Types by Adform Research, Saulius Valatka

Types in Scala({type λ[-α]= T[α] <~< T[A2]})#λ

A bit of history

Type theory – invented by Russel in 1903 to prevent Russel’s paradox

Idea: limit the expressive power and disallow inconsistencies

Scala type system

• is static

• is strong

• can infer types

• is unified

• is Turing complete

In a nutshell

OOP/modular

• named BitSet

• compound Channel with Logged

• refined Channel {def close(): Unit }

Functional

• parametrized List[Int]

• existential List[T] forSome {type T}

• higher-kinded List[_]

Declaring types

scala> val y: Int = 1 // explicit type declaration

y: Int = 1

scala> val x = 1 // type inference

x: Int = 1

scala> def double(i: Int): Int = i * 2

double: (i: Int)Int // type of method

// (technically not the same as a function)

Defining new named types

scala> class Animal

scala> class Dog extends Animal

scala> class Cat extends Animal

scala> val lassie: Dog = new Dog

scala> val garfield: Cat = new Cat

scala> val garfieldAnimal: Animal = garfield

Algebraic Types

• These are “data-only” types, i.e. case classes

• Pattern match to deconstruct them

scala> case class Person(name: String, id: Int)

defined class Person

There is only one value of Null

scala> val n: Null = null

n: Null = null

scala> val n: Null = garfield

<console>:10: error: type mismatch;

found : Cat

required: Null

val n: Null = garfield

^

There are no values of Nothing !

scala> val nothing: Nothing = throw new Exception("die")

java.lang.Exception: die

... 33 elided

Traits

scala> trait Cosmic {

def flyToSpace: Unit

def flyTwice: Unit = { flyToSpace; flyToSpace } // Can contain implementations!

}

defined trait Cosmic

scala> class SpaceDog extends Dog with Cosmic {

def flyToSpace = println("flying!")

}

defined class SpaceDog

Trait linearization

class Animal

trait Furry extends Animal

trait HasLegs extends Animal

trait FourLegged extends HasLegs

class Cat extends Animal with Furry with FourLegged

reverse –> expand –> right-keep-unique -> add-common

Type refinement

scala> val laika = new Dog with Cosmic { // type refinement !

def flyToSpace = println("done!")

}

scala> laika.flyToSpace

done!

Types ≠ Classes

Key idea: A type is a broader concept than a class !

Type declarations are NOT ONLY class declarations!

scala> def eatInSpace(a: Edible with Cosmic) = println("om nom nom!")

eatInSpace: (a: Edible with Cosmic)Unit

Anonymous and Structural types

scala> val xz = new { def act = println("acting!") }

xz: AnyRef{def act: Unit} = $anon$1@74224c87

scala> def act(a: { def act: Unit }) = a.act

act: (a: AnyRef{def act: Unit})Unit

scala> act(xz)

acting!

Type Parameters

scala> class MyList[T]

defined class MyList

scala> val x = new MyList[Int]

scala> val y = new MyList[String]

Tuples and Unit

scala> val x: Tuple2[Int, String] = (1, "abc")

x: (Int, String) = (1,abc)

scala> val x: (Int, String) = (1, "abc") // syntactic sugar

x: (Int, String) = (1,abc)

scala> val u: Unit = () // Like a tuple with 0 arguments !

u: Unit = ()

Types of functions

scala> val doubler: Function[Int, Int] = x => x * 2

doubler: Function[Int,Int] = <function1>

scala> val doubler: Int => Int = x => x * 2 // Alternative syntax

doubler: Int => Int = <function1>

Syntactic Sugar

scala> class @@[A, B]

scala> val test = new (Int @@ String)

test: @@[Int,String] = $at$at@6bddea9

scala> trait MyIntFn extends (Int => Int)

Variance

• Is List[Dog] a subtype of List[Animal] ? You decide!

class Covariant[+T]

class Contravariant[-T]

class Invariant[T]

Variance

List[+T] // List[Dog] is a List[Animal]

Comparator[-B] // Comparator[Animal] can work as Comparator[Dog]

Function[-A, +R] // Think about it!

mutable.Set[A] // Can you say why ?

Covariant types can only appear in return positions

Contravariant types can only appear in argument positions

e.g. def apply(arg: A): R

Type Bounds

class CosmicList[A <: Cosmic]

class CosmicAnimalList[A <: Animal with Cosmic]

class ClosableList[A <: { def close: Unit }]

class ComparatorList[T >: Comparable]

Existential Types

scala> def length[T](list: List[T]): Int = list.length

length: [T](list: List[T])Int

scala> def length(list: List[T] forSome { type T }): Int = list.length

length: (list: List[_])Int

scala> def length(list: List[_]): Int = list.length // equivalent

length: (list: List[_])Int

Existential types

Array[T] forSome { type T } // Array[_]

Array[T forSome { type T }] // Array[Any]

Map[Class[T forSome { type T }], String]

Map[Class[T] forSome { type T }, String] // Map[Class[_], String]

Map[Class[T], String] forSome { type T }

Type constructors

• List is a type constructor, i.e. given a type, it produces a type

• List is not a type! List[Int] is a type!

Higher Kinded Types

scala> class ContainerFactory[T, C[_]]

defined class ContainerFactory

scala> class ListFactory[T] extends ContainerFactory[T, List]

defined class ListFactory

Kinds of types

Int has kind * // analogous to value 1

List[Int] has kind * // analogous to value “abc”

List[_] has kind * // analogous to value ‘a’

List has kind * -> * // analogous to function x => x * x

ContainerFactory has kind (*, * -> *) -> * // analogous to (x, f) => f(x)

1000000$ question

• What is a type equivalent to plus(2, _) ? i.e. x => plus(2, x)

• E.g. given Either[A, B] get a type constructor that produces types Either[Int, T] given a type T

Naïve answer

• Either[Int, _] ?

scala> class EitherFactory[T] extends ContainerFactory[T, Either[Int, _]]

<console>:8: error: Either[Int, _] takes no type parameters, expected: one

class EitherFactory[T] extends ContainerFactory[T, Either[Int, _]]

Answer

class EitherFactory[T] extends ContainerFactory[T, ({ type λ[α] = Either[Int, α]})#λ]

defined class EitherFactory

Type lambdas !!

Future syntax: [α]=Either[Int, α]

Type members will be discussed next time

({type λ[-α]= T[α] <~< T[A2]})#λ

References

• http://stackoverflow.com/a/3113741/919707 a list of scala types

• Wample & Payne, “Programming Scala”, chapter 12

• http://www.infoq.com/presentations/data-types-issues

• https://github.com/lampepfl/dotty EPFL’s attempt to optimize the system

Still to cover

• Type members

• Implicits

• Type classes

• Logic programming with types

• Type magic with Shapeless

• More examples