orsimplyintheAfricancommunity.Thepersoncanalsobe
helpfultoothersoutofmoralresponsibility,notjustoutofduty.ThismakestheAfricanan
individual,whomakeschoicesaboutmoralresponsibilityandawareness.Thismeans
Africansarecapableofmakingotherchoicesintheirownlife.Hence,thehumanisnota
dutifulrobot,butapersonwithcapabilitiesofthinkingindividuallyforthecommongood.97
MbitigoesdownamiddleroadinsayingthatmanyAfricansocietiesdonotbelievethe 93Gyekye2003:298.94Ibid:299.95Battle2009:38,144.96Gyekye2003:298,IfeanyiA.Menkiti1984.’PersonandCommunityinAfricanTraditionalThought,’inR.A.Wright(ed.):AfricanPhilosophy:AnIntroduction.Washington:UniversityPressofAmerica.172,173.97Gyekye2003:308‐311.
28
personisafullhumanuntilheorshehasundergonetheprocessesofbecominghuman,
throughbirth,namingceremonies,initiationrites,marriageandmaybeevenprocreation.In
thesecases,onlyaftertheseprocessesisthepersonfullyborn,andisthereforeconsidereda
completeperson.98Mbitihasalsostated:‘Iambecauseweare;andsinceweare,thereforeI
am’,whichisbeingimposedasabasisforargumentationbybothMenkiti,asmentioned,and
ChukwudumB.Okolo.99Inthis,anAfricanversionofDecartes’cogitoergosum,Mbiti
explainshowapersonisneveraloneandpassesthroughdifferentstagesofincorporationin
life,evenafterthepersondiestheyareincorporatedintotheextendedfamilyofthedead.100
Here,Mbitidivertsfromthemiddleroadhewasonearlierintobelievingthatapersonhas
toprovetheirhumanityandpersonhoodthroughouttheirlife.Thisisthewayinwhichthe
personbestbenefitsthecommunity,alsoaftertheydie.HepostulatesthatinAfrican
traditionallife:
‘…theindividualdoesnotandcannotexistaloneexceptcorporately.Heowesthisexistencetootherpeople,includingthoseofpastgenerationsandhiscontemporaries.Heissimplypartofthewhole.Thecommunitymustthereforemake,create,orproducetheindividual;fortheindividualdependsonthecorporategroup…whateverhappenstotheindividualhappenstothewholegroup…’101
OkolostatesthatselfinAfricanthoughtisviewedfromtheoutside,asinrelationtothe
other,andnotinrelationtoitself,thusfromtheinside.OkologoesontocriticisetheAfrican
philosophyforignoringornotadequatelyincludingthehumanvaluesof‘…personal
initiative,responsibility,subjectivity,independence,etc.’Okoloviewsthesevaluesasthe
waytodeterminethehumanbeingasasubject,notanobject.Byunderminingtheseaspects
ofthehuman,Okolocontendsthattherootsofhumanfreedomandautonomyarebeing
forgotten,whichgivesAfricanphilosophyablindspot.102KwameGyekyepurportsa
differentview.Heseesthewholeasafunctionofitsparts.Relationshipsbetweenpersonsin
acommunityarecontingent,voluntaryandoptionalmadesobytheontological
derivativenessofthecommunity.AccordingtoGyekye,thecommunityequalsthecontext
forwherethepossibilitiesoftheindividualcanbeactedout.Thecommunityismerelythe
socialorculturalspacewherethepersoncanexpresstheirindividuality.Thefunctionofthe
communitystructureistopassonthevaluesandgoalsofthecommunitytotheonewho
entersintoit.Thismakesthepersonaproductofthecommunity.Gyekyeisawarethatthis 98Mbiti2008:24.99ChukwudumB.Okolo2003.’SelfasaprobleminAfricanphilosophy,’inP.H.CoetzeeandA.P.JRoux(eds.):TheAfricanPhilosophyReader.NewYork/Abingdon:Routledge.100Mbiti2008:106.101Ibid:106.102Okolo2003:215.
29
viewofthecommunitymayleadtoanextremeunderstandingofhowthepersonand
communityfunctiontogether.Inordertoexplainthatanindividualstillhasthepossibilityof
havingtheirownpersonalityandthereforeindividualityistoacknowledgethemanyassets
ofaperson.Thepersonisbynaturesocial,buttheyarealsocarryingotherattributesaspart
ofwhotheyare.Withouttakingthisintoconsideration,Gyekyewarnsonemightsuccumbto
anexaggerationofthecommunalnatureofAfricansociety,somethinghefeelsMenkiti
specificallyhasdone.103ThesamecanbesaidofOkolointhisinstance,ashehasprovided
Africanphilosophy,andtherebyAfricanTraditionalReligion,withamajorflawthatisnot
necessarilybasedinreality.Gyekye’sargumentationisverypersuasive,althoughoverly
eagerinexpressingtheindividualityofthehuman.Wewillnonethelesscontinuewiththis
understandingofpersonhoodinmind.
3.1.4UBUNTU:ANAFRICANVALUE
JuliusGathogoasksthequestionifwecanhaveanAfricanhomogeneity,mainlyintermsof
religion,withoutforeignattachment.Ifwecan,Gathogoviewsubuntuasthebest
descriptionofanAfricanhomogeneity.Ubunturepresentsareligio‐culturalunity,which
oftenhasbeenover‐poweredbytheinsistenceoftheAfricanreligio‐culturaldiversity.
QuotingAugustineShutte,Gathogoexplainsthatubuntuasaconcepthasdevelopedover
manycenturiesfromapre‐literate,pre‐scientificandpre‐industrialAfricanculture.104This
supportsmyownargumentthatubuntuisnotana‐historicalconcept,althoughnotall
scholarsagreeonthis.Someseeubuntuasinvented,andclaimthereisnohistorical
authenticitytoubuntu.Theyarguesthisonthebasisthatubuntuisaninventedpieceofthe
newSouthAfricandiscourseondemocracyandhumanrights.WimvanBinsbergenisoneof
thosescholars.Hisessay105ontheutopianandpropheticnatureofubuntuisamatterof
agreeinganddisagreeing.IdisagreeinhisfuturepremonitionthatubuntuwillharmSouth
Africansociety,106andIdisagreethatubuntulacksafactualbasis.107Iagreethatubuntuis
notexplicitlystatedinthecommunity;ratheritisanimplicitpartofthelocalsociety.108Ido,
however,disagreeinthatthevaluesofthelocalcommunityhavedisappearedinthefaceof
globalisationandurbanisation,ashestatesveryclearlyinhisessay.vanBinsbergenviews
ubuntuasaproductofglobalisation,createdforthesolepurposeofrebuildingSouthAfrica.
103Gyekye2003:300‐301.104Gathogo2007:168‐169.105WimvanBinsbergen2001.‘UbuntuandtheGlobalisationofSouthernAfricanThoughtandSociety.’Quest.106Ibid:57.107Ibid:60.108Ibid:61.
30
HecitesMogobeRamoseashisopposition,whobelievesthatglobalisationisaphenomenon
comingfromoutsidetobecounteredbyubuntu.vanBinsbergenarguesthattheurbanand
ruralpeopleinSouthAfricadonotallhavethesameculturalbackground.Becausesomeare
nowurban,concernedwithlifeasitisrelevantincities,theyhavenoconnectiontothe
villagelife,exceptforwhentheyphysicallygothere.109Idonotagreethatthevaluespeople
carrywiththemarenotmeasurable,andcertainlynotmeasurablebywhatpeopledoin
theirdailylives.Itisproblematictosaythatonceweleavethephysicalplacewherethe
valuesstillexistvisibly,inpractice,wenolongerhavethemasapartofus.Itisgiving
Africansatraitthatisneitherherenorthere.ItisnotevensomethingfamilialintheWest,
thatChristianscarrythevaluesgiventhroughtheirreligiononlywheninchurch.van
Binsbergenmustnotviewubuntuasapartofareligiousreality,andviewsitmerelyasa
culturaltraitwhicherodesawayuponothercultures.Idonotcontestthatthevaluesof
ubuntuareknownbyeveryone,orcanbeseeneverywhere.Thereislittledoubtthatinthe
contextofSouthAfrica,apartheidinparticularhasbrokenthecommunityupintosomany
piecesandcreatedanewanddifficultreality.However,tosaythatallurbanisedSouth
Africansundertheageoffortyhavenoconceptofwhatisinherentinubuntu,110thevalues
ofhowtoleadlife,isagrossexaggeration.
Thisbeingsaid,donotallthetroublesplaguingthecountriesofAfricatellusthatubuntu
musthavebeenlost?DespiteAfricancountriesbeingsomuchmorethantheir‘rape,pillage,
death’reputation,therehavebeenandstillareongoingbloodyconflictsaswellasextreme
poverty,withadheringproblems.Howcanonethenexplainubuntuandplaceitattheheart
androotofAfricanworldviews?Didubuntudisappearwhenthecolonistsarrived,orleave
withthemperhaps?Idonotbelievethisisthecase.Firstly,believingthatubuntuexisted
beforeAfrica’spost‐colonialtimebutnotafterputsubuntuinapositionwhereitdoesnot
standuptoadversity;beitwarorchangingtimes.ThiswouldimplythatAfricaalwayshas
beenapeacefulcontinentwithnorivalriesorwars.Asacontinentwiththeearliestknown
empiresoftheworld,thiswouldbeunthinkable.NottosaythatIcanplaceubuntuthisfar
backintime,butthecontinentisknowntohavehadinternaldifferencesbeforethecolonists
arrivedonthecontinent.PhillipIya111pointsoutthatsomeAfricansfeelasenseoflossof
ubuntu,aswellascolonialrulesuppressingandinsomecasesobliteratingAfricantradition.
109vanBinsbergen2001:62.110Ibid:63.111PhillipF.Iya2009.’UbuntuandHumanDignity:AnalysingConceptsandExploringRelationshipforin‐depthUnderstandingandApplicationDirectedTowardsImprovingtheQualityofLifeinAfrica,’inDrucillaCornellandNyokoMuvanga(eds.):LawintheubuntuofSouthAfrica.
31
Thestrainofmodernlivinghasseenubuntudisappearfromthepublicandprivatespheres
ofpeople.ThosearguingthispointclaimthatWesternvalueshaveaidedAfricaingoing
forward,butatthesametimemakingtraditionacasualty.Theyalsoclaimthatinmany
communitiesubuntuisbounduptotriballawsandwhatissometimeslookedatasancient
‘undemocraticpractices’.Iyainsiststhatubuntuisnotlostbutsometimeshindered,
especiallyintheurbanareaswherecapitalistvaluesoftenreign.Thefamilydynamicis
importantformaintainingubuntu,andwhenthisentityisbrokendown,ubuntusuffers.He
arguesthatlearningubuntuvaluesinone’supbringingwillprovideasenseofself‐worth.It
isthisthatushersapersonforwardtopassontheubuntuvaluesintheirlife.Ifaperson’s
upbringinglacksafocusonubuntuvalues,chancesaretheywillbedestructivetotheir
surroundings.112Thesepointsareveryvalid,andmakeuseofhumanpsychologytoexplain
howtaughtandexperiencedvaluesaffectrelationships.Circumstances,familiesand
communitiesallchange,anditisnosecretthatmostAfricancountrieshavehadaroughand
unforgivinghistorywhichissuretochangepeople,societies,statesandareasforthelong
term.Urbanareasarenaturallymorestressedandmaysoonerloseagrasponvaluesthat
onegrewupwith.
Further,vanBinsbergencontendsthatubuntuisnotawordhehasseenusedinthe
communitiesinwhichhehasworkedandvisitedinhislife.Hetooexplainsthelinguisticsof
theword,withtherootof–ntufromtheNgunilanguagegroup,113ashasbeenmentioned
previously.114DesmondTutu,MogobeRamoseandMfuniselwaBhengucontestthatubuntu,
asaword,isexpressed.115Whetherthewordisinpartaninvention,asvanBinsbergen
argues,116mightbeso,butthisdoesnotdelegitimisewhatubuntuactuallyembodies.One
couldcontendthatthewordubuntuisaneasywayofconveyingwhatisintended,and
thereforethishasbeenthewordchosentoexpresstomanywhatisinfinitelymorecomplex
atcloserinspection.DesmondTutusaysinhisbookNoFutureWithoutForgiveness,andto
RichardBransoninthetelevisionprogrammeIconoclasts117whereBransonhelpedteach
Tutuhowtoswim,thatwherehecomesfromonecancomplimentanotherpersonbysaying
theyhaveubuntu.Bysayingthisoneissayingthatthispersonisopen,friendly,giving,
selfless,whichistrulyasuperbcomplimenttoanother.InthisinstanceTutuisusingubuntu
inasentence,morespecificallyinacompliment:‘Yu,unobuntu’,or‘Yes,he/shehas 112Iya2009:390‐391.113vanBinsbergen2001:54.114In3.1.2.115Tutu2000:42,Ramose2003:230‐231,Bhengu1996:2.116vanBinsbergen2001:20.117Iconoclasts2008.
32
ubuntu.’118Thisparticularuseofthewordubuntubegsthequestion,whydoesvan
Binsbergencallubuntua‘…deceptivelyvernaculartermforaneticconceptformulatedina
globallycirculatingformat’?119vanBinsbergen’smaincontentionwithubuntuisthathe
viewsithasinventedbyelitescholarsofAfricaclaiminganunadulteratedpastfromwhich
ubuntuemanates.VanBinsbergenarguesthatscholarscannotrightlyclaimthispristine,
traditional,pre‐colonialAfricanlife.Ubuntuismerelyas‘…contemporaryacademic
construct.’120InorderforthemodernSouthAfricatoacceptthismodelofthought,ubuntu
hadtobeglobalised.However,thisglobalisedformatistobeseenasapropheticideology
thatmasksthesocialillsofSouthAfricatoday.121
vanBinsbergen’sforemostcounterpart,MogobeRamose,callsubuntutheunequivocalroot
ofAfricanphilosophy.AnAfrican’splaceintheuniverseisinterconnectedtoubuntu.
Therebymakingubuntuanall‐encompassingentity.Ramoseconnectsubuntuinextricably
towhathereferstoasthe‘Africantreeofknowledge.’Hegoesontoclaimthatifontology
andepistemologyarethebasisofphilosophy,ubuntumakesAfricanphilosophyalong
existingfranchise.Inarguingfortheimportanceofubuntuhecallsforphilosophicalgoggles
throughwhichtoseethe‘familyatmosphere’amongsttheindigenouspeopleofAfrica.
Ramoseacceptsdifferencesbetweenthefamilymembersinquestion,butreaffirmsthat
thereisabasisforaffinity.ThroughthisdefinitionRamoseisoneofthescholarswhouses
proverbsandaphorismsfromtheNgunilanguagesasanargumentfortheAfrican
universalityofubuntu.122
Mothokemothokabatho;Umuntungumuntungabantu–Apersonisapersonthroughother
people.Thisindicatesthateachpersonisinextricablyandintricatelyinterwovenwiththe
nextperson.Tobehumanistorecogniseothers’humanity.
FetaKgomootshwaremotho–Ignorethecowandsavethepersonbecauselifeisgreater
thanwealth.Lifeistobeprioritisedoverwealth,becausepreservationofhumanlifeisthe
highesthumangoal.
Kgosikekgosikabatho–Thesovereigntyofthekingderivesfromandbelongstohis
subjects.ThisisasymbolofAfricancommunitarianism.
118Tutu2000:42.119vanBinsbergen2001:69.120Eze2009:135,vanBinsbergen2001:62.121Eze2009:136‐137.122Ibid:93‐94.
33
MothogasempshegaatsheweSesotho–Nosinglehumancanbethoroughlyandcompletely
useless.Thisisagainanemphasisonhumanlifeasthebeallandendall.123
3.1.5UBUNTUINSOUTHAFRICA
AlthoughIagreethatubuntuisincapableofshowingunbrokencontinuity,itisasmuchvan
Binsbergen’sguessasanybodyelse’swhetherornotthisistrue.Whatcanbecertainisthat
ubuntuhasevolved.Thereislittledoubt,fromvanBinsbergenoranyotherscholaron
ubuntu,thatubuntuhasbeenalegitimate,ifunspoken,partofAfricanlife.124Thisincludes
thetimebeforecolonialism.Itislikelytothinkthatthepiecesofnativecultureandtradition
noteradicatedbymissionariesorcolonists,indeedexistedbeforethealienforcesceased
power.Itisnotubuntuthatisunfamiliar,itisthewayitisnowspokenofandreferredto.
Thisisnotsimilartoadvocatingithasbeeninvented.Theformat,contextandtheusesare
invented.JustbecauseanAfricantraditionorconcepthistoricallyhasbeenthesilentbasis
forlife,doesnotmeanthatitisitseternalfate.Onemaysayubuntuisre‐invented,ormore
accuratelyre‐introducedinadifferentcontext.Thevillageandthelocalcommunityisan
entitythathasmoreorlessforciblychangedoverthepastcenturies.Themodernformof
governmentinSouthAfricatodayisalongwayawayfromthetribalchiefsofhistory.
However,certainvaluesarepassedondownthroughgenerations,andwhenrealityshifts
therearenewwaysinwhichtopassthevalueson.InSouthAfricathisbecameapparent
afterapartheid.
Ezearguesthatubuntu,asanationalSouthAfricandiscourse,isanessentialbuildingblock
ofthepost‐apartheidnation.AccordingtoEze,SouthAfricaduringapartheidwasastate
withoutanation.Thecommunitywasdominatedbyaminority‐createddiscourse,aswellas
afear‐relatedidentity.ThemajoritySouthAfricanexperiencedaunitythroughstruggle
duringapartheid.Whatwouldhappenwhenthatstrugglewasover?Afterpoliticalparties
wereunbannedandpoliticalprisonersfreedin1990,theintra‐communalconflictinNatal
developedintoacivilwar.Thenumberofpeople,mostlyblackAfricans,killedbetween
1990and1994wasnearlytripletheamountofthosekilledinthefiveyearspriorto1990.
TherewasanongoingbloodyconflictbetweentheAfricanNationalCongressandthe
InkathaFreedomParty.AccordingtoBrandonHambertherewasashiftinthecharacterof
violenceinthe1990sfromvertical,stateagainstcitizenandviceversa,tohorizontal,
123Eze2009:94.124vanBinsbergen2001:69
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citizensagainsteachother.AlthoughsomeofthiswasThirdForceactivity,meaningstate
sponsoredconflict;therewasgreatturmoilintheperiodofgovernmentalnegotiations.125
AlthoughubuntuwasnotusedorexploitedbytheANCduringthestruggle,thewordturned
upinthenewlyformedSouthAfricaninterimconstitutionof1993.Ezepointsoutclear
evidencethatubuntuappearedintextspriortotheendofapartheid,provingitsexistenceas
awordandconceptbeforebeingpopularisedandfactoringintothenewnationaldiscourse.
Ezepointsoutthatubuntufirstsawthelightofdayasapoliticisedculturalmemoryin1975.
TheInkathaFreedomPartymovementuseditinitsconstitutionasaguidingprincipleofthe
movement.Theconstitutionstatethatbesidewhattheyhavetocopyfromsuccessful
economic,politicalandeducationalplansoftheWest,theAfricanhumanismofubuntu
shouldbepromotedtomaintainandprotecthumandignity.Aswellasprotecting
‘…personalgrowthandfulfilment,andtheindividualpursuitofhappiness.’126Thisshows
thatonecanarguethatthelackofdefinitionofubuntuinthisconstitutionmustmeanthat
thegeneralpublicmusthaveknownthedefinitionforthemselves.Thisinturnmeansthat
ubuntuismorethanonlyapostapartheidphenomenon.
3.1.6MORALTHEORYOFUBUNTU
IndiscussingthedifferentdefinitionsofubuntufurtherIwillmakeuseofThaddeusMetz’s
formulainhisessay‘TowardanAfricanMoralTheory’127,whereheexploressixtheoretical
interpretationsofubuntu.Thiswillhelpusdifferentiateallthevariousdefinitionsavailable
andcreatethelargerpictureofhowubuntuisviewedbyscholars.
Metz’stheoreticalinterpretationsaredividedbyaskingtowhatextentanact,specificallyin
thecommunity,isrightorwrong.Thefirstfourinterpretationsrelatemoralitytosomething
internalinthehumanindividual,whichMetzinsistsmakesthecommonseparationof
Westernmoralsas‘individualistic’andAfricanmoralsas‘communitarian’wrong.128The
firstofthesixinterpretationsfocusesonhumandignity.Intheseinterpretationsaright
actionisconstitutedbythefactthatitrespectsaperson’sdignity.Onehasdonesomething
wrongifonedegradeshumanity.Thebasisforthisinterpretationisthatvalueisintrinsicin
humannatureandshouldbehonoured.Thistheoryfindsitsfoundationinthelegalworld,
125BrandonHamber1999.’„Havenodoubtitisfearintheland”.AnExplorationoftheContinuingCyclesofViolenceinSouthAfrica.’ZeitschriftfûrPolitischePsychologie.114‐115.126Eze2009:103.127ThaddeusMetz2007.’TowardanAfricanMoralTheory.’JournalofPoliticalPhilosophy.128Ibid:333.
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andMetzmakesuseofthestatementsofJusticeYvonneMokgorotoexplainthewishto
appealtoubuntuindecision‐makinginlaw.Humanrightsspeaktotheinherentdignityof
thehuman,whichMokgorolinksdirectlytoubuntu.AccordingtoMetz,thisviewofhuman
dignitycanclearlybetracedbacktoKant.ItisaclassicallyWesterntheorythatmaybe
troublesomeinthecontextofdefiningubuntu.Metzassertsthatahuman’scapacityof
autonomydoesnotgoalongwithhisthreemoraldutiesofAfricansociety:reconciliation
overretribution,traditionandritualsincivilsocietyorprocreation.129Metzarguesthatin
ordertoaccountforthislargerarrayofdutiesinthecommunity,thistheoryneedstobe
broadenedbeyondthevalueofhumanlife.130However,hedoesconcedethatfromthe
aspectofhonouringthehumanlife,theJustice’sremarkscanbehelpful.Thepromotionof
lifeisaprimefactoroftheAfricancommunityandAfricanTraditionalReligion,asIwill
returntolater.Theharmonyrequiredbyandinthecommunityisnecessaryforthevital
force,theforceoflife,tobepromoted.131
AlthoughIdoagreewithMetztoacertaindegree,itseemshemayhaveomittedcertain
Mokgorothoughts.JusticeYvonneMokgoroexplainsthemaxim,whichshereiteratesas‘a
humanbeingisahumanbeingbecauseofotherhumanbeings’,asimplyingthatonewillbe
challengedbyothersinordertoachieveself‐fulfilment.Thistakesplacethroughcollective
socialideals.Shefurtherexplainsubuntuthroughtheeverydaylifeofthepeopleitconcerns.
ShecontendsthatAfricanmaximssuchas‘[m]othokemotholobathobabangwe,’meaning
‘peoplelivethroughthehelpofothers’,and‘abothobagagoennebothoseshabeng’whichis
translatedto‘letyourwelfarebethewelfareofthenation,’speakstothestrongcommunity
emphasisonfamilyandtheobligationssurroundingit.Mokgoroarguesthatpeopleina
communityarewillingtojointheirresourcestogetherinordertohelpanindividualin
need.132ItseemsclearthatMokgorodoesnothaveasnarrowaunderstandingor
interpretationofubuntuasMetzportraysinhisessay.Sheindeedviewsubuntuinabroad
spectrum,asoneshould,andisnotblindtotheimportanceofubuntuinthecommunity,
eveniftheKantianviewofubuntuinlawisnotnecessarilyagoodfitinthiscontext.
ThesecondinterpretationMetzputsforwardismoreutilitarianbasedwherethe
improvementofthequalityoflifeisthemainfocus.Here,gainingharmonyinthe
communityisthemeanstoanendofhumanwell‐being.However,Metzprofessesthata 129Metz2007:328.130Ibid:340.131Metz2007:328‐329.132YvonneMokgoro.’UbuntuandLawinSouthAfrica’,inDrucillaCornellandNyokoMuvangua(eds.):LawintheubuntuofSouthAfrica.364‐365.
36
utilitarianviewofubuntuhasnopossibilityofcontrollingactssuchasstealingor
discrimination,astheycanbeviewedasnecessaryforthegreatergood.Thisinterpretation
bearsresemblancetothethirdinterpretation,whichfocusesoncommunitarianism.
AccordingtoMetz,ifoneaddshumanrightstotheutilitarianinterpretation,
communitarianismistheendresult.133Metzfurtherclaimsthatthegroundofmoral
rightnesscanonlycomefromcaringrelationships,andnot‘welfarist’well‐beingalone.134
Metzquitecontroversiallystatesthattruequalityoflifecannothappeninthecontextofa
communitywhichpracticesconsensus,cooperationortowhomtraditionweighsheavily.135
Bycitingsocialsciencesresearch,Metzclaimsthat‘…majoritarianisminpolitics,labour‐and
consumer‐marketsineconomics,andinnovativeandunconventionalbehaviourincivil
society’136areprovenwaystohumanqualityoflife.WhatMetzappearstobesayingisthatif
AfricancountriesdonotfollowtheWesterntemplateofpolitics,economicsorcivilsociety,
humanwell‐beingisnotinthecardsforthem,eveniftheirrightsinthecommunitysetting
ofcooperationareconsidered.Thefourthinterpretationpurportsthatself‐realisationinthe
communityandthepositiverelationtoothersmakeanactionright,whereastheactis
wrongifittakesawayfromourvalueasasocialbeing.137Metzassertsthatthis
interpretationfocuseson‘…firmmoraljudgementsaboutwhen,howandwhytohelp
others.’138AccordingtoMetz,manyAfricanthinkersusethemaxim‘apersonisaperson
throughotherpersons’tomeanthatoneshoulddevelopone’sownpersonhood.According
toAugustineShutteour‘…deepestmoralobligationistobecomemorefullyhuman.’139
Shuttealsoinsiststhatselfishnessisnotanoption,althoughitcouldseemtobeonewhen
personalfulfilmentisthegoal.Therealisationofoneselfwillbenefitthecommunityasone
isestablishedasabeinginacommunity,whereoneengagesincommunalrelationships.
Metzinterpretsthisunderstandingofubuntu,asaddressedbybothAugustineShutteand
MogobeRamose,tomeanthatifoneneededtokillanotherpersoninordertoacquirea
livingorganoneneededtolive,itcouldbedefendedbythisinterpretation.Itwould
maximisetheperson’sself‐realisationandsupporttheothersurroundingpeopleinthe
long‐term.Similarly,whenthisisthegoalMetzpointsoutaproblemintheselflessactof
givingupone’slifeforsomeoneelse,includingone’sownchildren.Asdyingwouldendself‐
133Metz2007:331.134Ibid:340.135Ibid:331.136Ibid.137Ibid.138Ibid:340.139Ibid:331.
37
realisation,thisactofselflessnesswouldnotbeanoption.140Thisexamplemayseem
frivolous,however,Metzputsforwardagoodpointhere.Thereisaneedtoexpandthe
definitionofubuntu.However,ininterpretingShutteandRamose,self‐realisationwithout
thoughtofothersdoesnotseementirelycorrect.Bothclaimthatindevelopingone’s
personhoodandself,onewillbecomemoreofanassettothecommunity.Bothscholars
establishthataffirmingotherpeople’shumanityisawaytoexpandone’sselfandbenefitthe
community.InMetz’sinterpretationthisdoesnotseemtobepresent,whichisafault.141The
communityisstillanimportantfactor.Self‐realisationforthesakeofself‐realisationisnot
anadequateinterpretationofthesetwoscholars’work.
ThelasttwointerpretationspresentedbyThaddeusMetzhecalls‘properlycommunitarian’
intheirinterpretationofubuntu.Thefirstofthesetworelatesbacktothefirstbook
publishedonubuntu,whichfocusesonsolidarity,especiallyinfacingthepoorand
disadvantagedgroupsofacommunity.Metzcontendsthatthisviewistoonarrowto
constituteamoraltheoryforAfrica,asubuntunecessarilyshouldstretchbeyondthepoorin
acommunity.Ubuntushouldberelevantforeveryone.142Metzviewsthisasonewayof
promotingsharedidentitybutbynomeanstheonlyone.143Metz’sfinalinterpretationof
ubuntuishisfavourite,aswellasmine:‘Anactionisrightinsofarasitproducesharmony
andreducesdiscord;anactiswrongtotheextentthatitfailstodevelopcommunity.’144This
beingsaid,ubuntuexistsonmanylevelsandisusefulintheotherinterpretations
mentionedabove,althoughtheymaynotbeasfullandfundamentalinterpretationsof
ubuntu.Ubuntu,inmyview,canbeofuseinmanyspheresoflifeandforthepromotionof
differentactionsandthoughtsinthehumanbeing.Forthesakeofthewholenessofubuntu,
andthisthesis,thislastinterpretationplacesubuntuatthebasisofthecommunityandthe
harmonywithinit,whichistheplacewhereubuntuisrightlytobefound.Tounderstand
whyharmonyortogethernessistheultimategreatergoodfortheAfricanoneneedsto
understandwhatconstitutesharmony,whichMetzisattemptingtodo.Withacombination
ofsharedidentityandgoodwill,wheresharedidentitymeansbeingtogetherinagroup
workingtowardsthesameendsandgoodwilltalksofcreatingcaringandsupportive
relationships,wehavethebasisforharmony.145Thepathtowardsharmonyiscontingenton
afewfactors,suchas:consensus,reconciliation,communityeconomics,spreadwealth, 140Ibid:233.141Metz2007:331‐332.142Ibid:334.143Ibid:340.144Ibid:334.145Ibid:337.
38
inclusionincommunityandprocreation.Consensusisunanimouswithsharedidentity,
accordingtoMetz.Decision‐makingwithunanimousresultspromotesbothgoodwilland
sharedidentityinthelongrun,morethan‘majoritanianism’astheminorityfeelsincluded.
Punishmentdoesnotpromotegoodwillorsharedidentity.Retribution,unlike
reconciliation,isnotbasedonoutcome,accordingtoMetz.Economicallycompetingagainst
oneanothertomaximiseself‐interestsdoesnotfitwithcommunalgoodwillasgoodsand
wealthshouldbesharedforall.Theupholdingoftraditionsandritualsareanimportant
wayinthecommunityforpeopletoidentifywithothers,whichmaintainstheshared
identityandthereforegoodwill.Lastly,procreation‘…enablesonetoexpandtherangeofa
commonsenseofself,toenlargethescopeofa‘we’.’146MymaincontentionisthatMetz
claimsthattherearesignificantaccountsofubuntuthatmakenoreferencetoreligion.147
Thisiseasilyunderstood,especiallyfromaWesternstand,butleavingoutthereligious
aspectofAfricanlifemakeslittlesenseinordertoproduceacompletepicture.Particularly
whentherearesoundargumentstoplaceubuntuinthefoundationsofAfricanTraditional
Religion,andtherebyAfricanlife,tryingtoseparatethetwoseemsunproductiveand
misunderstood.
3.2CONCLUSION
Fromallofthiswecandeducesomekeyelementsofimportanceinadefinitionofubuntu.
Thereisarelativeconsensusamongthescholarswhostudyubuntuthatthecommunityis
animportantpartofunderstandingubuntu.Ahumancanexisttotheirfullabilityonlyina
community,onlyinrelationtootherpeople.Whichbringsustothenextvitalpointof
understanding:theself.Thecommunityisthecentralthemeforwhereone’sselfis
developed.Aswehaveseen,somescholarsarguethatapersonhastoearntheir
personhood.Thetraditionsofthecommunitybringthepersontothepointwhereoneisa
humanbeingreadytobefurtherfulfilledasacompletehumanbeing.Othersclaimthata
personisbornahumanbeing,andthetraditionsofthecommunityhelpthemtocreate
inter‐communalrelationshipsbasedonandtopromoteharmony.Therefore,aperson’s
valueasahumanisinherentinthem,notsomethingthatcaneludethemoratwhichthey
canfail.Thisbeingsaid,noteveryonebecomesanancestororaspiritindeath.Onlyifthe
deceasedhasleadanexemplarylifecantheyguideothersintheirlifethroughbeingan
ancestor.Thiswillbeaddressedinthenextchapter.Tocontinueinourdefinitionofubuntu,
146Metz2007:339.147Ibid:328.
39
thereareseveralscholarswhoviewubuntuasanunderlyingessenceofcommunitylifeand
humanity.Theaimofthisunderlyingelementistohelpcreateharmoniousrelationships
andhelphumansinmaintainingrelationshipswithothers.DesmondTutuhasstated:‘Tobe
istoparticipate.’148Allactionscomebacktoubuntu,whichwillalwayspromoteasenseofa
sharedidentitybetweenthepeoplerelatingtoeachotherinacommunity.Thiswillinturn
leadtoageneralwishforwell‐beinginsidethecommunity.Itistheharmonyinthe
communitythatistheultimategoal,anditisherethatwecanlocateubuntu.Ubuntuisinall
peopleandallactionsandthoughts.Ubuntuistomaintainharmonyinthecommunity.This
isaninherentlyreligiousenterprise.Asmentionedinthepreviouschapter,lifeandreligion
isoneandthesamethingintheAfricancontext.InthecontextofAfricanTraditional
Religionubuntuisthebasisforthepurposeofthereligion,whichisharmony.Thiswillbe
furtherdiscussedinthefollowingchapter.
148Battle2009:39.
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3 PERFORMINGUBUNTUIntheviewofVincentMulago,thecentraltenetsofAfricanreligionare:unityoflifeand
participation;beliefintheenhancementordiminutionofbeingsandtheinteractionof
beings;symbolastheprincipalmeansofcontactandunion;andanethicthatflowsfrom
ontology.Firstonhislististhepointofunityoflifeandparticipation,whichismostrelevant
here.Healsoreferstounionoflifeasavitalunion.Thisunionentailsaperson’sbeingand
lifewithalltheimportantpeoplenearby,participatingintheunion.Thelivinganddeadare
beingjoinedinaverticalandhorizontalbond,representingalife‐givingprinciple.Mulago
goesontostatethatthelifeofthe‘…individualisunderstoodasparticipatedlife.’Allthe
membersofasocietyknowthattheylivebythecommunity.Thetribe,theclan,thefamily
allbelievethattheywouldnothavethemeanstosurviveoutsidethecommunity.Alllifeis
sacred,andexistingintheheartofthecommunitymeansparticipatinginthesacredlifeof
theancestors.Inadditiontothis,theconservationandenhancementoftheancestors
dependonthemembersofthetribe,theclan,andthefamily.Thelifebeforeandbeyondthe
graveisinseparableandexistsdependentlyononeanother.Mulagopointsoutthatthereis
abeliefthattheindividualsurvivesafterdeath,andthatthereisaninterchanging
relationshipbetweenthelivingandthedead.Thishastobemaintained.149
GerhardusCornelisOosthuizenarguesthatthinkingintraditionalAfricaissynthetic,rather
thananalytical.Thismeansthateverythingisseenasbeinginterdependent,whichinturn
meansthateverythinghasreligiousvalue,asnothingtraditionallyorientedcanbe
religiouslyneutral,accordingtoOosthuizen.InthisreligiouslyloadedtraditionalAfrican
beliefthereisanorientationtowardstotality.Itisthisorientationthatlaysthegroundwork
fortheintensesenseofcommunity.Notonlythis,butnatureisfreefrombeingobjectified,
whichstrengthensthefeelingofcommunityasoneisnotbeingalienatedbynature.‘An
individualisneveramereindividual,butisalsotheother(whoisnotmerelyanother).’150
Hearguesfurtherthataperson’spersonalityhasthehighestprioritybecausethis
personalitypresupposesrelationship.Andrelationshipsarethemeaningofexistence.
Everythingdonefrombirthuntildeathand‘…thereafterbindthepersonasacommunal
beingtoeveryonearoundthemselves…’151Hegoesontopointoutthatthepersonisthe
centreofexistence,however,notasapersonbyherself,butasafamilyandcommunity.
149VincentMulago1991.‘TraditionalAfricanReligionandChristianity,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.120‐121.150Oosthuizen1991:41.151Ibid:41.
41
Blessingsinlife,likechildren,arenothingunlessthewholeofthecommunityshareinitall.
Themetaphysicalforcesarethesustainersoftheworldinwhichthehumanisatthecentre,
insteadofmatter.Theessenceofthingsiswhatisimportantasreligionembraces
everything.152
Thefamily,forAfricanpeoples,includemanygenerationsandbranches.Thecircleiswide,
andmayincludeextendedfamilieswherebrothersorsistersestablishfamiliesclosetoone
another.Beyondthelivinginfamiliesbetween10andonehundredmembers,thefamily
alsoincludestheliving‐dead.Theyexistinthememoriesofthestillliving.Ifoneis
remembered,oneisnotcompletelydead.Althoughtheyarenotwalkingontheearththey
stillhaveasayinwhathappensinthefamily,aswellasbeingavailableforadviceor
reprimands.Forgettingthedeadwillleadtogravemisfortuneforthesurvivingmembersof
thefamily.Thevaluesinherentinmosteverycommunity,likefellowship,hospitalityand
respectarestillimportantafterdeath.Oneistorecognisethevalueofthelivingdeadwho
haveservedaspillarsofthefamily,andnow,afterdeath,bindthefamilytogether.In
additiontoconsideringthelivingdeadasapartofthefamily,thosewhoareyettobeborn
arealsoconsideredasmembers.Thisisbecausetheyarealreadyintheloinsoftheliving.If
membersofthefamilydonotfindsomeonetomarry,theunbornwilldieandthelifeforce
ofthefamilywillbediminished.Thisisanimportantpoint,asitgivesclearmeaningto
initiationritesandritualssurroundingmarriageinparticular.Botharetoensurethatthe
lifeforceofthefamilywillbestrengthenedandcontinued.153Themembersmustbefully
integratedintothesocietyandbeabletocarrythelifeforceforward.
Theexamplesputforwardinthischapterarebynomeansanexhaustive,completeorfull
portrayalofcasesavailabletobeusedforthepurposeofthischapter.Thisissimplyarough
overviewofafewcasesfromamongdifferentpeoplesinAfricainordertosupportthegoal
ofthischapter.Thereisaneedtoclarifythecontextofthischapter,asIdonotcontendthat
Africanpeoples,suchasthosementionedinthischapter,necessarilyarethesamenowas
theywerewhentheseexampleswereputintowriting.KenyanbornscholarJohnMbiti
mainlyusessourcesfromthebeginningofthe1900supuntilthe1960s,154whereas
LaurentiMagesa’ssourcesdatefromthemid‐1960supuntilthe1980s.155Whatthischapter
willshowisthatthereisnoseparationbetweenubuntu,religionandcommunitylife.Itwill
152Oosthuizen1991:41,39.153Mbiti2008:104‐105.154Ibid:Seeindex.155Magesa1997:Seeindex.
42
alsoshowthatubuntuhistoricallyhasbeenapartofAfricansocieties.Itis,however,
importanttonotethatIdonotproposethattheexamplesusedbelowareunchanged
illustrationsofAfricancommunitylife.Theseexampleshavebeenrecordedatonepointin
history,andportraythecommunitylifeofthatparticularpeopleinaparticularyear.The
importanceofthemisnonethelessthattheydoinallinstancesportraysomethingthatis
trueofthewidersocietyofpeoplesinAfrica:thefocusonthevalueoflifeforthepurposeof
harmony.Thisisthereasontheseillustrationswillexplainthehistoryofubuntutobe
longerthanroughly20years,whichispurportedbyvanBinsbergen.Allpartsoflifeare
focusedtowardsmaintainingharmony,andallsocietalactionsreturntotheupholdingand
transferenceofthevitalforce;life,whichisthemostimportantelementofmaintaining
harmonyinthecommunity.AsAfricanTraditionalReligionisfar‐reachingandexists
outsideofSouthAfrica,thischapterwillmakeuseofcasesfromseveraldifferentpeoples
locatedinsub‐SaharanAfrica.FirstlyIwilltalkabouttheimportanceofcommunitylifein
Africansocieties.Therearestructuresinthecommunitythatarefocusedtowards
maintainingthewell‐beingandharmonyinthatcommunity.ThereafterIwillfocusonthe
importanceofthevitalforceofthecommunity,alsoreferredtoasthelifeforce.Theconcern
willbepracticesmaintainingandensuringthetransferenceofthevitalforceinthe
community.Lastly,theemphasiswillbeonthesignificanceofancestors,alsoreferredtoas
theliving‐dead,intheupholdingofharmonyinthecommunity.Allthreepartsofthis
chapterconcentrateontheimportanceoflifeandhowtobestpreserveit.Ubuntuisfoundin
allthreepartsofthischapter.ThaddeusMetzlocatesthecentreofubuntuinthework
towardscommunalwell‐beingandsharedidentity,andthisiswhatcanbeseenbelow.In
4.1.2Iusethewordprayer,whichcanbesaidtopossessEuro‐Christianconnotations,ascan
thelanguageinwhichtheprayersarepresented.However,Ichoosetomakeuseofthe
originalquotesandtheword‘prayer’inordertomosteasilydealwiththedata.
4.1COMMUNITY
FridayMbonarguesthatAfricantraditionalsocietiesvaluethewelfareoftheindividual
person,asitisaconsequenceofwelfareinthesociety.Andthesocietyisthemostimportant
aspectoflife.InAfricantraditionalsocieties,hecontinues,nomanliveduntohimself.Asthe
actionsofanypersonwilldirectlyorindirectlyaffectanotherpersonorpersons,orthe
entiresociety.Mbonusestheword‘eudaemonistic’whenexplainingtheAfricansocietal
systemassystemsofhappiness.Thedictionarycallsita‘…systemofethicsthatbasesmoral
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valueonthelikelihoodthatgoodactionswillproducehappiness.’156LaurentiMagesaviews
sociabilityandcreationofrelationshipsinthecourseofdailylivingbytheindividualand
communityasthecentralmoralandethicalimperativeinAfricanreligion.Thereisastrong
focusontheformationandexecutionofrelationshipsastheserelationshipskeepthe
universegoing.Atthesametime,inAfricanreligionthereisaninherentfocusonthe
present.Livinginthenowconcentratingonhavingagoodlifenow,iscrucial.Theemphasis
onrelationshipshereandnowistoemphasisetheimportanceoflivinginthepresent.In
thistypeofrelationship,whereeveryoneunderstandstheimportanceof
interconnectedness,thefocusisthehealthofthecommunity,aswellasthecirculationoflife
sothatlifeiskeptmoving.Arelationshipmeansonehastoshare.Notsharingis
counterproductivetothewellbeingofthecommunity.Sharingcreatesandcementsbonds
requiredtoformandsustainthecommunity.Ifonerefusestoshareitislikelytothinkthis
persondoesnothavethebestinterestofthecommunityatheart.157Thesetwofollowing
quotesdescribetheimportanceandrelevanceofthecommunity:‘Theunityofthe
community[…]aunitythatisthecommunity’slifeinitsfullestsense,istheparamount
good.Theoppositeconstitutestheparamountdestruction.’158‘Participation‐sharingisthus
acentralprincipleorimperativeforhumanexistenceinAfricanreligion,the“quintessence
ofauthentichumanity(Obuntu)”.’159
Infocusingoncommunitywewilllookatpartsofthecommunitywherethewhole
communityisengagedinmaintaining,upholdingorrestoringthevitalforce,andwiththat:
harmony.Allofthecommunityisengagedinthewellbeingofeveryonewhoispartofthe
community.Ritualsrepresentaphysicalcommunicationwithancestors,spiritsorthe
SupremeBeingthatmostofteninvolvesthewholecommunity.Sacrificesandofferingsare
madetopreventdifficultsituations,turndifficultsituationsaround,andrestoreharmony
afterwrongdoing,tothankortoremember.Thecommunitycomestogetherwiththe
worriesortheirhappinessandshareproblemsolvingorthanksgiving.Prayerandrituals
mayormaynothappensimultaneously.Prayerisacommonwayofcommunicatingwith
ancestors,spiritsortheSupremeBeingwhereitismostcommontopetitionthoseforces
relevantforsomethingthatisneededforharmonyinthehomesteadorthecommunity.
Prayerscanbeutteredinprivate,butprayeralsobringsthemembersofthecommunity 156FridayM.Mbon1991.‘AfricanTraditionalSocio‐ReligiousEthicsandNationalDevelopment:TheNigerianCase,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.102.157Magesa1997:64‐65.158Ibid:65.159Ibid:66.
44
together.Finally,Iwillmainlyfocusonthepartplayedbythemedicine‐doctorforthe
promotionofsocietalwell‐being.Therearemedicine‐doctorsandotherspecialistsinevery
communitywholocateailments,illnessorevilandoffercures,orpreventativemedicine.
Theyfunctionasimportantupholdersofharmony,andmembersofthecommunitycanturn
tothemwhentheyareworriedorill.
4.1.1RITUALS
Ritualsarecentralinthecommunityandareusedfortherestoringandmaintainingoflife.
AccordingtoMagesa,themostcommonritualsinthisrespectaresacrificeandoffering.He
differentiatesbetweensacrificeandofferingbyfocusingonwhetherthereisseparationby
destructionordedication.Whenthereisasacrifice,anitem,mostoftenafood,iskilledor
destroyedmostpossiblybyfire,orthroughabandonment.Theitemsacrificedneedstobe
connectedwithhumanuseandofvalueinthecommunity.Thecommunityorthepersonis
separatedfromtheitemofvaluethroughthedestructionoftheitem,suchasfoodstuffs,
waterorhoney,160whichnowbelongstotheancestororspirititwassacrificedto.In
offeringstheitemsconnectedwithhumanusearenotdirectlydestroyed,butseparated
fromthecommunityorthepersonthroughdedicationtotheancestororspiritinquestion.
Theitemcanstillappearinthecommunity,butdoesnolongerbelongtothem.Thisisa
symbolicexercise,wherenobloodisshed.Insomeinstancesofoffering,theitemcannotbe
usedagainasitisinhabitedbythemysticalpowers,however,thisisnotalways.161Asis
explainedthroughsacrificebytheTurkana,theburning,dissection,roastingandeatingof
theanimalcreatesa‘…newentityorsuper‐entityofinterrelationshipswithcoolnessand
happiness.’162Thespiritsandancestors,manandanimalhavethroughsacrificebecomea
totality,whichfostersharmonyinthecommunity.Thisisthefundamentalmeaningof
sacrifices,accordingtoMagesa,therestorationofwholeness.Wrongdoingcancreatea
distancebetweentheelementsoftheuniverse,andthisneedstoberectified.163However,it
isnotonlyspecificallyhumanwrongdoingthatneedssacrificesandofferings.Droughts,
epidemics,floods,warorotherdiresituationsalsocallforcommunicationbetweenpersons
inthecommunityandthemysticalpowers.Communities,suchastheAkambaandthe
Gikuyu,sacrificeinordertopreventpotentialdiresituations,suchasbeforeplanting,before
160EmekaC.Ekeke2011.‘AfricanTraditionalReligion:AConceptualandPhilosophicalAnalysis.’Lumina.9.161Magesa1997:201.162Ibid:203.163Ibid:203.
45
ripeningofcrops,beforeharvest,oraspartofritesofpassageinthecommunity.164Sacrifice
maybeperformedinunisonwithprayers,asawomanoftheBachwawhobringsaportion
ofthefoodshehascookedtotheforest.WhenofferingthemtotheSupremeBeingas
appreciationforbecomingpregnantsheutters:‘God,fromWhomIhavereceivedthischills,
takeThouandeat!’165AmongtheTaitaofKenyareconciliationpermeatestheirwhole
religioussystem.TheTaitaperformreconciliationritesinordertore‐establishtiesinthe
community,whichaccordingtoMagesa,isimportanttoanydivinationprocedure.Asthe
pointofsacrifices,offeringsaswellasdivinationistorestoreharmonyinthecommunity,
thereneedstobecertaintythatattheendofsuchundertakingsthecommunityistied
together.ThisisofmajorimportanceamongtheTaita,whereonehastobehonestand
recogniseangerorresentmentonehasinsideandcastthemaway.Thisamountstothesame
ascastingawaytheangerorresentmentofthemysticalpowers.Theyhavearitual
specificallyfortheriddanceofanger,wherethepersoncarryingouttheritualmustbeclear
ofangerintheirheart.166
4.1.2PRAYER
Therearemanywaysinwhichthecommunityinworksinuniontowardsmaintaining
harmony.AccordingtoMagesa,prayerisoneofthewaysbywhichtoachieveharmony.The
focusofprayeristoremoveallthatisbadfromacommunityandrestorewhatisgood.
Prayer,connectingthevisibleandtheinvisibleworld,enhancesthemutualinterdependent
relationships.AccordingtoAdeyemo,MagesaandMbiti,prayeristhemostcommonactof
worshipinAfricanreligion.167Itisacommunication,apetitionbetweenthevisibleandthe
invisibleworld.Themaingoalisthemaintenanceofharmonybetweenpersonsinthe
visibleworldandbetweenthemandtheinvisibleworld.Therearetypicallynostandardised
prayersinAfricanreligionbecausethesituationhereandnowneedstoberespected.This
meansthetoneoftheprayercanchangealldependingonthesituation.Angerand
frustrationispermitted,especiallyastheoneprayingalwayswillhaveafeelingofbeing
humblewhencommunicatingwithancestors,spiritsortheSupremeBeing.Thisleadsusto
wheretheprayersgo,wheretheyaredirected.Theydonotonlyhaveoneplacetogo,and
canbeaddressedtoancestors,spiritsortheSupremeBeing.Magesastressesthatonehasto
becompletelyhonestinthiscommunicationwiththespiritualbeingsinordertobeproperly
164Mbiti2008:59.165Ibid:60.166Magesa1997:234‐236.167Magesa1997:195,Mbiti2008:61.
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heard.Thisprerequisitereliesontrustbetweenthelivinghumansandthespiritsand
ancestors.Magesaalsorecognisesthatthereispragmatismintheprayerinthatoneoften
asksforwhatisneededtocontinueaffirminglife.168Oneexampleofprayerisfromthe
BambutiPgymiesoftheDemocraticRepublicofCongo.Iftheyfindthemselvesintheforest
whenathunderstormarises:‘Father,Thychildrenareafraid;andbehold,weshalldie!’169
Thegoalisthewellbeingofthosewhofindthemselvesintheforesttonotdieoflightning,in
ordertomaintainthefamilyandthevitalforce,andthereforeharmony.Thisisapetition
andawarningforthecontrollersofthethunderstorm,aswellastotheancestorsinposition
ofcommunicatingdirectlywiththeSupremeBeing.Anotherprayerthatisrecordedcomes
fromtheMeruinKenyaandilluminateslifeinaprayerforthewellbeingofthehomestead,
thecommunity,andbeyond:
‘Kirinyaga…,ownerofallthings,IpraytoThee,givemewhatIneed,becauseIamsuffering,andalsomychildren,andallthethingsthatareinthiscountryofmine.IbegThee,thegoodone,forlife,healthypeoplewithnodisease.Maytheybearhealthychildren.Andalsotowomenwhosufferbecausetheyarebarren,openthewaybywhichtheymayseechildren.Givegoats,cattle,food,honey.AndalsothetroubleoftheotherlandthatIdonotknow,remove.’170
Thefocusofthisprayeriswhatisneededfortherecoveringofharmonyinthecommunity.
TheMeruarepetitioningforhealthandfood,whichisneededforasuccessfultransmittance
ofthevitalforce.Thefocusoftheoneutteringtheprayeristhechildren,bornandnotyet
born.Evenwhenthereiscleardistress,theoneprayingisaskingthatbarrenwomenshould
beabletobearchildren.Thisinitselfshowstheimportanceofwhatwilloccupythenext
partofthischapter;thevitalforce.Themaingoalistomakethesituationhealthyinorder
forthevitalforcetobepreserved.Mostcommonstartingpointsforprayersarepetitioning,
thanksgivingandmemorialising,whichareallimportantinordertonotonlyuphold
harmonyinthecommunityoftheliving,butalsotoupholdharmonyinthecommunitythat
involvestheancestorsandspirits.Recognisingtheeffortsandworkoftheancestorsand
spiritsfurtherincludethesebeingsintothecommunity,andtheywillinturnassistin
affirminglifeandharmony.However,whenoneisaskingsomethingoftheancestorsor
spiritsitisusuallylinkedtoprotectionfromevilinwhateverform,andtheflourishingof
life.Iftheseprayersareheard,thanksgivingisinorder.171
168Magesa1997:196‐198.169Ekeke2011:10‐11.170Magesa1997:197‐198.171Ibid:199.
47
4.1.3SPECIALISTS
Themedicine‐doctorrepresentsapositioninthecommunitywhosesolepurposeisto
protectorrestorethevitalforce.AsunderlinedbyMagesa,theworkingsofthemedicine‐
doctorshowthe‘…interconnectednessof,andinterdependencebetween,humanityandthe
restofcreation.’172Themedicine‐doctorsymbolisesthe‘…hopesofsociety:hopesofgood
health,protectionandsecurityfromevilforces,prosperityandgoodfortune,andritual
cleansingwhenharmorimpuritieshavebeencontracted.’173Theymakeuseofthewholeof
natureintheirworktoprotect,restoreorprevent.Harmonyinthecommunityisnot
restrictedtoharmonyamongpersonsbutitalsoincludesnature.Allthatsurroundsthe
communityisrelevantandimportant,andabalancedrelationshipwithnaturewillalsohelp
maintainthevitalforce,andthereforeupholdharmony.AccordingtoMbiti,themedicine‐
doctorsbelievespiritsorancestorsarecallingthemintobecomingamedicine‐doctor.This
canhappenwhentheyareyoungorwhentheyareolder,andtheirtrainingcanbeeither
formalorinformal,butthereisalwayssomekindofapprenticeshipforthemedicine‐doctor
to‐be.Theywilllearnhowtotreatailmentsmedicinally,throughallsortsofnature‐objects,
beitinsectsorfruit.Medicine‐doctorswillalsoknowhowtodeterminethecauseofillness
orsuffering,whichincludesbarrennessorpoorcrops,andhowtocurethesesufferings,or
howtopreventthem.Medicine‐doctorspossessknowledgeofhowtouseortocombatthe
useofmagic,witchcraftandsorcery.Theyalsohaveataskofunderstandingthespiritsand
ancestors,whattheymeanbytheirmessagesandothercommunications,withoutdealing
directlywiththem.174AccordingtoMagesa,thereisabeliefinAfricanreligionthatthetrue
reasonbehindallthingsthathappencanbeknown,175whichiswhytherearemembersof
thecommunityapttolocatethesourcesofevilandofferacureorpreventiontactics.For
instance,‘[a]mongtheNdebele176,themedicine‐mansuppliesmedicatedpegsforthegates
ofanewhomestead.Hecombatswitchcraftandmagicbypreventingtheiraction…’177The
medicine‐doctorisinthiscasecreatingasenseofstabilityandsafety,aswellasdoingwhat
isnecessaryforthemaintenanceofthevitalforce.
Communitieshaveseveral‘specialists’tolookoutfortheinterestsofthecommunityasa
whole.Therearemediumsthatarethemainintermediariesbetweenthelivingandthe
172Magesa1997:210.173Mbiti2008:166.174Ibid:162‐164,167.175Magesa1997:214.176OfSouthAfrica,ZimbabweandBotswana.177Mbiti2008:164.
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living‐deadandthespirits.Themediumsareregularpeoplemostofthetimebutwhena
spiritpossessesthem,theycanhelpthelivingreceivemessagestoguidethemwithlargeor
smallerthingsinlife.Anotherspecialististhediviner,whichisprimarilyconcernedwith
divination,mostoftenincorrelationwithmedicine.Mbitidescribesthemasfriendsofthe
communitythatactlikecounsellors,comfortersorproblemsolvers.Africancommunities
alsohavearainmakerinthecommunity,asrainisregardedasagreatblessing.Mbiti
regardsthemas‘…someofthemostimportantindividualsinalmostallAfricansocieties.’178
TheZuluofSouthAfricacallrainmakers‘shepherdsofheaven’.Theritualsandceremonies
connectedwithrainmakingisoftenaveryimportantcommunityevent,whichmakesit
importantforsolidarityandunity.179Theseareroughoverviewsofdifferentspecialistin
Africansocietiesandcommunitiesthatplayanimportantroleinthecommunity.Thereare
manyformsofmediums,diviners,medicine‐doctorsandrainmakers.Theyallhavemany
diversemethods,andtheyarefoundinallsocietiesinAfricaasapartofAfricanTraditional
Religion.Thereisanendlessamountofritualsandprayersaswell.However,inthisbrief
explanationofsomeaspectsoftheseformsofcommunityco‐existence,theyallshowcase
preciselythiscomingtogetherinthecommunityforthebenefitofcommunalharmonyand
thepreservationofthevitalforce;thelifeforce.
4.2THEVITALFORCE
Thevitalforceisthemostcentralpartofthecommunity.Thisforceispartofhumanbeings,
andisthebasicforceoftheuniverse.Withoutitthereisnolife.Thevitalforceiswhat
everybodyisworkingtowardspreserving.Aftergoingthroughritesofinitiationonecan
moveforwardtothenextstep,whichistheimportanttransmittingofthevitalforce.In
unitingtwocommunitiesinmarriage,theybecomeoneentity,onepeople.Marriageiswhat
thesurvivalofkinshipdependson.Amarriagewillestablishstrongbondsbetweenthetwo
peoplecomingfromdifferentfamiliesandclans.Allthisisnottosaythateachcommunityin
thesub‐Saharancountriessharethesame‘kinship‐relationshipterminologies’,asMagesa
putsit.Thekinshipstructurescanbepatrilineal,matrilineal,unilateralorbilateral.
However,theimportanceofmarriageandthecontinuingofthevitalforceremainslargely
thesamewhereveronegoes.Thus,thefamilyascreatedbymarriage‘…isthe“fundamental
element”andthe“basicsphereofaction”inAfricanrelationships.’180
178Mbiti2008:174.179Ibid:174,176.180Magesa1997:115‐116,119.
49
Thewholeclanhasaresponsibilitytohonourtheobligationofreproducinginorderto
maintainthecommunity’swell‐being.Magesaarguesthatthisiswhysolidarityisthemost
importantfeaturewithinandbetweenfamilies.181Inthecommunitythereisputserious
emphasisontheneedtobecomemarried.Eachpersonhasamoralobligationtomarryand
havechildrensothatthesocialcommunity’slifecycleisnotinterrupted.Aninterruption
wouldbedevastatingforthecommunity.Marriagedoesnotonlyaffectthesocialfactorsina
community,italsoaffectstheeconomic,politicalandreligiousfactorsinthecommunity.
Marriagemorethananyotheraspectoflifeaffectsthesocietyasawhole.182Whenfocusing
onmarriage,Iwilllookatthesurroundingsofhowamarriagetakesplace,andhowit
preservesthevitalforce.Animportantpartpertainingtomarriageisbridewealth,which
willbethefollowingfocus.Itisanimportantceremonialundertakingtoensurethewell
beingofthebrideandthebridegroom’sclans,andalsothetwopeoplebecomingamarried
couple,whichisdonethroughbridewealth.Furthermore,thepreparationsforlifeinsociety
andmarriagethroughinitiationritesandtaboosareaspectsneededtocompletethepicture
ofhowimportantthevitalforceisinthecommunity.Allthesepartstogetheremphasisethe
crucialvalueofthevitalforce,andprovideguidelinesforitsmaintenance.
4.2.1MARRIAGE
InAfricanreligiontheprocessofmarriageisastep‐by‐stepdevelopment,whichintegrates
thecommunity,‘…itisnotanendinitself,itisameanstoanend.’183Thereareseveral
ceremoniesindifferentplaces;allvaryingfromcommunitytocommunity.However,as
BishopKasebaoftheDemocraticRepublicofCongostresses,thegradualprocessistaken
withtheutmostseriousness.Makingsureeveryoneisinvolvedinthemarriageprocess,
helpingthecoupletowardsalastingunionofmarriage.Thiswholeprocessiswhatmakesa
marriage.Twofamiliesarecomingtogether,atthesametimeasoneofthepartnersare
leavingtheirhomestead.Thegradualapproachtoacompletemarriageunionistakingevery
partyintoconsiderationallowingalliancestobeformedandagrowingtogetheroffamilies.
Thisgradualprocessalsoallowsforinterruptionifthepartiesproveincompatible.An
interruptionisnotregardedasadivorcewhentheprocessisnotcomplete,itisjust
recognisedandacceptedasanattemptedmarriagethatdidnotgointofruition.Whenthe
truemeaningandpurposeofmarriagehasbeenacceptedanddecided,achildisthelaststep
181Magesa1997:121.182Ibid:119‐121.183Ibid:125.
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towardsmarriage.‘…[W]ithoutchildren…marriagehasnomeaning.’184Thisisbecause
childrenarethesymbolofthetransmissionandpreservationoftheforceoflife.Without
children,thereisnofurtherlife.Whenachildisborn,amarriageshouldunderno
circumstancesend.Thisisbecausethedemandsofmarriageextendbeyondthepresentlife.
Inmanyinstances,incaseofdeathofaparent,asisterorbrothershouldreplacehimorher.
Whenachildisbornthehusbandandwifeareinextricablyboundtooneanother,asare
theirfamiliesandcommunities.Thiscausesthetwopeople,familiesandcommunitiesto
expand,andrealisetheirhumanity,astheyareabletolivein‘…alargercircleofhuman
beings.’185Themembersoftheexpandingcommunityattaintheirfullhumanityasaresultof
togetherness,whichisadirectconsequenceofmarriage.Notonlyforthecomingtogetherof
thetwopersonsandcommunities,butalsobecausetheancestralunioncanonlybeachieved
throughchildren.186
Withthepurposeofmaintainingthevitalforce,Africancommunitieshavedifferent
solutionstosituationsthatputthisinjeopardy.Themarriagebondissoprofoundlystrong
thatdeathdoesnotnecessarilyspellabrokenbond.Thereareunionspreparedtodealwith
theeventofdeath,orinfertility,tocontinuefosteringlifeinthecommunity.187Onesuch
solutionisalevirateunion,whereamanmarrieshisdeceasedbrother’swife.Thechildren
bornthroughthisunionbelongtothedeceasedmanandinheritfromhisestate.Similarly,
thewomanisnotmarriedagain,onlylivinginthesamehouseasher‘caretaker’.Itisthe
responsibilityofthedeceasedhusband’srelativestotakecareofhiswife,andsecuretheir
survivalthroughchildren.Iftherearenomentostepintothisrole,awidowmaybetreated
asamanandtakea‘wife’.Thiswifemayhavesexualrelationswithothermen,butthe
childrenarestillcountedasthewidow’s,whoistheir‘father’.Anothersolutiontoa
problematicsituationisawifehavinghersisterbeaco‐wife.Ifawomanismarriedand
discoverssheisbarrenthereisgreatshametobefallherfamilyandclan.Inthis‘sororate’
marriagethesisterwouldconceiveandgivebirthtothechildrenofhersisterandher
husband’sfamilyandclan.Inthiswaythevitalforceissecured.Inothercases,amanmay
diewithoutchildrenandawomanwillmarryhimafterhehasdiedandcarrybabiesintohis
name.Thisisknownasaghostmarriage.AccordingtoMagesa,sexualrelationsofanykind
aredeemedethical,asthepurposetheyserveisaboveallelse.188Themaintenanceand
184Magesa1997:126.185Ibid:128.186Ibid:127‐128.187Ibid:135.188Ibid:140‐141.
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transmittanceofthevitalforceinorderforcommunalharmonyisthemostimportantpart
ofAfricanTraditionalReligionandtheAfricancommunity.However,onecanassumethat
thesexualrelationsneedtobelegitimatedthroughthecommunity.Inmostinstances
homosexualrelationsarenotpermitted,whichmeansMagesa’sstatementisnotquite
correct.Thisis,however,notatopicthatwillbeaddressedinthisthesis.
Therearepreparationsformarriageandthetransmittanceofthevitalforcethrough
initiationrites.Theseritesthatcoincidewithpubertyteachesboysandgirlsaboutmaturity
andresponsibilities,butalsoaboutsexandfamilylife.AccordingtoMbiti,initiationcouldbe
characterisedasa‘…sanctificationandpreparationformarriage’,andwhentheseritesare
overtheboysandgirlshavebecomemenandwomen,readyandallowedtobecome
married.Afterbeingtaughtthewaysoftheadults,onecanchooseamarriagepartner.The
parentsofthewoman,ortheparentsofthemancanchooseapartneronbehalfoftheir
children.Preferablythechoicesaremadefromoutsideoftheclan,soastoassurehealthy
offspring.Relativescanalsobeinvolvedinchoosingapartner,andinsomeinstancesthe
youngwomenormenmaketheirownchoices,leavingthemarriagenegotiationsuptotheir
parentsandrelatives.Whenapartnerischosenthecourtshipcanbegin,wheregenerallyno
ritesareused.Althoughinsomesocietiestherearewaysofsymbolisingthependingunion
ofthefamilies.Ifthepartnersdecidetheywishtostaywitheachotheraftertheperiodof
courting,theycanmarry.ThereisnosetweddingceremonyinAfricanTraditionalReligion,
andthewaysinwhichmarriageisconsecratedareverydiverse.AccordingtoMbiti,some
societieshaveceremoniesoverseveraldaysfilledwithritualsfortheoccasion,whereas
somefightsymbolicallyinordertoincorporatethebrideintohernewclan.Althoughitis
notalwaysthewomanwhogoestolivewiththeman’sfamilyandclan,inmatrilocal
communitiesthemancomestolivewithhiswife’sfamily.Insomeinstancesthereisno
ceremonyuntilachildisunderway.Inthesecasesthewomanandmanlivetogetheruntil
thebabyisconceived.189Eitherway,mostcommonlytherearenegotiationssurroundingthe
unionoftwopeople,wherebridewealthisthemostimportanttopic.
4.2.2BRIDEWEALTH
Solidificationofunityinmarriagecomesthroughbridewealth.Itisnotamatterof
purchasingawife,butratherarecognitionofthewomen’sclan’sworkinraisingthebride.
Creatingthistypeofbondbetweentwofamiliesmakesforastableunion.Notpaying
189Mbiti2008:130‐135.
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bridewealthleavesthecoupletobemarriedinlimbo.Thereistheuncertaintyofwhichclan
achildbetweenthetwowillbelongto,whichancestorswillbethechild’sguides,andwhat
placewillthechild,aswellashis/herparentshaveintheclan.Themanwillforinstance
losehisrightstonaming,190whichmeansneitherheorhisfamilyhaveanyrightsconnected
withthechild.Thewomanmightalsohavetroublefittingintohernewhome,orinmaking
connectionstohisfamily,withouttheexchangeofbridewealth.Theinstabilityofthe
communityandunionwhenthereisnobridewealthispreciselywhatthecommunityin
generalisworkingagainst.Bridewealth,asothertraditions,areinplacetoensurethe
stabilityofthecommunity.Andstabilityissynonymouswithpreservingthevitalforce.
Bridewealthisawayofsolemnisingthefather‐motherstatus,aheadofthehusband‐wife
status,aspointedoutbyMagesa.Bridewealthmeansthatthesecurityofthechildis
prioritised,atthesametimeasoneishonouringtheparentsonbothsideswhohavealready
securedthevitalforcetobecarriedthroughintheirchildren.191Thebridewealthisdesigned
totaketheplaceofthebrideinherfamilyaftersheleaves.Italsosymbolisesthebride’s
valueinherfamily,andwhatalossitwillbewhensheleaves.Thefamilyofthebridedogive
giftstothegroom’sfamily,althoughsmallerinsize,asthanksgiving.192
AccordingtoSchapera‘…thebasicpointofbride‐wealthhastodowithlife,theproper
identificationoftheoffspringandtheirconfirmationintoandwithinacertainclanwhose
lifeisincreasedonaccountoftheirbirth.’193ThisviewisechoedamongtheAzandeof
Sudan,theGikuyuandtheKipsigisofKenya,theKwayaofTanzania,theAkanofGhanaand
theIvoryCoastandtheThongaofSouthAfrica.AccordingtoHenriJunod,thebridewealth
createssolidaritybetweenthetwocommunitiesastheexchangeofittakesplaceinpublic.
Duetobridewealththemarriageishardertobreakupon‘…accountofitssocial,
psychological,andritualsignificance.’194Andthechildrenbornintothisunionaregivenan
identityandlegitimacy.195Whenthemarriagehasbeensealedwithbridewealthand
realisedbyhavingchildren,thefourmostimportantthingsinhumanlifehavebeenenabled:
‘1)ithasre‐presented(madepresentamongtheliving)thelifeforceofdepartedancestorsbywayofnaming;2)ithasgiventheparentstheassuranceoflifewiththeancestorsinthattheywillinturnberememberedbybeingnamedafter;3)ithasensuredcontinuationofthelifeoftheclan
190Tobeexplainedin4.3.1.191Magesa1997:128‐135.192Mbiti2008:137.193SchaperainMagesa1997:130.194HenriJunodinMagesa1997:131.195Magesa1997:131.
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inthisworldbyincreasingvitalforcethroughnewmembers;and4)comprisingalltheabove,ithastiedthebondofcommunionbetweentheliving,theliving‐dead,andtheyet‐to‐be‐born.’196
JohnMbiticharacterisesmarriageasthefocusofexistenceforAfricanpeoples.Allmembers
ofacommunitycometogetheroveramarriage;thisincludesthelivingandtheyet‐to‐be‐
born.Asmuchasitisarhythmoflifeitisadutyforthegoodofthesocietyandcommunity.
Refusingtomarryisarejectionofsociety,andinreturnthesocietyrejectsthem.Mbitisees
procreationasameansofsealingthemarriage,asman’sattempttorecapturewhathe
referstoasthelostgiftofimmortality.Procreatingthenbecomesawayinwhichamancan
contributetheseedoflifetowardsthestruggleagainsttheoriginalimmortality.Oneisalso
perpetuatingthechainofhumanity.Withoutcreatingdescendantsthefireoflifeisputout
astheliving‐deadlosetheiropportunitytobereincarnated.Aslongasoneisremembered
oneisnotdead.Tonotberememberedistheworstpunishmentforanyperson,asitmeans
theyareutterlycutofffromsociety;oneisdisconnectedwithoutanylinkswithmankind.
Therefore,thegreatesthopeforapersonandthecommunityismarriage.197
4.2.3INITIATIONANDTABOOS
Anotheraspectoflife,whichconfirmstheimportanceandimpermeablecapacityofthevital
forceisariteofinitiation.Duringaperson’schildhoodoneisinstructedinthelifeofthe
clan,makingsurethemembersofthecommunitybecomereadytotakeonthemoral
responsibilitiesofbeingpartoftheclanandcommunity.AccordingtoMagesa,thesocietal
rightsandresponsibilitiesoftheindividualareachievedduringtheinitiationritesof
puberty.Thelifeforceoftheindividualisconfirmedformallyandbecomesimprintedinthe
rationalconsciousnessoftheindividual.198AccordingtoMagesa,therearefiveareasthatare
stressedduringtheinitiation.Theseare‘…religion,themysteryoflifeanddeath,domestic
andsocialvirtues,sexandsexuality,andformsofself‐identity.’199Initiationusuallyhasfive
stepsthatneedstobefollowed,whichare:‘…seclusion,instruction,physicalimpression
(eitheractualorsymbolic),integration,andcovenant.’200TheNdebeleofSouthAfrica,
ZimbabweandBotswanahaveashortceremonytocelebratethechangesofpubertyinboys
andgirls.Mbitidescribestheceremony.
‘Whenaboyhashisfirstnightemissionofsperms,hegetsupearlythenextmorning,beforeotherpeopleareup,andgoesnakedtotheriverwherehewasheshimself.Thenhereturnshomeand
196Magesa1997:135.197Mbiti2008:130‐131.198Magesa1997:95.199Ibid:97.200Ibid:96.
54
standsoutsidethehomesteadnearthegatewaythatleadstothecattleshed.Whenotherboysseehimthere,theycomeoverandbeathimwithsticks.Hefleesintothewoodsandremainstherefortwoorthreedays,beingcarefullywatchedbyotherboys.Duringthattimeheisnotallowedtoeatfoodinthedaytime,butonlyatnight.Whentheperiodisover,hereturnshomeandisgivenmedicatedfoodbythetraditionaldoctor.Thisisdoneceremoniously.Themedicine‐manputsmaizemealattheendofastickwhichhethrustsathimandtheboymusttakeholdofitwithhismouth.Whenhesucceedsindoingsothemedicine‐mangiveshimthreeorfourblowswithastick.Peoplesaythismakestheboyhard.Hisfatherandrelativesgivehimpresentsofcattle,sheepandgoats.’201
AccordingtoMbiti,thedaysintheforestsymbolisethedeathandresurrectionoftheboys,
andchildhoodisleftbehindthroughtheactofwashing.Thewholeriteisapreparationfor
lifeasanadult.Whentheboyisconsidered‘hard’itisseenasanapprovaloftheboythat
meanshecanbeincorporatedintothewidersociety.Onlywhenaboyisdeemedreadyto
takeontheresponsibilitiesofthewidersociety,canhetakepart.Washingsymbolisesthe
girls’initiationrite,whichtakesplaceaftertheirfirstmenstruation.Abigfeastisprepared
forthegirl,whoisnowallowedtobemarried.202
Averyimportantpartofinitiationritesistheemphasisonsexuality.Informationand
instructionaboutsexisvitalasthetransmittanceandpreservationofthelifeforceis
dependentonasoundunderstandingofsex.AccordingtoMagesa,thereisafocusonthe
pleasureofsex,butalsoontheresponsibilityofsexualinteraction.203Taboosserveasimilar
taskinAfricancommunities.Thereisemphasisonkeepingsexwithinthepracticesthat
promotelifeandthevitalforce.AccordingtoMagesa,manytaboosarecentredonblood.A
person’sbloodcanbeeitherhotorcold,wherehotrepresentsaconditionthatisdangerous
toothers.Forinstance,amongtheKgatlaofBotswana,peoplewhohavejusthadintercourse
areconsideredhotandcanthereforenotpartakeincertainrituals.Alsowidowsarehotfor
awholeyearaftertheirhusbandhasdied.Awomanissimilarlyhotduringmenstruation,
pregnancyandafterbirth.AmongtheMbutioftheD.R.Congoamanwhosewifeis
menstruatingcannottakepartinhunting.Heisalsobannedfromhuntingwhenhiswifeis
pregnantorhasjustgivenbirth.Herbloodneedscoolingdownbeforehecanhuntonce
again.SeveralpeoplesofAfricahaveforbiddenanycontactwithmenstrualblood.Ifthe
taboosarebrokentheconsequencescanbedire.Forinstance,amanwhohasintercourse
withamenstruatingwomancanbecomeimpotent.Moreseriousthanthetabooregarding
blood,istheincesttaboo.Thelistofkinonecannothavesexualrelationswithislarge,andis
soimportantbecauseoftheconfusionthatariseswhenincestiscommitted.Theyshare 201Mbiti2008:127‐128.202Ibid:128.203Magesa1997:98.
55
theirvitalpowerwithoneanother,andifincesttakesplacethatclanrelationshipmustend
rightaway.Sexandsexuality,Magesastresses,aresacredwaysofpreservingand
transmittingthevitalforce.Taboosensurethecorrectuseofsexinthecommunity,soasnot
tojeopardisethecontinuationoflife.204
DuringinitiationritesamongtheThongaofSouthAfrica,therearenotonlythosebeing
initiatedwhoarenotallowedsex,butalsothoseguardingtheinitiates.Breakingtheserules
couldresultindeath.Peopleinthevillagewhoaremarriedmayhavesexualrelations,as
longasthereisnonoise,notevenfromquarrels.Impartingtheresponsibilitiesofsexand
theconcernforlifeisveryimportant.CircumcisionandscarificationinAfricancommunities
areprimarilycarriedoutasaphysicalreminderoftheimportanceoflife.Theoperationin
thiscaseisdeliberatelypainful,soastomakealastingimpressionoftheimportanceof
life.205Theseritesconfirmtheimportanceofthevitalforce,andhowvitalitisforthe
communitytosecureitswell‐being,whichinturnsecuresthewell‐beingoftheentire
community.Therearecomplicatedsocietalstructuresinplacetoalwaysensurethatthe
vitalforceisbeingtakencareof.Eachcommunity,eachclan,hastheirownwaysof
preservingandtransmittingthevitalforce,knowingthatwithoutthecontinuationofthelife
force,therewouldbenothingleft.AlthoughmoderndayAfricancountries’developmenthas
changedthefamilyandclanstructures,aswellasthehomesteaditself,thereisevidenceof
lifeenforcingstructuresinsocieties.Eventhoughitcannotbeprovenhowfarback
structureslikethisgo,theyarelinkedtoubuntuthroughthevaluingoflifeinorderto
maintainharmonybetweenpeople,aswellasnature.
4.3ANCESTORS
Ancestors,ortheliving‐dead,aretheclosestlinkbetweenhumansandthespiritworld.This
isbecausetheyarestillpartofthefamiliestheyuntilrecentlylivedwith,buttheyarealso
closetothespiritworld.Theancestorsareconsideredtobepeople,notspiritsorthings.
Generally,itistheoldestmemberofthefamilyofthelivingwhoiscontactedbythe
ancestor.Theycontactthestilllivingtoenquireaboutfamilyaffairs,butalsotowarnagainst
dangersaswellasdisapprovingofthosewhohavenotfollowedtheirinstructions.
Ancestorsareconsideredtheguardiansofthefamilytheyoncelivedamongst.Ifamember
ofthestilllivingfamilybreakstraditionorhasquestionableethics,thisisultimatelyan
offenceagainsttheancestors,astheyaretheonesupholdingrulesandthebestinterestof 204Magesa1997:143,149‐153.205Magesa1997:98.
56
thefamily.Theirauthorityliesinthattheyhaveonefootineithercamp,thevisibleandthe
invisible.Theyhaverecentlybeenliving,andthereforeknowandunderstandtheneedsof
thefamily.Atthesametime,astheyhavedied,theyhaveopenchannelstothespiritsand
theSupremeBeing.AccordingtoJohnMbititheancestorsarewantedandnotwanted.Even
thoughtheyarethelinkbetweenthelivingandthespiritworld,iftheyvisittoofrequently
peoplearelikelytoresentthem.Atthesametime,theancestorscanactrevengeuponthe
familyiftheywerenotburiedproperly,oriftheywereoffendedneartheirdeath.Ifthe
familydoesnotsharefoodwiththeancestors,asoneissupposedtoinordertosay
‘welcome’aswellas‘goodbye’,theancestorscanshowtheirangerbywayofmisfortuneor
illness.206
4.3.1NAMING
ThesignificanceofnamesinAfricansocietiesisnottobeunderestimated.Apersonusually
bearsmorethanonename.Anamecancomefromcircumstancessurroundinghisorher
birth,orasimilaritywithancestorsoreldersdiscovereduponbirth,aswellasanancestor’s
wish.Apersonmaybearanamerecallinghardtimesthatwereafactwhentheywereborn.
AccordingtoMagesa,thiswillremindthefamilyofthesetimesandthattheydonotwant
thattohappenagain.Apersoncanbenamedafterdesirableevents,physicalormoral
qualities,likeforinstance‘luck’or‘charity’.Havingnameslikethiswillfunctionasa
remindertooneselfandthesurroundingshowimportantthesequalitiesoreventsare,allin
anattempttopreservethevitalforce.Thisisalsowhyancestorstakesuchaninterestinthe
namingofachild.AccordingtoMagesa,inmostcasesofbirthitisanancestor’svitalforce
returningtoearthandthefamily.Oftenthismeansthattheancestorwillwantthechild
namedafterhimorher.Thiswillimbuethechildtoliveuptothecharacteristicsandmoral
qualitiesoftheancestor.Beingraisedthiswaystrengthenstheconnectionbetweenthe
ancestorsandthestillliving.Rememberingancestorsthroughnamingmeansthewholeclan
willbenefitfromthevitalforcebeingbroughtbackasitistransmittedtothewholeclan.Not
namingchildrenafterancestors,butratherafterevents,things,seasonsandsoonpreserve
thelinkbetweencreationandhumanityremindingtheclanthatthelifeforceofhumanity
andnatureareinseparable.207
Anancestorisarolemodel,aguideinlifeandanadvisorforthosestillliving.Their
existencereliesonbeingrememberedbythestillliving.Aperson’schildrenarethefirst 206Mbiti2008:82‐83.207Magesa1997:90‐91.
57
whocanmakethishappen.Ifonehaslivedamorallygoodlife,one’schildrenwilldothe
same.Thismeansthattheywillfulfiltheirobligationtotheclan,tobemarriedandgive
birthtochildren,andthesechildrenwillinturndothesame.Thesechildrenmightbe
namedaftertheancestormostdirectlyconnectedtothem,mostoftenagrandparent.Ifthat
isnotpossible,thenextinlinewillbethenextchoice.208‘Naminginvolvestheincarnationor
actualisationofaperson(anancestor),acertaindesiredmoralqualityorvalue,aphysical
traitorpower,oranoccasionorevent.’209Anamehasdeepermeaningbecauseoneasksfor
apersonality,statusordestiny.Thisisaformofreincarnationwherethelifeforceofa
personnolongerlivinginhabits,protectsandshapesthecharacterofthenewlyborn.Thisis
howthedeceasedkeeponlivinginthecommunity;theybecomeacentralbeholderand
distributorofthevitalforce.AccordingtoMagesa,themorechildrenwhoareconnectedto
oneancestorthemorepowertheirvitalforcegains,whichwillcontributepositivelytothe
family,clanorlineage.Theriteofnamingcompletesthetransmissionoflife,ofthevital
force.210
AmongtheLuoofKenya,TanzaniaandUganda,thebabywillbegivenanamewhilstcrying.
Ifthecryingendswhenaparticularnameofanancestorisnamed,thatnamewillbegiven
tothenewbornbaby.ThenewbornbabiesamongtheAkambaofKenyareceivetheirname
onthethirddayoftheirlife.Thisisanoccasionmarkedbyafeast,followedthenextdayby
thefatherofthechildhanginganironnecklacearoundthebaby’sneck.Thissymbolisesthat
thebabyhaslosttouchwiththespritworldandisnowfullyhuman.Boththeseactsof
namingshowtheimportanceofanameandhowitischosen,aswellaswhatitmeansfor
thenewbabybeingbornintoacommunity.211‘Thephysicalaspectsofbirthandthe
ceremoniesthatmightaccompanypregnancy,birthandchildhood,areregardedwith
religiousfeelingandexperience–thatanotherreligiousbeinghasbeenbornintoa
profoundlyreligiouscommunityandreligiousworld.’212Notonlydotheseexamplesofthe
importanceofnamingandbringingchildrenintotheworldprovethereligiousnatureof
Africancommunities,italsoshowsactsofubuntuandconfirmsubuntu’sreligious
grounding.
208Magesa1997:76‐79.209Magesa1997:89,Mbiti2008:115.210Magesa1997:89.211Mbiti2008:116.212Ibid:117.
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4.4CONCLUSION
Throughtheprocessesthatrestoreormaintainthevitalforce,ubuntucanbesaidtoexistin
theeverydaylivesofpeople,ingrainedinthesocialstructuresthatpromotethewell‐being,
sharedidentityandharmonyofthecommunity.Ubuntucanbefoundinthepreservationof
thebalancebetweenallthingsandallforcesintheuniverse,whichdirectlyaffectsthe
community.Ubuntucanbeconnectedtogooddeeds,selflessnessandgenerosity.However,
thequestionofubuntuismorecomplexthanactsofkindness.Ubuntuisfoundinevery
aspectoflife,andistherootofthestructures,functionsandrelationshipsthatmakethe
community.Thischapterhasshownwhereubuntucanbelocated.Althoughthewordisnot
vocallyexpressed,theactionsofpeoplearestillconnectedwithubuntu.Throughthese
structuresandprocessesinthecommunityubuntugainshistory,authenticityandrelevance.
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4 UTILISINGUBUNTUThischapterwillfocusonubuntuasapartofnationbuildinginSouthAfrica.Ubuntu
featuresprominentlyinthediscussionofhowthisworkofnationbuildinghasdeveloped.
UbuntuhasprovedtobeacornerstoneinmakingoutwhatSouthAfricashouldbe,although
thisisnotunanimouslyagreedupon.Themainthemeofthischapterisnationbuilding;
thereforethechapterwillstartbyfocusingondiscussingwhatconstitutesthebuildingofa
nation,whichpreconditionsSouthAfricahasforthisendeavour.Furthertherewillbefocus
onwhatprocessesareincludedinthebuildingofanation,inanAfricanandaSouthAfrican
context.ThelargestobstaclefacedbySouthAfricaintheirpost‐apartheidcountry,isthe
questionofwhatexactlytheyarerebuildingandwhatthisnewnationshouldbebuiltupon.
Followingthis,IwillmorecloselyfocusonthedifficultquestionofaSouthAfricanhistorical
narrative.HowimportantisthisinnationbuildingandinSouthAfricaparticular?Cana
unifiedhistoricalnarrativebecreated?Thisleadsustothesecondpartofthischapter,
whichfocusesontheTruthandReconciliationCommission(TRC).TheTRCrepresentsone
elementofnationbuilding,andhasbeenimportantindemarcatingthepathofthecountry.
ThereforeIwilldiscusstheirmandateandhowreconciliationwaschosenoveramnesiaor
retribution.Inadditiontothis,Iwilllookattheroleofreligionintheproceedingsofthe
TRC,aswellashowreconciliationcanconstituteorpreparefornationbuilding.AfterthisI
willfocusontheactualimpactoftheTRContheregularperson,andhowonecansaythat
theTRCindeedfilledapositionthatwasneededinorderforthecountrytotakenecessary
stepsforward.Finally,thereisanexampleofubuntuinpractice,showinghowimpactfulthe
callforreconciliationhasbeenforpeopleinSouthAfrica.ProfessorJonathanJansenofthe
UniversityoftheFreeStateemployedreconciliation,andbydefaultubuntu,indealingwith
adisturbingactperformedbystudentsfromthisuniversity.Thiswillshowubuntuworking
inawidercommunitycontextandbeingmouldedintoacontextofmoderndemocracy.
Ratherthanbeproofoftheinautheticityofubuntu,seeingthatitisbeingutilisedfora
specificandimportantpurpose,thisprovestherelevance,progressionandadaptationof
ubuntu.Ubuntuevolves,asithasalwaysdone,inordertoaccommodatetheneedofbalance,
harmony,well‐beingandsharedidentityinthecommunity.
5.1NATIONBUILDING
‘These[pastwrongs]cannowbeaddressedonthebasisthatthereisaneedfor
understandingbutnotforvengeance,aneedforreparationbutnotforretaliation,aneedfor
60
ubuntubutnotforvictimisation.’213Thesearewordstakenfromthe1993Interim
ConstitutionofSouthAfrica,whichbuiltthebasisfromwhichtheTruthandReconciliation
Commissioncouldexist.Thewordubuntuisspecificallyfeaturedwhentalkingofhowto
moveforwardaftertheendofapartheid.Thewordisnotfoundintherevisedandfinal
constitutionof1996,butubuntuinthesenseofanewhumanrightsorientedsocietycanbe
seenallthewaythrough.214Asmentionedpreviously,215thewordubuntufirstappeared
officiallyintheconstitutionoftheInkathaFreedomParty(IFP)in1975.Themovement
usedubuntuasabasisfortheirpoliticalprogrammepropagatingtheeconomic
emancipationoftheZulus,whichlaterwasrefashionedtowardsnationalliberation.216
WithoutalludingtoacollaborativelinkbetweentheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC)and
theIFP,whohavehadseveraldisagreementsintheliberationstruggleandbeyond,217the
ANCmadeuseofubuntunearlytwodecadeslater.Thedifferencebetweenthetwousesis
thepoliticalagenda.WhereastheIFPusedubuntuasaguidingprinciplefortheirpolitical
organisation,theANCmadeuseofitasanon‐politicalcallforunity.Onecannotbypassthe
factthattheANCisapoliticalparty,onethatevolvedfromaliberationorganisation.
However,thecontinuedstruggleforreconciliationandunityafterthefallofapartheidwas
seenasastrugglethatsurpassedpolitics.
InonewayitcanbearguedthattherewasnootherwayforSouthAfricatocommencethe
workofcreatinganation.TherehadneverexistedamoderndemocraticstateinSouth
Africa,andtherehadneverexistedaunifiednationorstatewhereallinhabitantswere
factoredintoalldecisions.Asstatedinchapterone,thesuppressionofSouthAfricastarted
longbeforetheapartheidregimewasmadeofficialin1948.NopeoplenativetoSouthAfrica
hadeverexperiencedfreedomorequalopportunities.AsDesmondTutustatesinhisbook
NoFutureWithoutForgiveness,hehadtowaituntilhewas62tovoteforthefirsttime,and
NelsonMandelauntilhewas76.218InmorethanonewaySouthAfricahadtostartfrom
scratchwhenthislackofpositivepastthatcouldformacollectivenarrativewasmissing.
Thoseoppressedhadacollectivenarrativeofbeingoppressed,andtheoppressorshada
collectivenarrativeofbeingoppressors.However,withoutsuppressingthepast,onehadto
jointhesetocollectivenarrativesintooneandmakeanewpresentandfuture.
213SouthAfricanGovernmentInformation2012.‘ConstitutionoftheRepublicofSouthAfricaAct200of1993.’214SouthAfricanGovernmentInformation2012.‘ConstitutionoftheRepublicofSouthAfricaNo.108of1996.’215In2.1.5216Eze2009:103.217Christie2000:32,133‐138.218Tutu2000:13.
61
5.1.1THENATIONSTATE
Indiscussingnationbuildingonemustnaturallyaddressthequestionofthenation‐state;
whatisit?KwameGyekye219differentiatesbetweentwoconceptionsofthenationthatis
relevanthere:nationasanethnoculturalcommunityandnationasamultinationalstate.
Thefirstsenseofthenationisbasedontheetymologyofthewordnation,whichis‘birth
group’,or‘bloodrelatedgroup’.Gyekyecallsthistheoriginalmeaningofthewordnation
wherethereisemphasisonavoidingmixingofracesandnationalities,as18thCentury
GermanphilosopherG.W.Herderputit.220Centraltothisunderstandingofnationisthe
beliefthatonesharesancestralheritage,inadditiontosharingculture,language,history
and(possibly)territory.Gyekyeproposesthatthenationinitsoriginalsenseandtheethno
culturalcommunitysharedefinitionalboundarieswithoneanother.Thesharedidentityin
thesenseofcohesionbasedonbloodtiesfoundintherelationsbetweenpeopleinthis
instancespeakstothis,accordingtoGyekye.Inmanycases,eveninmodernmultinational
states,peoplestillequateethnicityandnationalaffiliation.AccordingtoGyekye,anation
doesnotneedtobeastaticconstruct;itcanalsobefluidwithoutphysicalcountry
boundaries.TheJewishpeoplereferredtoaJewishstatebeforetherewasoneinexistence,
andArableadersoftenrefertotheArabnation,eventhoughnosuchthingofficiallyexists.A
statethereforebecomesanentitywherethereissovereignpoliticalpower,atthecentre,
whichinturnbecomesanation‐statewhenthereisaculturallyhomogenousnation.
However,statesaremostlymultinationalandarestillreferredtoundertheumbrellaofthe
nation.Gyekyeholdsthatthismeansthatthemeaningofnationhasevolved.221
Thecomplexentityofthemultinationalstatehasnowbecomesynonymouswiththe
understandingofnation.Themultinationalstateiscomprisedofseveralethnocultural
communities,ornations.Thisiswherethemultinationalstateencounterstrouble.
Previously,whenthecomponentsofthestatewereseparatedintheirnations,therewere
equalinterestsandgoalsamongthemembersofthenations.Theheterogeneousentityof
thestateisnotnecessarilyornaturallybasedonsimilarculture,languageorbloodrelations.
Thisiswhynationbuildingisanissueforthestate,andnotthenationinitsoriginalsense.
AccordingtoGyekye,thestateattemptstoemulatetheunityofthenation,orthe
homogenousethnoculturalcommunity,inordertocreatecoherenceforthestate.Ashe
219KwameGyekye1997.TraditionandModernity:PhilosophicalReflectionsontheAfricanExperience.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.220Ibid:78.221Ibid:79‐82.
62
pointsout,thereisnevertalkofcountrybuildingorstatebuilding,butnationbuilding.This
isbecausethemultinationalstatehastobebuilt,unliketheethnoculturalcommunitythatis
alreadyoneunit.Asthemultinationalstateismadeupofmanyoftheseunits,oneneedsto
weldtheunitstogethersoastoactasiftheywereonepeople,onenation,oroneethno
culturalcommunity.Manynationsmakeonestate,inasense.Thatisnottosaythatone
longstosuppressthediversity,butrathertoaddthemoral,socialandculturalvaluesofthe
ethnoculturalentity.222ThisviewofthemultinationalstatebecomesveryapparentinSouth
Africa,acountryofelevenofficiallanguages,4mainpopulationgroupings,andseveralsub
groupingsallwithrootsinAfrica,EuropeandAsia.223Withthisunderstandingofthenation,
thestateandthenation‐stateinmindwedelvedeeperintowhichfactorsandelementsare
relevantinthebuildingofSouthAfrica.
5.1.2THEIMAGINEDCOMMUNITY
Nigerian‐AmericanprofessorofpostcolonialAfricanstudies,MichaelOnyebuchiEzecalls
SouthAfricapriorto1994astatewithoutanation.224GreatlyapplaudedBenedictAnderson
claimsthenationisanimaginedcommunity.Eventhoughmostcitizensofmostnationswill
nevermeetorknowofoneanotherdirectly,theywillstillassumethempartoftheir
extendedcommunity.AccordingtoAnderson,thiscommunityismarkedbyacommon
language,religionandculture.Thesefactorsfacilitatethenationalimagery,andare
contingentuponacommonfaithinthecommunitybythemembersofthecommunity.In
addition,somecharacteriseanationthroughacommonhistoricalnarrative,which
chroniclesthatpeoples’origins.225SouthAfricahadnoneoftheseinplace.Therehadbeen
nocommonlanguageaswhitepeoplespokeAfrikaans,anditwaspredominantlytheironly
language.Africansspokeseverallanguagesdependingonwhichgrouptheybelongedto.
Therewasnocommonreligion,althoughChristianitywasspreadbymissionariesand
widelyadoptedinthecountry.TheAfrikanerpeopledevelopedtheirownversionof
Christianity,excludingallnon‐whites.TheAfrikanersdidnotshareanyculturewithnon‐
whites,asbytheirdefinitiontheyweretheonlyonespossessingculture.Also,theircultural
basiswasprimarilyEuropean,notAfrican.226Whenitcomestothehistoricalarchiveof
SouthAfrica,whiteandblackhadexperiencedsimilarthings,howeverwhattheyshared
mostofallwasthewhitesuppressionoftheblack.Thisthenconstitutesahistoricalarchive, 222Gyekye1997:82‐85.223SouthAfrica.info2012.’SouthAfrica’sPopulation.’224Eze2009:104.225BenedictAnderson2006.ImaginedCommunities.London/NewYork:Verso.6.226Eze2009:29‐31.
63
howevernotaparticularlygoodone.Bytheendofapartheidmosttraditionsandsymbolsin
SouthAfrica,whichcouldtiepeopletogether,weremainlyremindersofwhathadbeen.
Eventheholidaysimplementedbytheapartheidgovernmentcelebratedeventswhichnon‐
whiteseitherhadnoconnectionto,nogoodconnectiontooranoppositeconnectionto.The
lattercanbeseenintheDecember16celebrationoftheBattleofBloodRiverknownasDay
oftheCovenant,whichblackpeoplecallDingane’sDayorHeroes’Day.227
Thisnationalhistorywillcementacommonpastandmakethisrelevantinthepresent.228
AccordingtoMichaelEze,whentalkingofidentityoneisalsotalkingofthe‘other’.An
identitycanonlybecreatedinrelationtosomethingelse;thereforeanationisdefinedbyits
borderswithothernations.Thismainlyconstitutesanationallanguagethatwillmakeit
easiertospotoutsiderscomingintotheirdemarcatedspace.229Thisisnecessarytopoint
outinordertoclarify,asMichaelEze,claimsthatthecolonialSouthAfricawasastate
withoutanation.ThescenarioEzeseesasabsentincolonialSouthAfrica,isanopen‐ended
convergenceofhistoricalmemoryandpast,whichcauseshimtoagreewithGellnerinthat
nationalismcreatesnationswheretheydonotalreadyexist,ratherthanbeingseenasatool
forthereawakeningofnations.ThisiswhatEzearguesSouthAfricanowmustdo;
transformthisnewstateintoanation‐state.‘ThenewSouthAfricaasalocationofmultiple
andoftencontradictoryidentitiesneedsitsownstoryinitsimaginaryformationasa
nation.’230IntryingtofindouthowSouthAfricacanmakeasocialtransformationintoa
nationthroughsocialengineering,Ezefindsanswersinthecreationofsocialandpolitical
myths.Thiswaythenewnationalconsciousnesscanbeinvented.Hestressesthatasa
narrative,amythisnotnecessarilyuntrue.Amythwillhaveavirtueinretellingthestory
overgenerations,andinthiswayappearscentralinaspectofsocialorderandcannarrate
thehumanexperience.Ithas,however,tobeviewedasanallegory.231
5.1.3PROCESSESINNATIONBUILDING
Ezefurtherelaboratesonthecaseofamythinregardstothenation.Ezearguesthata
nation’scoherenceisnotdependentonnarrativesofaunifiedpast,butratheraconfluence
ofnarratives.Ezeclaimsthatthisshowshownationbuildingisaprojectincontinuity.This
makesthenationadynamicdiscursiveformation,accordingtoEze,notafixedsocial
227Eze2009:129.228Ibid:104.229Ibid.230Ibid:106.231Ibid:106‐108.
64
imaginary.Hefurtherarguesthatinthisviewthemythisnotagivenelementinnation
buildingbutarguesnonethelessforitsimportanceforyoungnationsasitcaninthis
instanceactasasolidifierofthemeaningofthenewnation.232Furthermore,anationoften
focusesonfindingits‘other’whendefiningitselfinordertohavesomethingtodistance
itselffrom,therebycreatingwhattheyarethroughwhattheyarenot.
Indiscussingnationbuildingitiscrucialtolookattheframesaroundwhichthistakesplace
andkeepinmindthatthecreationofnationhoodisaprocess.Thisprocessinvolvesasocial
formationthatneedsaspecificideologicalformthathastobemorethanjustpolitical
values.Thismeansthatnationhoodhastobebasedonsomethingprevious,andcannotrely
completelyonthecurrentpoliticalvalues.Theprocessofcreatingnationhoodcannotexist
aloneorinisolation.233Thenationthathadbeeninventedduringapartheidwasoneof
otherness.Apartheidwasdependentontheexistenceofitsother,theAfricannatives,to
legitimisetheirexistenceanddominance.Withoutanothertomirrortheiridentitythe
Afrikanercouldnotseparatethemselvesandseethemselvesasdifferent.234Ofcourse,
racismplayedacrucialpartofapartheidinSouthAfrica.SupportedbyAnderson,Ezeclaims
thatwithnationalboundariesracismbecomesaninstrumentofoppressionanddomination.
Thisistypicalofcolonialracism,whichfocusedagreatdealonclassratherthanthepurity
ofthenation.235Theinitialmotivationforthiswayofgoverningwasfinances.Inorderto
securethefinancialvaluesinSouthAfrica,allnotworthyofpossessingitshouldbe
excluded.Thisinturnbecamesystemiseddiscriminationbasedonthecolourofone’s
skin.236Thisisnottosaytherewasnotaclass‐basedsystembetweenthewhitesofSouth
Africa.However,theyallhadaccesstothesamesocietalbenefits.
Post‐apartheidSouthAfricashouldbetreatedasotherpostcolonialcountriesinthattheend
ofapartheiddoessignifytheendofcolonialisminSouthAfrica.Thisposeschallengesforthe
SouthAfricansociety,asanyother,inthat‘thewhiteman’hasoppressedthenativepeoples
ofSouthAfricaforcenturies.Ezepointsoutthedangersconnectedwithracismina
postcolonialcontextwherehearguesnationalcultureanddiscourse‘…canbecome
manipulatedtoenhancereverseracialdiscrimination…’237Therefore,thenationalidentity
ofSouthAfricaisintertwinedwithanationaldiscoursetocreateonenationalmemory,
232Eze2009:109.233Ibid:112.234Ibid:124.235Ibid:112.236Ibid:24‐26.237Ibid:112‐113.
65
wherethecountryhasahistoryofseveralmemories.Thisisachallengewhenoneis
creatinganewnationalidentity.238InFanon’sview,therehabilitationofanationcanliein
theclaimtoapastnationalculture.Thiscanofferthenativepopulationortheoppresseda
traceoftheunityorimagerytheywantormiss.InthecontextofSouthAfricathisseems
veryrelevant,asapartheidsystematicallynegatedtheotherperson’sidentityandhumanity.
Givingthosepreviouslyhistorylessaccesstoanationalculturecouldcauseasignificant
changeinthemandhowtheyviewtheiridentity,whichwillfurtherassistintheprojectof
nationbuilding.Thefirstembodimentofprovidingthenative,asFanoncallstheoppressed
peopleofSouthAfricainthisinstance,withanationalculturewasembodiedbytheTruth
andReconciliationCommission(TRC).Thisnewpublichistory,thatlegitimisedthe
existenceoftheTRC,redefinedpasthistoricalmomentsthroughanewinterpretationofthe
previousnarrative.OtherattemptsatredefinitionwerethediscussiononthefateofRobben
Islandin1992,mergingtheAfrikaner’sDayoftheCovenantwiththeliberationmovements
Heroes’Day,thefusionbetweentheSouthAfricanNationalDefenceForce(SANDF)andthe
militarywingoftheliberationmovement,thenewSouthAfricanflagandthenewnational
anthem,allmergingtheoldwiththenew.239Thesewereconsciousattemptsbythe
governmentto‘…achieveacontemporaneoussharedtime,asenseofnationalinclusiveness,
anationalcorebyassimilatingtheoldintotheneworder.’240
5.1.4UBUNTUANDHISTORICALNARRATIVE
EzepurportsthatthroughtheTRC,ubuntubecameasymbolofpublichistoryinSouth
Africaofferingabreakfromthepast.Ubuntuintroducedtwomodesofforgiveness,
accordingtoEze,oneessentialistandoneperformative.
‘Ontheonehand,thepowerofforgivenessisinthehandofthevictimwhoappealstohisculturaltradition(ubuntu)asasourceofthatpower(essentialist).Onetheotherhand,reconciliationisachievedinfulfilmenttothebargainwiththenationalistparty(performative).’241
EzeunderlinesthatthereisdebatesurroundingwhetherornottheTRCsucceededin
restoring‘agency’and‘voice’,meaningpower,tothesubjectsoftheproceedings.Eze
continuesbysayingthattheattempttorestorepowertopeoplecreatedawindowthrough
whichapossibilityforacollectivememorybecameapparent.Thesesharedimagesthat
makeupcollectivememorywillaidintheconstructionofnationhood,andtheimagined
238Eze2009:113.239Ibid:120‐121.240Ibid:121.241Ibid:127.
66
community.AccordingtoBreweranationneedsacommonhistoricalnarrative,acommon
viewofthejourneytowardsnationhoodaswellasacommonidentity,whichwillbringout
commonsolidarity.242Ezeclaimsthatincreatinganation,whetherornotthemythone
basesthenationonisfactuallytrueorwhatisdesiredtobetrueislessimportant.Whatis
importantiswherethistakesthenation.InthecaseofSouthAfricaEzeseesthatmany
Africanintellectualshavewrittenabouttheirhistory,andespeciallyinregardstoubuntu,as
ameansofwritingabouttheirownidentity.DuringcolonialismtheidentityoftheAfrican
wassuppressedanddeconstructed,andSouthAfricasufferedundercolonialismlongerthan
anyotherAfricancountry,whenjustlyfactoringinapartheid.AllofthesewritingsonAfrican
philosophyandintellectualhistoryareanattemptofregainingone’slostidentityinorderto
rehabilitateone’ssubjectivity.Allofthisispartandparcel,accordingtoEze,ofattempting
tocreateacollectivememoryandbuildanationinSouthAfrica.243InEze’squesttoplace
ubuntufirmlyintheSouthAfricanimaginary,hedoesdiscussavitalissueintheSouth
Africancase;thepast.Nationbuildingisinpartreliantontheabilitytolookbackintoits
past.Theprocessofcreatingnationhoodis,asEzeputsit,‘…mediatedbyconstantreferent
toapasttraditionorapresuppositionofaphantasmalimaginationofapast.’244Withoutthe
abilitytoinventorimagineapasttherecanbenonation.KumarandHobsbawnsharethe
viewthatanationwithnopastisacontradiction.Thefuture,aswellasthepresent,is
dictatedinalargedegreebythecommonimageofacommonpast.However,thispastneed
notbeauthenticaccordingtoFrench19thCenturyscholarErnestRenan,asthenationisa
dynamicentityeverevolving.Extremismconnectedwithnationalismcomesfromfailingto
seethisassetofthenation,insistingonabsolutismofthephenomenon.245
Increatinganarrativeofthepast,themythneedssubstantivecontentinordertowithstand
theprocess,andsothemythissuffusedwithinventedtraditionsfilledwithmemories.This
willgivethemythlegitimacy,accordingtoEze.Thisiswhathearguestohavehappened
withubuntuinSouthAfrica.Asamyth‘…ubuntuinfusesavirtuellegemeinschaft[asan
ideologicalbasis]foraunifiedpostapartheidSouthAfrica;itfunctionstopreservean
illusionofcoherenceandcontemporaneity.’246Inorderforanewnationalconsciousnessto
becreated,ubuntuwasprojectedonthenationasitwasseenashistoric,traditional,
inclusiveandstabile,inclearoppositiontothepreviousnationalconsciousness,whichwas
242Eze2009:127.243Ibid:127‐128.244Ibid:146.245Ibid:147.246Ibid:148.
67
false,racist,exclusiveandunsafe.247Becausethecommunityofanationalreadyisimagined,
whatdoesitmatterifthenationalnarrativeandconsciousnessisalsoimagined?Thisis
Eze’spointofdepartureforfittingubuntuintotheSouthAfricanculturalandpolitical
narrative.Atthesametimeasbeingthestartingpointforacollectivememoryitprovidesa
pointofrealisationoftheimaginedcommunity,248whichparticipatesinstrengtheningthe
newnation.Themoresolidarityissharedandthemoreonebelievesthatmosteverybodyis
onthesamepage,themoreeasilyonecancontinueworkingforthegoodofthenation
howeverpainfulandslowitmightbe.
ThehistoryofSouthAfricaisverytraumatic,whichneedlesstosayhasaffectedthe
communitiesofthecountry.Familiesandcommunitieswereseparatedfromoneanother,
mostnotablythroughtheBantustanhomelandscreatedbytheapartheidgovernment.Being
uprootedfromone’slandisatraumaticeventinanycommunity,andnodifferentinSouth
Africa.However,inSouthAfricatherelationshipbetweenpeopleandthelandwasoneof
absoluteunity.Findingoneselfinanalienenvironmentwillundeniablyhaveanimpacton
howpeoplerelatetooneanother,andtotheirsurroundings.Atthesametime,this
uprootingofpeopledoesnotwithoutquestionmeanthatthevaluesystemspassedthrough
generationsdisappears.Itadapts.Maybeitadaptsintonotbeingaseasilyvisibleas
previouslyexperienced.Andmaybeitissometimesforgotten.Thisdoesnotmeanthat
placingubuntuinapublicdiscourseisuselessorwrong.Itisstillclearthatmanypeople
haveaconnectiontowhatisbeingdefinedasubuntu.Whetherornotpeopleusedthisvery
wordinthepast,orevenaddressedthisvalue,elementorideasospecifically,isirrelevant.
Itisirrelevantbecausetimeschange.ThenewrealityinSouthAfrica,wherethestruggleis
nolongertheprimaryfocus,cravesthatpeopleareabletoputintowordswhattheywant
andfeel.Thestateofperpetualbaresurvivalunderaheavyweighingthreateningmachineis
over.Andalthoughpeoplestillstruggle,primarilyforthebarenecessities,thestrugglehas
changed.Ashaspeople’sviewofculture,valuesandreligion,whattodowiththemandwhat
tousethemfor.OneimportantpartofnationbuildinginSouthAfricaisthatthisapproach
toreconciliationandmergingofmemoriesseemstoembracethegoodwiththebad.The
negativityoftheapartheidpastisbeingincludedinthenarrative,alongsideallelse.
DesmondTutumakesthispointwhenhesays‘Weareallvictimsofapartheid’.249
247Eze2009:148.248Ibid:148.249Ibid:128.
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5.2THETRUTHANDRECONCILIATIONCOMMISSION
DesmondTutu,thechairmanoftheTruthandReconciliationCommission(TRC),talksof
forgivenessastheultimateself‐service.Toforgivereinstatesthehuman’shumanity.Not
onlythat,theactofforgivenessgivestheperpetrator’shumanitybackaswell.Anythingthat
dehumanisesthevictimofacrimedehumanisestheoffenderaswell.Tutufamouslycalled
allSouthAfricansvictimsofapartheid.Theoppressorswerealsovictimsundertheirown
regime,asallofourhumanitywasintertwinedwithoneanother.Byinflictingendlesspain
andsufferingonthevictims,supportersofapartheidwereintheendalsosufferingthis
samepain.Theirwayoflifewascontingentonsuppressingotherpeople,whichultimately
madearottensocietyforall.250Thereisnodoubtthatwhiletheapartheidregimewasbeing
negotiatedaway,violenceinSouthAfricawasripe.Black,white,coloured,wereallcaughtin
whatseemedlikeadressrehearsalforacivilwar.DesmondTutuseemedveryawareofthis
ashetalkedofvotingforthefirsttimeinhislife,notknowingwhatcouldpotentiallyhappen
thatday.AbombhadexplodedatJohannesburgAirport,andtherewerenumerousthreats
madebyrightwingextremists.251TheTruthandReconciliationCommissionwasasmallbut
importantpartoftheworktowardsreconciliationinSouthAfrica.Itcannotbeviewed
outsideoftheprojectofnationbuilding.Inregardstoubuntuitisthemostvisibleand
internationallyknownattempttoutiliseubuntuforthebenefitofconstructinganewSouth
Africa.UbuntuisthebackboneoftheTruthandReconciliationCommission,andfeaturesso
heavilythatitisappropriatetoexplainthecommissioninthefurtherdiscussionofubuntu
inanarenaofnationbuildingandalsopolitics.TheTRCwasacomplexundertaking
attemptingtoprovidetruthsofwhathadbeendoneduringtheapartheidyears,right
wrongsandremindandrenewthespiritofubuntuinthemindsofallpeopleofSouthAfrica.
Inexplainingtheirmandate,theirstructureandtheirproceedings,aclearpictureisgivenof
howprominenttheconceptofubuntuwasinthemakingofthecommission.Italsoexplains
howtheTRCcametobeviewedasitdid,aremarkableforumforthosemostaffectedby
apartheid.Althoughtherehasbeenmuchcritiqueoftheirchoicesandtheoutcomes,ithas
becomeasoughtaftertemplateforothercountries.
5.2.1THEMANDATE
Talkingoftruthcommissionsgenerally,KennethChristieidentifiestwomainobjectivesin
recoveringthetruthinsuchprocesses.Ononehandthecommissionistoinvestigate, 250Tutu2000:42.251Ibid:13‐16.
69
documentandrecordthehumanrightsviolationsunderdiscussion.Ontheotherhandit
focusesontransformingtheinstitutionsofsocietyfromviolatingtoprotectinghuman
rights.252TheTruthandReconciliationCommissioninSouthAfricaplayedacrucialpartin
transitioningthecountryfromagruesomeapartheidpast,toawaitingbrighterfuture.The
TRCplayedarelativelysmallrole,butitwasimmeasurablyimportant.Themandateofthe
TRCwasstatedintheinterimconstitutionofSouthAfrica.AsthenewSouthAfricawas
emergingafterthereleaseofpoliticalprisonersandunbanningofpoliticalparties,theANC
undertheleadershipofNelsonMandelawantedtodisplayopennessaboutthepastofthe
ANCasparticipantsinviolence.253
In1995NelsonMandela,asSouthAfrica’sfirstdemocraticallyelectedpresidentsignedthe
PromotionofNationalUnityandReconciliationAct,no.34.ThisActgavetheTRCtheir
mandatewiththeboundarieswithinwhichtheywouldwork.Theyweretopromote‘…
nationalunityandreconciliationinaspiritofunderstandingwhichmighttranscendthe
conflictsanddivisionsofthepast.’254TheTRCweretodealwithgrosshumanrights
violationscommittedbetweenthedayoftheSharpevillemassacre,March11960,andthe
dayofimplementationofthetransitionalgovernment,December51993.Thecommission
openedonApril151996anddidnotcloseuntiltwoyearslater.255
TheTRC’smandatedidnotgrantthemjudicialpower.Theywerenotabletocastasentence
onanyonetheymet.Theycouldgrantamnestytopeoplewhoshowedfulldisclosureand
couldprovethattheyhadbeenabsolutelytruthfulabouttheircrimes.TheTRC’sfocus
wouldbepoliticalcrimesmotivatedbypoliticalviews,ratherthanpersonalcrimes.Thishas
beenapointofcontentionasitisdifficultinahistorysuchasSouthAfrica’stodistinguish
betweencrimescommittedbecauseofpoliticsandnot,astheapartheidpoliticspermeated
society.Itwasinthechurch,intheschools,theworkplace,andgenerallyapartofeveryday
life.However,thelinehadtobedrawnsomewhere.TheobjectivesoftheTRCwasto:
1. accountforthemethods,policiesandcausesofhumanrightsviolations;2. attempttoexplainthecausesoftheseviolationsandtheconsequencesforthe
victims,theirrelativesandsociety;3. facilitatethegrantingofamnestyandtorestorethehumanandcivildignityof
victimsbygrantingthemanopportunitytorelatetheirownaccountsoftheviolationssuffered;
252Christie2000:49.253Ibid:78‐79.254Ibid:78.255Ibid:91.
70
4. torecommendlegalandadministrativemeasurestopreventsuchviolationsinthefuture;
5. completeareportwhichwillprovideacomprehensiveanaccountaspossibleoftheeventsandcircumstancesofpasthumanrightsviolations.
Thecommissionwereseparatedintothreesub‐divisions,namelytheHumanRights
ViolationCommittee,cataloguingvictims’accounts,theReparationsandRehabilitation
Committee,hearingandhelpingvictims,andtheAmnestyandIndemnityCommittee,
focusingontheaspectofjustice.256
5.2.2WHYRECONCILIATION,NOTRETRIBUTION?
ThetransitioninSouthAfricawasbuiltoncompromise.TheANCwasunbanned,andletin
tonegotiatewiththeNationalPartywhomusthaveseentheirsystemreadytotumble.The
falloftheSovietUnioneliminatedthealreadyhardtobelieveideathatSouthAfricawasthe
lastfrontieragainstthecommunistthreat.257Thefinancialstateofthecountrywasdireand
violencerisingwhenF.W.deKlerkdecidedtounbantheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC),
thePanAfricanCongress(PAC)andseveralmorepoliticalparties,aswellasreleasing
politicalprisoners,nonemoreimportantthanNelsonMandela.258Amnestywasthegolden
bargainingcardfortheNationalPartywhennegotiationsstarted,andmembersoftheTRC
havestatedthatwithoutthiscompromisethecountrywouldhavefallenapart.Initiallythe
NationalPartywantedageneralamnesty,sothatthepastcouldsimplybeforgottenandthe
countrycouldmoveforward.However,thisformofgeneralamnesiawasnotsufficientfor
themajority,mainlyrepresentedbytheANC.Someformofjusticeandacknowledgementof
thepasthadtobeseen.TheNürembergmodelwascontemplatedanddiscussed,andfound
tooheavy.Thecostofsuchaprocesswouldbeimpossiblefortheeconomicallystrained
nationtobear.Nottomentionthetimeitwouldtaketoprocessallthoseresponsiblefor
humanrightsviolationsundertheapartheidregime,prolongingthepainitwouldimpart.At
thesametime,andcruciallyimportant,therewerenowinningsideinSouthAfrica.Oneside
hadnotbeatentheother,therewerenovictorsofthestruggle.InWorldWar2,Germany
hadquiteclearlylostthewar,whiletheallieshadwon.Therewasnostrengthleftinthe
Nazis.TheNationalPartyofSouthAfricacouldhavecontinuedwiththeapartheidsystem
withoutsufficientfinancesandmuchoftheworldagainstthem.Buttheydidnot.Thelast
optioninSouthAfricawasatruthcommission.Thishadbeenattemptedbefore,forinstance
inChile,andwouldfocusonreconciliationoftheopposingsides,notretributionforthe 256Christie2000:89‐90.257Tutu2000:44,Christie:46.258Ibid:45.
71
otherside.259ThewhitepopulationandtheNationalPartystronglyadvocatedleavingthe
pastinthepast.Throughoutthenegotiationsforanewgovernment,mainlybetweenthe
NationalPartyantheANC,therewasunwillingnessfromtheNationalPartyindiscussing
thehumanrightsviolationsmadeontheirbehalfduringapartheid.TheANCengageda
differentstance,andPresidentMandelasetupthe‘CommissionforEnquiryintoComplaints
byFormerAfricanNationalCongressPrisonersandDetainees’andthe‘Commissionof
InquiryintoCertainAllegationsofCrueltybyANCMembers’in1992todealwithclaimsof
humanrightsviolationsatthehandsofthepartyandtheirmilitarywingUmkhontowe
Sizwe.260AlthoughsomepartymembersthoughttheircausewasjustandtheTRCweretoo
harshonviolationsbythepartyintheirproceedings,261someANCmembersandother
majoritygroupsofSouthAfricafavouredaNurembergapproachtowardstheactionsofthe
NPandotherwhitepeoplecommittingcrimesduringapartheid.Theyfeltthatcourtjustice
wastheonlywaytofreethepopulationfromthepastofSouthAfrica.Theonlycorrectway
todealwiththeseviolationswastobewithintheframesofthecourtoflaw.262Desmond
TutustatesthataNürembergtypeoftrialwouldputanunmanageablestrainonthealready
shatteredSouthAfricaneconomy.Afteryearsofsanctionsbytheinternationalcommunity
andboycottsoftheirexports,theeconomyhardlyhadaheartbeat.Tutugoesontoexplain
theoutlandishcostsoftwotrialsofapartheidgovernmentofficialspriortothe
commencementoftheTRC’sproceedings.263IfsimilartreatmentshouldbegiventoallNP
officials,thetrialswouldgoonformanyyears,neverclosingthechapterofthehorridpast.
However,forthosewhodidnotapplyforamnestytheTRCwouldrecommend
prosecution.264Atthesametimereparationsandprogrammesforsolvingthesocial
imbalancecausedbyapartheidwouldhavebeenutterlyimpossibletosustain.Further,the
collectiveamnesiawishedandfoughtforbytheNationalPartywouldfreemoneyfor
programmesrectifyingthesocialdifferences,butcouldnotgivetheoppressedpopulation
recognitionforwhathadhappenedtothem,theirfamiliesandcommunities.265Itwould
foreverthenbetheelephantintheroom,sotospeak.TheANCandthemajoritypopulations
ofSouthAfricadidnotseethisassufficient.So,withinthefinancialrestrictionsandwiththe
feelingofjusticeinmind,atruthcommissionwasselectedasthemediumthroughwhichthe
259Christie2000:45,56,66‐69.260Ibid:78‐79.261RanghildDrange2000.HumanRights,ReconciliationandDemocraticConsolidationAcasestudyoftheSouthAfricanTruthandReconciliationCommission.Thesis‐UiO.85.262Christie2000:121,165.263Tutu2000:35.264Christie2000:124.265Tutu2000:38,39‐40.
72
pastwouldbeaddressed.Therewouldbenolegalprosecutionforcriminalactscommitted,
butamnestyforthosewhorevealedalltheirownwrongdoingsinfrontofthecommissionas
wellasthevictimsand/ornext‐of‐kin.266Anapologywasnotarequirementforamnesty,
andnotthegoaloftheexercise.267Thevictimsand/ornext‐of‐kinweregivenan
opportunitytotellthecommissiontheirsideofthestoryandforgivetheirperpetrator(s)if
theysowished.Therearestoriesofpeoplewhocouldnothavegoneonwiththeirlives
withouttheTRCandstoriesofpeoplewhocould,ordidnotfinditassatisfyingand
cleansingasthewouldhavehopedto.Also,someofthecriticismsoftheTRCregardhowthe
commissionmainlydealtwithgrosshumanrightsviolations,notthesystematicnatureof
theapartheidregime,orsmallercasesofruinedlives.268However,thelinehadtobedrawn
somewhere.TheargumentforthisisthattheexerciseofreconciliationintheTRCisjust
that,anexercise,andthepeopleparticipatingareseentoberepresentativeofthelarger
population.Andinviewingthebiggerpicturepresentedintheend,onewouldseethe
frameworkofasystematicallydetrimentalregime.
5.2.3RELIGIONANDTHETRC
ItseemsthatresearchontheTruthandReconciliationCommissionfocusmainlyonthe
socialsciences.Thereisnotmuchmentionofreligion,unlessitiscriticismofthechoiceof
anArchbishoptobeitshead.269Whenitcomestonationbuilding,thereislittlescholarly
emphasisonreligion.Thiscouldbethecasebecausescholarsareafraidtomeddleanother
elementintothereconciliationprocess.SouthAfrica’shistoryseesChristianitycomingin
withtheBritish,trumpingthenativereligions(especiallyontheWestcoast).Christianity
wasthentakenoverbytheAfrikanersandturnedintoatwistedreligiousethno‐racialbelief,
allthewhilesuppressingwhattheyviewedasinferioranimalisticreligionoftheAfricans.
TodaySouthAfricahasallsortsofChristianity,Islam,Hinduism,Buddhism,Judaism,and
AfricanTraditionalReligion,oranamalgamationofChristianityandATR.Religionplaysan
importantpartinnationbuildingandthereconciliationprocess,justasitplayedan
importantroleinthestruggleforfreedom.AccordingtoKennethChristie,oneofthemost
practicalandrevealingaspectsoftheworkoftheTRCwasthenumberofdiscoveredbodies.
Thesebodieswereexhumedandreturnedtotheirfamilies.Christiehimselfdevotesno
morethanaparagraphtothis,sayingonlythat:‘Onecommissionerinformedmethatfor
266Tutu2000:41,52.267Christie2000:13,155,166.268Ibid:152.269Ibid:166.
73
Africanpeoplethatgravewassignificant;itwasanimportantpointofremembrancethat
theycouldpointtoandsaythereismyfather’sgrave,mymother’sgrave,andsoon.They
couldinthatsensehavesomethingtoidentifythatthatpersononcelived.’270
WhatChristieneglectstoseehereistheactualimportanceofthis.Forthefamilyandthe
community,theseburialsmighthaveprovenmoreimportantthananyotheraspectofthe
TRC.Thisalonemaybeenoughtofosterasenseofreconciliationamongthepeoplewho
wereabletoburytheirlovedonesproperly.AmongtheNdebeleforinstance,thereare
complexandlonglastingceremoniestoaccompanydeath.Afterthesehavebeenperformed,
intimatingtheimportanceofprocreationthroughhavingtheireldestchildbytheirdeathbed
andtheimportanceofthelinkwiththelivingdeadthroughtheslaughterofanoxorgoat,
burialritesfollow.IntheexampleputforwardbyJohnMbitiregardingtheNdebele,the
brotherinitiatesthediggingofaholeandothermenhelphim.Thedeadbodyiswrappedin
ablanketoranimalskin.Intheprocessionthedeadbodyiscarriedtothedugouthole.
AccordingtoMbiti,thegravehasaneast‐westshapeinordertocapturethemovementof
thesun.‘Theoldestsonstrikesthegravewithaspear,andthenthebodyislaiddown.’271
Mbiticlaimsthattheclashbetweenthespearandthegravesymboliseshowtherewillbeno
dangeronthewaytoorinthenewplacewherethedeadmanisheading.Thebodyitselfhas
tofacesouthinthegrave,andthemanhastobelaidonhisright,whereasthewomanmust
belaidonherleft.Personalbelongingsalsohavetobeputintothegravebeforeitiscovered
withdirt.Thepersongoingtothehereaftershouldnotfeelpoor.Thepersonburiedmust
alsobegivenfoodtosustainhimorherontheirjourneytothehereafter,andthereforean
animaliskilled.ThelastpartofthisburialceremonyIwilladdresshereisofgreat
importanceinunderstandingthesignificanceofaproperburial.Theremainingmembersof
thefamilyofthedeceasedandthecommunitydrinkamedicinemadefromtheburntbones
ofthekilledoxorgoat.Thisunitesthemwiththeirdepartedcommunitymember.272Among
theYoruba,theritesconnectedwithburialcreateaspacewhereallreligio‐socialdifferences
areforgotten.Thefocusisonsocialintegration,notonsocialclassorreligiousaffiliation.As
pointedoutbyWandeAbimbola,manyYorubaaremembersoftheMuslimorChristian
faith,andthisisputasideoutoftherespectforthedeceased.273Thisexampleinparticular
alsoshowcasesthemergingofAfricanTraditionalReligionwithotherreligions,inaddition 270Christie2000:156.271Mbiti2008:146.272Ibid:146‐147.273WandeAbimbola1991.‘ThePlaceofAfricanTraditionalReligioninContemporaryAfrica:TheYorubaExample,’inJacobK.Olupona(ed.):AfricanTraditionalReligionsinContemporarySociety.St.Paul:ParagonHouse.55‐56.
74
totheimportanceoftheburialritesandwhatsortofeffectitcanhaveonacommunity.In
SouthAfricasinceitwasfirstcolonisedupuntiltheendofapartheid,manyofthesesocietal
structureswerebroken.Therestorationofthefreedomtochoosetoperformriteslikethis
ortoparticipateinthemisdeeplymeaningful.
5.2.4RECONCILIATIONASNATIONBUILDING
SouthAfricanwriterAndréBrinkarguesthatAfrikanersandAfricansaremoresimilarthan
theyliketothink,andtheybelongtogetheronthebasisthattheyhavethesamecollective
consciousnessofthesamepast.RobertThorntonclaimsthattheAfrikanerandtheAfrican,
whoseeeachotherasenemiesyetsonsofthesamesoil,competetobeoftheland,notonly
ontheland.274Thisisakeynotioninunderstandingtheproblematicissuesconcerningthe
newSouthAfrica.TheAfrikanersseethelandasgiventothembyGod,andtheyaredestined
tolivethere.Theirprimaryaimfortakingcontroloverthenativepopulationwastosave
themfromthemselves,astheywereuneducatedandlackedreligion,despitethenative
populationactuallyhavinginhabitedthatlandfromtimeimmemorial.However,the
AfrikanerviewsthemselvesasAfricans,becauseAfricaisafteralltheircontinent.275
TheMinisterofJustice,DullahOmar,whointroducedthePromotionofNationalUnityand
ReconciliationActin1995,callstheTruthandReconciliationCommissionapathwayanda
stepping‐stonetothenewSouthAfrica.ThiswaytheTRCisonlyoneaspectofthebroader
projectofnationbuilding.Therewereothercommissionsandprogrammesinplacetoaid
SouthAfricainitstransitiontodemocracy.Theissuestotackleweremultiple,forinstance
retrievinglandthathadbeentakenawayfrompeoplewhenblackSouthAfricanswere
movedfromtheirhomesandcommunities,toberelocatedinwhatwascalledBantustans.276
Aswellasrectifyingthegrosseconomicimbalancethatwasbuiltupduringapartheid,and
educatingpeopleinanewschoolsystemwhereallchildrenwouldbetaughtthesame.Not
onlythis,butexpandingelectricityandwatersystemssoitwouldcoverthosepreviously
withoutthesebasicpartsofdailylifetakenforgrantedbythewhitepopulation.277
OnecommissioneroftheTRCwashonestaboutseeingtruthasthemainfocusofthe
commission,wherereconciliationwouldfollowlater,asaneffectoftheprocesscreatedby
theTRC.Hearguedthisbecausehefeltthatthecommissionwasinessenceeducating
274Christie2000:107.275Eze2009:30‐31.276Christie2000:102,Eze2009:31.277Ibid:103.
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peopleaboutwhatexactlywentonduringapartheid.Thisattempttocreateacommonview
ofthehistoryofSouthAfricawastobeafirststepintheprocessofnationbuilding.278South
Africaismadeupofmillionsofpeople,whileonlyafewthousandstookpartinthe
proceedingsofthecommission.Asitwaswidelybroadcast,availableforeveryonetosee,
thecommissionembracedallwhoshowedinteresttopartakeinthiscreationofhistory.
ThiswaytheTRChadareachfarbeyondtheroomswhereconfessionsandforgivenesswere
takingplace.Thiseffectisnecessarilyverydifficulttomeasure,bothinsideandoutsidethe
venuesoftheTRC.
5.2.5INTERCONNECTEDNESS‐TOWARDS‐WHOLENESS
DesmondTutustatesthatpeopleareabletochange,andinthefaceofthecommissionitis
possiblefortheperpetratorsofeviltorecognisetheirwrongsandaskforforgiveness.279
AntjieKrog,awellknownSouthAfricanwriter,putsthewordubuntuasideinheressay
‘Thisthingcalledreconciliation…’280andreplaceditwithinterconnectedness‐towards‐
wholeness.Sheviewsubuntuassoover‐usedandexploitedthatitbecomesunusable.
Interconnectedness‐towards‐wholenessexplainsthecoreofubuntufromtheviewpointof
Africancommunitarianism.Sheexplainsinterconnectedness‐towards‐wholenessasa
‘…mentalandphysicalawarenessthatonecanonly‘become’whooneis,orcouldbe,throughthefullnessofthatwhichisaroundone–bothphysicalandmetaphysical.Wholenessisthusnotapassivestateofnirvana,butaprocessofbecominginwhicheverybodyandeverythingismovingtowardsitsfullestself,buildingitself;onecanonlyreachthefullestselfthough,throughandwithotherswhichincludeancestorsanduniverse.’281
ShedoesinthisconnectwithIfeyaniMenkitiinhisviewthatpersonhoodisnotsomething
given,itissomethingonemustearn,andatwhichonecouldfail.282InKrog’sview,the
exerciseoftheTRCwasgroundedinthebeliefthatacknowledgingone’sinterconnectedness
andactingonthiswouldleadtowardswholenessfortheperson.Toachievethisforgiveness
andreconciliationwerekeyelements.Krogiscarefultopointoutthedistinctionsbetween
forgivenessandreconciliation.Whereasforgivenessinvolvesachangeinthevictim,
reconciliationinvolveschangeinboththevictimandtheperpetrator.Krogbelievesthat
someoftheuniquenessoftheTRCisfoundinthemutualdependencyofreconciliationand
forgiveness.AccordingtoKrog,forgiveness‘…opensuptheprocessofbecoming,while 278Christie2000:153.279Ibid:146.280AntjieKrog2008.‘’Thisthingcalledreconciliation…’ForgivenessasPartofanInterconnectedness‐towards‐wholeness.’SouthAfricanJournalofPhilosophy.281Krog2008.355.282Menkiti1984.172,173.
76
[reconciliation]isthecrucialstepintothisbecoming.’283Whentalkingofforgivenessinthe
contextoftheTRCitisimportanttopointoutthatthisforgivenessisnotinlargepart
connectedtotheChristianunderstandingofforgiveness.Whereas,aspointedoutbyKrog,
thecolouredandwhitepeoplewhotestifiedinfrontoftheTRCreferredtoChristianityin
whichwhentheyforgavetheperpetrator,Jesusforgavethem.However,amongtheXhosa
andTswanatestimoniesforinstance,therewasnomentionofGodorJesus.IntheTRC
context,theXhosawordforreconciliationisforgiveness.284Thisisvitalinunderstanding
howtheactofforgivenesswasviewedbythemajorityofthosepartakingintheproceedings
oftheTRC.Oneofferedforgivenessbasedonadesiretobeamorehumanpersoninthe
interconnectedworld,notbecauseofareligiousbeliefinJesus.ThisdebunksDutch
anthropologistWimvanBinsbergen’sclaimthattheTruthandReconciliationCommission
wascreatedunderEuropean,whiteChristiandominance.AccordingtovanBinsbergen,with
thisbasisthecommissionisillegitimateinitsworktowardsnationalunity.285However,as
statedabovebyAntjieKrog,Christianityanditsperceptionofforgivenesswasnotdominant
intheproceedingsofthecommission.Itwasvisibleduringtestimoniesofwhiteand
colouredSouthAfricans,butnotamongtheblackSouthAfricans.Inadditiontothis,the
commissiondidnotactivelycalluponit.AccordingtovanBinsbergen,SouthAfricawillpay
ahighpricefornotrevealingtherealAfricanperceptionofsinandevilintheaftermathof
apartheid.vanBinsbergenfurtherarguesthatduetotheillegitimatebasisforthe
proceedings,SouthAfricanswillwakeupfeelingcheatedbecausetheTRCfacilitateda
‘…massiveandmanipulativerepressionofresentment,’286especiallythroughitsuseof
ubuntu.287ThisiscounteredbyMichaelEzewhoclaimsthatthestrengthanduniquenessof
ubuntuasapublichistoryisthatitwillincludeandmakeroomfor‘…differentnarratives
andmemorieswhilesimultaneouslyredefining(notobscuring)hiddenantagonismswithin
thenationalmargins.’288
TheGugulethuSevenweresevenyoungmenwhowereapproachedbyrepresentativesfor
theSouthAfricanPoliceForcedisguisedasguerrillas,recruitingpeopletoUmkhontowe
Sizwe,themilitarywingoftheANC.Thesevenyoungmenwereambushedandallkilledby
securitypolicein1986.Thecircumstancesofthekillingswerefarfromstraightforward,
withwitnessesstatingtheyhadseentheyoungmenunarmedthatmorning,andtheywere 283Krog2008:356.284Ibid:356,357,358.285vanBinsbergen2001:76.286Ibid:77.287Ibid:76.288Eze2009:128.
77
foundwithweaponsonthem.DuringaprivatemeetingsetupbytheTRCbetweenoneof
thekillersandthemothersoftheGugulethuSeven,themotherofChristopherPiet,Cynthia
Ngewustatedthefollowing(translatedtoEnglish):
‘Thisthingcalledreconciliation…ifIamunderstandingitcorrectly…ifitmeansthisperpetrator,thismanwhohaskilledChristopherPiet,ifitmeanshebecomeshumanagain,thisman,sothatI,sothatallofus,getourhumanityback…thenIagree,Isupportitall.’289
Krogarguesthatthisstatementfromanilliterate,uneducatedmemberofSouthAfrican
societyproveshowubuntuisanaturalpartofpeople’sconsciousness.Ngewuunderstood
herowninterconnectedness,andsheunderstooditinrelationtotheperpetrator’s
interconnectednessaswell.Theperpetratorkilledbecausehehadlosthishumanity,
forgivinghimwouldallowhimtoregainit.Ngewu’shumanitywasaffectedbythekillingof
herson,andshecould,afterofferingthisforgiveness,onceagainbecomefullyhuman
herself.KrogusesthisquoteandthisstorytoshowhowubuntuwaspermeatingtheTRC
proceedings,whichinherviewexplainedtheabsenceofrevenge.290Therewereother
examplesfromtheTRCproceedingsthatshowcasedthepresenceofubuntu,or
interconnectedness‐towards‐wholeness.Krogcitesninereferencestointerconnectedness
duringthesecondweekofproceedings.Amongsomeofthemwerethese:
‘(a)…weneedtokeepremindingourselveswedobelonginonefamily.Andtohelpthosewholosttheirhumanitytorecovertheirold(ChairpersonTututoKwisombafamily)
(c)Yourwoundisourstoo(CommissionerNtsebezatoJuqufamily)
(If)theTruthCommission(can)assistintheeducationofthatboy,aswellasaccommodationofthatboy.Becauseintheoldend,heisgottocontributemaybetopeace–towardspeaceinthiscountry,hewillhavefeltthepain,andhewillhavefeltmaybehowtoforgive,thankyou(MrKamaintheMzimkuluJohnsoncase)’291
Inthisprocessofredefiningthepresentandtheconceptswithinit,victimsornext‐of‐kin
whoparticipatedintheproceedingsoftheTRCexpectedamutualefforttowardsthe
regainingandre‐establishmentofhumanityandinterconnectedness.Inmostcasesthisdid
nothappen.AccordingtoKrog,thisexplainstheangershownbymanyvictimsnow.
AlthoughmanyusethisangertoshowwhatafailuretheTRCwas,Krogarguesthatthe
angerdoesnotcomefrombeingforcedintoforgiveness.Itcomesfrombeingtheonlyparty
holdinguptheirendofthebargain.292WhatsetsKrogapartinherassessmentoftheTRCis
herapparentattempttounderstandtheworkingsaroundtheTRC.Instudyingthematerial, 289Krog2008:356.290Ibid:356‐357.291Ibid:358‐359.292Ibid:364.
78
thecritiqueoftheTRCasbeingaChristianinfusedEuropeanconstruct,isslashedbythe
participantsthemselves.Theirwordsshowhowtheessenceofubuntupermeatedthe
chairpersonsandthosetestifying,mostlynon‐whiteAfricans,whoforallintentsand
purposesmadeupmostofthevictims.
5.2.6ANEXAMPLEOFRECONCILIATIONTODAY
AnexampleofhowtheTRCstillaffectspeopleandnationaldiscoursetodayisfoundinthe
actionsofprofessorJonathanJansen.AsrectoroftheUniversityoftheFreeStatehe
promulgatedreconciliationafterhistermbeganin2009.Hisarrivalintothejobasrector
wasaresultofanincidentthathittheInternetinearly2008andsparkedanational
outrage.293FourwhitemalestudentsfromUniversityoftheFreeStatefilmedblackfemale
universityworkers‘…drinkingfrombottlesofbeer,racingagainsteachother,eatingfroma
dish,vomitingintobuckets,dancingandplayingrugby.’294Itwasadeliberateactof
humiliationbythefourwhiteyoungmenoftheblackfemaleuniversityworkers.Thepartof
thevideothatcausedthemostnegativereactionwaswhereoneofthestudentsappearedto
beurinatingintothedishoffoodpresentedtothewomen.295Followingthis,theuniversity
lookedfornewleadershipafteradmittingthatthisbehavioursprungoutfromthe
institutionalculture.Jansendroppedthechargesoftheyoungmenandinvitedthemto
comebacktotheuniversity.296Thefourboyswerefined20000Rand297and12monthsin
jaileachaftertheypleadguilty.298Hebasedhisdecisiononthewishforreconciliation,
forgivenessandsocialjusticetobecomeapartoftheuniversity.299UniversityofFreeState
hasbeenanAfrikaans‐speakinguniversity,wheretherehashistoricallybeennoracial
integration.TheuniversitywasestablishedintheBoercreatedOrangeFreeState.Thiswas
theindependentBoerstateaftertheyhadlefttheCapeColonyduetotheBritish.It
remainedawhiteuniversityuntilthestartofthe1990s.300AccordingtoJonathanJansen,
priortotheincidentmentionedabove,therehadbeenprotestsvoicedagainstracial
integrationoncampus.301Hehasworkedtowardsrebrandingtheuniversityandbringing
thestudentstogether.JansenhasnotbeenshytovoicehisviewthatmuchofSouthAfrican
293deWaal,Mandy2011.‘ThebeautifulmindofJonathanJansen.’294News242010.‘SAHRCgoestocourtoverReitz.’295Ibid.296JonathanJansen2009.‘Whywe’rewithdrawingchargesagainstReitzfour–Jansen.’297Equals:14379NOK,2425USD,1532GBP–22.05.2012.298TimesLive2011.‘ReconciliationprogrammeforReitzfourandworkers.’299Jansen2009.300SouthernAfricanRegionalUniversitiesAssociation.301Jansen2009.
79
societystillexistsinseparation,victimandperpetrator.Youngpeopleactasifthey
experiencedapartheid,whentheyhavenot.Theprofessorseesthatpeoplearestillaffected
byapartheidandthesocietalstructurescreatedunderit,andpeoplearealsostrugglingto
moveaheadbeyondtheTruthandReconciliationCommission.Jansenclaimspeopleare
attemptingtoignorethepast,withunsuccessfuloutcomes.Hisviewisthatthepastisthere,
andweneedtodefinehowwewillbetoday.302JonathanJansen’sworkforreconciliation
aftertheterribleactionsofthestudentsshowsthatthelessonsofAfricancommunityand
whatcameforwardduringtheTRCisstillintheforefrontofpeople’sminds.Ubuntucanbe
locatedanywhere.Itdoesnothavetobespokenofoutloud,butitcanstillbespokenofand
bepartofchoicesonemake.
5.3CONCLUSION
Throughtheactionsofthepostapartheidgovernmentubuntuwasgivenaringsideseatin
thebuildingofthenewSouthAfrica.EvenbeforetheofficialmandatefortheTruthand
ReconciliationCommission,thetransitionalgovernmentplacedubuntuintheconstitution
asaguidingprincipletoleadthewayofallthatwastocome.NelsonMandelabecamethe
imageofthisapproach,saying:
‘…theoppressormustbeliberatedjustassurelyastheoppressed…WhenIwalkedoutofprison,thatwasmymissiontoliberatetheoppressedandtheoppressorboth…Fortobefreeisnotmerelytocastoffone’schains,buttoliveinawaythatrespectsandenhancesthefreedomofothers.’303
DesmondTutubecametheimageoftheTruthandReconciliationCommission,notshying
awayfrompromotingtheSouthAfricanapproachworldwide.Thishasforinstanceleadto
Turkey’sexplorationofapplyinganubuntu‐basedreconciliationmodeltobridgethedivides
betweentheTurksandtheArmenians.304Tutuhasexclaimedthat‘…[w]hatdehumanises
you,inexorablydehumanisesme.’305Ubuntuhasbeenutilisedtoitsfullestcapacityforthe
greaterpurposeofattemptingtocreateunityandstabilityinSouthAfrica.Itisimportantto
keepinmindthatthewayinwhichubuntuhasbeenusedintheTRCisonlyonepath
towardsreconciliation,whichisalong‐termproject.However,thefactthanubuntucanbe
locatedin20thand21stCenturySouthAfricaspeakstoitsauthenticity,relevanceand
302Jansen2009,deWaal2011.303Hailey2008:13.304Ibid:15.305Ibid:13.
80
resilience.Ubuntuhasevolvedandisnowfoundinamoderndemocraticstate,utilisedto
benefittheprogressionandwell‐beingoftheallthoselivinginSouthAfrica.
81
CONCLUSIONSThepurposeofthisthesishasbeentoanswerthreemainquestions,andinthatansweringa
largerone.Throughthisthesisithasbecomeclearthatthereareseveralanswerstowhat
ubuntuis.Ithasbeeninterpretedasalifephilosophy,alifeguide,aworldviewandmore.
However,theanswerthathasbeenimportantthroughthisthesisisthatubuntuisa
religiouslyanchoredwordoriginatingfromtheNgunilanguagegroupofSouthernAfrica
thatdenotesthepromotionofharmony,sharedidentityandwell‐beinginthecommunity.
Thewordislinkedtotheselfaswellasthenatureofinterconnectednessandcanbelocated
mosteverywherebothorallyandpractically.Ubuntucanbeseenthroughthosecommunity
structuresthataresettopromote,maintainorrestoreharmony,sharedidentityandwell‐
being.Inthecommunitiesdealtwithinchapterthree,onecanseeanunderlyingfocuson
life,andthepreservation,transmittanceandtherestorationofit.Careistakeninteaching
theyoungaboutthebalanceoftheuniverse,theimportanceofrelationshipsandofchildren.
Thestructuressurroundingmarriageareallinplacetoensurethatbalancewillbe
maintainedinbothfamiliesinvolved.Theancestorsaretakencareof,andhonouredthrough
naming,soastokeepthefamilyunited.Thecommunitycomestogetherinordertoattempt
inunisontorestorebalanceifsomethinghasgonewrong,ortoprovidethanksgiving,alsoin
unison.Therearerolesinthecommunityspecificallyforpeopletrainedtoassistthe
membersofthecommunityinfindingthepathtoharmonyandbalance.Ubuntuispartofall
ofthis.Whichiswhyitseemsnothingbutnaturalthatubuntushouldevolveintosomething
thatcanplayavitalroleinthehealingofSouthAfrica.
Thisleadsustothelargerquestionofubuntu’sauthenticity.Ifubuntumerelyisanacademic
constructinaglobalisedworldforthebenefitofmoderndevelopmentinAfrica,shouldone
notthenbeabletolocateubuntuanywherebutinthoseacademiccontexts?Ifindeedthe
presentinterpretationofubuntu,whichplacesubuntuinpublicprocesses,isinvented,how
doesoneexplainthecontinuouspresenceofubuntu?Ubuntudoesexistinregularpeople’s
lives,provenbothbytheexamplesprovidedinchapterthreeaswellasbythemotherof
ChristopherPiet,asseeninchapterfour.Thisalsoanswerswhyubuntustillplaysarolein
SouthAfricansociety,eitherthroughthecontinuedattentionbythegovernment,orby
universityrectors.Ubuntuhasevolved,asanyotherreligiouselementorphenomenon.
Placingthesephenomenaintonewcontextsdoesnotautomaticallyimplythatitnolongeris
truetoitsoriginalformormeaning.
82
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