Deception: Deception: How We Fool How We Fool Ourselves Ourselves Anna C. Salter, Ph.D. Anna C. Salter, Ph.D.
Oct 31, 2014
Deception:Deception:
How We Fool OurselvesHow We Fool Ourselves
Anna C. Salter, Ph.D.Anna C. Salter, Ph.D.
““I choose to believe there is good in I choose to believe there is good in everyone because of the unintended everyone because of the unintended consequences to my life if I do not. I feel consequences to my life if I do not. I feel an openness to others that wouldn’t be an openness to others that wouldn’t be there if I didn’t believe that there’s good in there if I didn’t believe that there’s good in everybody.”everybody.”
““I have a guardian angel that looks after I have a guardian angel that looks after me.”me.”
““Everything happens for a reason.”Everything happens for a reason.”
““Things turn out for the best.”Things turn out for the best.”
Positive IllusionsPositive Illusions
Matlin & Stang. Matlin & Stang.
The Pollyanna Principle. The Pollyanna Principle.
19781978
Summarized over 1000 studiesSummarized over 1000 studies
1. When exposed to pleasant and unpleasant 1. When exposed to pleasant and unpleasant experiences for experiences for equalequal periods of time, periods of time, people report the pleasant were more people report the pleasant were more frequent. frequent.
2. People remember pleasant information 2. People remember pleasant information better and more accurately than better and more accurately than unpleasant. unpleasant.
(Matlin and Stang, 1978)(Matlin and Stang, 1978)
3. 3. Pleasant information is easier to learn Pleasant information is easier to learn than unpleasant. than unpleasant.
4. People recognize pleasant words quicker 4. People recognize pleasant words quicker than unpleasant. than unpleasant.
(Matlin and Stang, 1978)(Matlin and Stang, 1978)
5.5. People exaggerate the likelihood of pleasant People exaggerate the likelihood of pleasant events. events.
6.6. The pleasant member of antonym pairs is said The pleasant member of antonym pairs is said before the unpleasant, for instance, good-bad, before the unpleasant, for instance, good-bad, sweet-sour, right-wrong. sweet-sour, right-wrong.
7. Pleasant words tended to enter the English 7. Pleasant words tended to enter the English language first and have higher frequencies language first and have higher frequencies than do unpleasant. than do unpleasant.
8. People use positive terms far more often 8. People use positive terms far more often than negative whether in writing or than negative whether in writing or speaking. speaking.
9. People slant their memories in a positive 9. People slant their memories in a positive direction over time. direction over time.
10. People think the present is better for 10. People think the present is better for them personally than the past and the them personally than the past and the future will be better still regardless of the future will be better still regardless of the actual probabilities. actual probabilities.
Rated Selves More Positively Rated Selves More Positively than Peer of Same Sex and Agethan Peer of Same Sex and Age
87%87%
(Taylor, Lerner et al., Submitted for Publication)(Taylor, Lerner et al., Submitted for Publication)
One’s StrengthsOne’s Strengths ImportantImportant
RareRare
One’s FailingsOne’s Failings UnimportantUnimportant
CommonCommon(Campbell, 1986; Marks, 1984)s(Campbell, 1986; Marks, 1984)s
Time is on Our SideTime is on Our Side
Poor PerformancePoor Performance
Remember as BetterRemember as Better
20 Minutes Later20 Minutes Later
(Greenwald, (Greenwald, 1980)1980)
FeedbackFeedback
PositivePositive Recalled EasilyRecalled Easily
Process Process QuicklyQuickly
NegativeNegative Hard to RecallHard to Recall
Processed SlowlyProcessed Slowly
(Kuiper and Derry 1982; Kuiper and MacDonald (Kuiper and Derry 1982; Kuiper and MacDonald 1982; Kuiper, Olinger et al. 1985) 1982; Kuiper, Olinger et al. 1985)
Not Recent PhenomenaNot Recent Phenomena
One monthOne month
Rated mood each day compared to Rated mood each day compared to Own Own typical moodtypical mood
Almost everybodyAlmost everybody
Typically happier than they typically areTypically happier than they typically are(Johnson, 1938)(Johnson, 1938)
How does this apply to deception?How does this apply to deception?
20 Years of Research on Lying20 Years of Research on Lying
People rarely get above 60% accuracyPeople rarely get above 60% accuracy
Some groups worse than chanceSome groups worse than chance
(Ekman, 1992)(Ekman, 1992)
Who Can’t TellWho Can’t Tell
Secret ServiceSecret ServiceFederal PolygraphersFederal PolygraphersJudgesJudgesPolicePolicePsychiatristsPsychiatristsStudentsStudents
(Ekman, 1991)(Ekman, 1991)
Who Can’t Tell?Who Can’t Tell?
Customs inspectors vs. college students)Customs inspectors vs. college students)(Kraut & Poe, (Kraut & Poe,
1980)1980)
Federal law enforcement officers vs studentsFederal law enforcement officers vs students(DePaulo & Pfeifer, 1986)(DePaulo & Pfeifer, 1986)
Police officers no better than chancePolice officers no better than chance(Kohnken, 1987)(Kohnken, 1987)
Who Can’t TellWho Can’t Tell
GroupGroup % Above Chance% Above Chance
Secret ServiceSecret Service 29% 29%
PsychiatristsPsychiatrists 12% 12%
(Ekman, 1991)(Ekman, 1991)
““A man’s gotta know his limitations.”A man’s gotta know his limitations.”
Federal law enforcement officersFederal law enforcement officers
More Confident Than College StudentsMore Confident Than College Students
No More AccurateNo More Accurate
(DePaulo & Pfeifer, 1986)(DePaulo & Pfeifer, 1986)
Confidence and AccuracyConfidence and Accuracy
Generally UnrelatedGenerally Unrelated
(Ekman, 1991)(Ekman, 1991)
AccuracyAccuracy
What Didn’t Make a DifferenceWhat Didn’t Make a Difference
AgeAgeSexSex
Years of Job ExperienceYears of Job Experience
(Ekman, 1991)(Ekman, 1991)
AccuracyAccuracy
PolygraphersPolygraphers & Secret Service & Secret Service
Worse as Got OlderWorse as Got Older
(Ekman, 1991)(Ekman, 1991)
AccuracyAccuracy
Secret ServiceSecret Service
More Years of Job ExperienceMore Years of Job Experience
Worse AccuracyWorse Accuracy
(Ekman, 1991)(Ekman, 1991)
Believing What We HearBelieving What We Hear
Repeating It Increases BeliefRepeating It Increases Belief
(Arkes, Boehm et al.,1991; Arkes, Hacket et al., (Arkes, Boehm et al.,1991; Arkes, Hacket et al., 1989; Begg, Armour et al., 1985; Hasher, 1989; Begg, Armour et al., 1985; Hasher, Goldstein et al., 1977)Goldstein et al., 1977)
Believing What We HearBelieving What We Hear
Even believed statements which were Even believed statements which were openly labeled falseopenly labeled false
(Gerrig and Prentice,1991; Gilbert, Krull et (Gerrig and Prentice,1991; Gilbert, Krull et al.,1990; Wegner, Lane et al., 1994) al.,1990; Wegner, Lane et al., 1994)
Count numbers in statementsCount numbers in statements
Some labeled true; some falseSome labeled true; some false
(Gilbert, Krull et al., 1990)(Gilbert, Krull et al., 1990)
ResultsResults
Increased “False” labeled “True”Increased “False” labeled “True”
No Change in “True”No Change in “True”
(Gilbert, Krull et al., 1990)(Gilbert, Krull et al., 1990)
Old Debate – New LifeOld Debate – New Life
SpinozaSpinoza
Comprehending is BelievingComprehending is Believing
DescartesDescartes
Comprehend then Believe or NotComprehend then Believe or Not
Stranger ApproachesStranger Approaches
Constant TalkConstant Talk
Too Many DetailsToo Many Details
DetractionDetraction
(De Becker, 1997)(De Becker, 1997)
Types of Positive IllusionsTypes of Positive Illusions
Control Over Random EventsControl Over Random Events
World is Good and MeaningfulWorld is Good and Meaningful
Control over Random EventsControl over Random Events
Prefer Lottery Card They ChosePrefer Lottery Card They Chose
OverOver
One with Better OddsOne with Better Odds
Control over Random EventsControl over Random Events
AthletesAthletes
Sports FansSports Fans
GamblersGamblers
Personal Control & AversivenessPersonal Control & Aversiveness
Ability to Terminate Random ShocksAbility to Terminate Random Shocks
Less DistressLess Distress
Less DiscomfortLess Discomfort
Less Physiological ArousalLess Physiological Arousal
A Just WorldA Just World
Blaming People for OutcomeBlaming People for Outcome
Even if Randomly AssignedEven if Randomly Assigned
(Lerner, 1978)(Lerner, 1978)
““The Lord is faithful to those who are faithful The Lord is faithful to those who are faithful to the Lord.”to the Lord.”
(Miller and Tompkins, 1977, p. (Miller and Tompkins, 1977, p. 86)86)
What is Mental Health?What is Mental Health?
Good Reality Testing?Good Reality Testing?
Definition of Mental HealthDefinition of Mental Health
““Mentally healthy perception means a Mentally healthy perception means a process of viewing the world so that one is process of viewing the world so that one is able to take in matters one wishes were able to take in matters one wishes were different without distorting them to fit those different without distorting them to fit those wishes.” wishes.”
(Jahoda 1958, p. 349) (Jahoda 1958, p. 349)
Effect of Self-EnhancementEffect of Self-Enhancement
Correlated withCorrelated with
Good Relations with OthersGood Relations with OthersPersonal GrowthPersonal GrowthPurpose in LifePurpose in LifeSelf-EsteemSelf-EsteemMasteryMasterySelf-AcceptanceSelf-Acceptance
(Taylor, in (Taylor, in press)press)
Effect of Self-EnhancementEffect of Self-Enhancement
Negatively Correlated withNegatively Correlated with
State AnxietyState AnxietyDepressionDepressionSelf-BlameSelf-BlameNeuroticismNeuroticism
(Taylor, in (Taylor, in press)press)