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[TUTORIAL] All About Grammars & Tenses
Sentences
Sentences are made of two parts: the subject and the
predicate.
The subject is the person or thing that acts or is described in
the sentence. The predicate, on the
other hand, is that action or description.
Complete sentences need both the subject and the predicate.
Clauses
Sentences can be broken down into clauses.
For example: The boy is going to the school, and he is going to
eat there.
This is a complete sentence composed of two clauses. There are
mainly two types of clauses:
independent clauses and subordinate clauses.
Independent clauses act as complete sentences, while subordinate
clauses cannot stand alone and
need another clause to complete their meaning. For example:
Independent clause example: The boy went to the school.
Subordinate clause example: After the boy went to the school
Phrases
A group of two or more grammatically linked words that do not
have subject and predicate is a
phrase.
Example of a complete sentence: The girl is at home, and
tomorrow she is going to the amusement
park.
Example of a clause: The girl is at home
Example of a phrase: The girl
You can see that the girl is a phrase located in the first
clause of the complete sentence above.
Phrases act like parts of speech inside clauses. That is, they
can act as nouns, adjectives, adverbs and
so on.
Parts of Speech
A word is a part of speech only when it is used in a sentence.
The function the word serves in a
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sentence is what makes it whatever part of speech it is.
For example, the word run can be used as more than one part of
speech:.
Sammy hit a home run.
Run is a noun, direct object of hit.
You mustnt run near the swimming pool.
Run is a verb, part of the verb phrase must (not) run.
Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of
speech: the noun, the pronoun, the
adjective, the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the
conjunction, and the interjection. We are going
to cover them individually below.
Nouns
A noun is a word used to describe a person, place, thing, event,
idea, and so on. Nouns represent
one of the main elements of sentences, along with verbs,
adjectives, prepositions and articles.
Nouns usually function as subjects or objects within sentences,
although they can also act as
adjectives and adverbs.
Here is a list with the different types of nouns:
1. Proper nouns
Used to describe a unique person or thing, proper nouns always
start with a capital letter. Examples
include Mary, India, and Manchester United.
2. Common nouns
Common nouns are used to describe persons or things in general.
Examples include girl, country, and
team
3. Concrete nouns
Nouns that can be perceived through the five senses are called
concrete nouns. Examples include
ball, rainbow and melody.
4. Abstract nouns
Nouns that cannot be perceived through the five senses are
called abstract nouns. Examples include
love, courage, and childhood.
5. Countable nouns
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Countable nouns can be counted. They also have both a singular
and a plural form. Examples include
toys, children and books.
6. Non-countable nouns
These nouns (usually) can not be counted, and they dont have a
plural form. Examples include
sympathy, laughter and oxygen.
7. Collective nouns
Collective nouns are used to describe groups of things. Examples
include flock, committee and
murder.
Plural Form of Nouns
The English language has both regular and irregular plural forms
of nouns. The most common case is
when you need to add -s to the noun. For example one car and two
cars.
The other two cases of the regular plural form are:
1. nouns that end with s, x, ch or sh, where you add -es (e.g.,
one box, two boxes)
2. nouns that end with consonant + y, where you change the y
with i and add -es (e.g., one enemy,
two enemies)
On the irregular plural form of nouns there are basically eight
cases:
1. nouns that end with -o, where you add -es (e.g., one potato,
two potatoes)
2. nouns ending with -is, where you change -is to -es (e.g., one
crisis, two crises)
3. nouns ending with -f, where you change -f to -v and add -es
(e.g., one wolf, two wolves)
4. nouns ending with -fe, where you change -f to -v and add -s
(e.g., one life, two lives)
5. nouns ending with -us, where you change -us to -i (e.g., one
fungus, two fungi)
6. nouns that contain -oo, change -oo to -ee (e.g., one foot,
two feet)
7. nouns that end with -on, where you change -on with -a (e.g.,
phenomenon, phenomena)
8. nouns that dont change (e.g., sheep, offspring, series)
It might appear overwhelming, but after using these nouns a
couple of times you will be able to
memorize their plural form easily.
Pronouns
Pronouns are used to replace nouns within sentences, making them
less repetitive and mechanic.
For example, saying Mary didnt go to school because Mary was
sick doesnt sound very good.
Instead, if you say Mary didnt go to school because she was sick
it will make the sentence flow
better.
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There are several types of pronouns, below you will find the
most common ones:
1. Subjective personal pronouns. As the name implies, subjective
pronouns act as subjects within
sentences. They are: I, you, he, she, we, they, and it.
Example: I am going to the bank while he is going to the
market.
2. Objective personal pronouns. These pronouns act as the object
of verbs within sentences. They
are: me, you, him, her, us, them and it.
Example: The ball was going to hit me in the face.
3. Possessive personal pronouns. These pronouns are used to
indicate possession, and they are
placed after the object in question (as opposed to possessive
adjectives like my and your, which are
placed before the object). They are: mine, yours, his, hers,
ours, theirs and its.
Example of possessive adjective: This is my car.
Example of possessive pronoun: This car is mine.
4. Reflexive pronouns. This special class of pronouns is used
when the object is the same as the
subject on the sentence. They are myself, yourself, himself,
herself, ourselves, themselves and itself.
Example: I managed to cut myself in the kitchen.
5. Interrogative pronouns. As you probably guessed these
pronouns are used to ask questions. They
are what, which, who, whom and whose.
Example: What are the odds?
6. Demonstrative pronouns. These pronouns are used to indicate a
noun and distinguish it from
other entities. Notice that demonstrative pronouns replace the
noun (while demonstrative
determiners modify them). They are: this, that, these,
those.
Example of a demonstrative determiner: This house is ugly.
Example of a demonstrative pronoun: This is the right one.
7. Indefinite pronouns. As the name implies, indefinite pronouns
do not refer to a specific thing,
place or person. There are many of them, including anyone,
anywhere, everyone, none, someone
and so on.
Example: Everyone is going to the party.
Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes a noun. There are two
kinds: attributive and predicative.
An adjective is used attributively when it stands next to a noun
and describes it.
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For example: The black cat climbed a tree.
Notice that the verb participle forms can be used as
adjectives:
The man felt a paralyzing fear.
Flavored oatmeal tastes better than plain oatmeal.
The usual place of the adjective in English is in front of the
noun. You can have a whole string of
adjectives if you like: The tall thin evil-looking cowboy roped
the short, fat, inoffensive calf.
Sometimes, for rhetorical or poetic effect, the adjective can
come after the noun:
Sarah Plain and Tall (book title)
This is the forest primeval.
An adjective is used predicatively when a verb separates it from
the noun or pronoun it describes:
The umpire was wrong.
The crowd was furious.
She seems tired today.
This soup tastes bad.
The dogs coat feels smooth.
The verbs that can be completed by predicate adjectives are
called being verbs or copulative verbs.
They include all the forms of to be and sensing verbs like seem,
feel, and taste.
Adjective Classifications
* qualitative: good, bad, happy, blue, French
* possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their
* relative and interrogative: which, what, whatever, etc.
* numeral: one, two, second, single, etc.
* indefinite: some, any, much, few, every, etc.
* demonstrative: this, that, the, a (an), such
The demonstrative adjectives the and a (an) are so important in
English that they have a special
name: articles. They are discussed separately below.
Articles
The words a, an, and the are generally called articles and
sometimes classed as a separate part of
speech. In function, however, they can be grouped with the
demonstrative adjectives that are used
to point things out rather than describe them.
Definite Article
The is called the definite article because it points out a
particular object or class.
This is the book I was talking about.
The dodo bird is extinct.
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Indefinite Article
A is called the indefinite article because it points out an
object, but not any particular specimen.
a book, a dog, a lawn mower
The indefinite article has two forms:
A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound or an
aspirated h:
a car, a lamb, a hope, a habit, a hotel
An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound:
an ape, an image, an untruth, an honorable man
Verbs
English has three kinds of Verbs: transitive, intransitive, and
incomplete.
1. Transitive Verbs
A verb is transitive when the action is carried across to a
receiver:
The farmer grows potatoes. Elvis sang ballads.
The receiver is called the direct object. It answers the
question What? or Whom? after the verb.
Grows what? Potatoes. Sang what? Ballads.
2. Intransitive Verbs
A verb is intransitive when the action stays with the verb. It
is not carried across to a receiver:
Corn grows. Elvis sang.
Adding a prepositional phrase to modify the verb does not change
the fact that the action remains
with the subject:
Corn grows in the fields. Elvis sang all over the world.
Both transitive and intransitive verbs are action verbs.
3. Incomplete Verbs
There are three types of incomplete verbs:
i. being verbs also called linking or copulative verbs
to be, seem, become, taste, smell, sound, feel
Tip: Some of these verbs can also be used transitively. If in
doubt, substitute a form of to be for the
verb. If the sentence still makes sense, the verb is being used
as a copulative verb:
He feels depressed. He is depressed.
He feels the wall. He is the wall.
ii. auxiliary verbs also called helping verbs
be, have, shall, will, do, and may.
He could have gone earlier.
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iii. semi-auxiliary verbs
must, can, ought, dare, need.
You must not go. You dare not go.
Verbs Voice
English verbs are said to have two voices: active and
passive.
Active Voice: the subject of the sentence performs the
action:
His son catches fly balls. Creative children often dream in
class.
Note: Verbs in the active voice may be either transitive or
intransitive.
Passive Voice: the subject receives the action:
The ball was caught by the first baseman.
The duty is performed by the new recruits.
The dough was beaten by the mixer.
The mailman was bitten by the dog.
Only transitive verbs can be used in the passive voice. What
would be the direct object of the verb in
the active voice becomes the subject of the verb in the passive
voice:
Active voice: The dog bit the mailman. bit is a transitive verb.
The receiver/direct object is
mailman.
Passive voice: The mailman was bitten by the dog. bit is now in
the passive voice. The receiver
has become the subject of the verb.
A passive verb in either present or past tense will always have
two parts: some form of the verb to
be (am, is, are, was, were), and a past participle (verb form
ending in -ed, -en, or any form used with
have when forming a perfect tense).
Note: The mere presence of the verb to be does not indicate that
a verb is in the passive voice. The
test of a verb in the passive voice is the two-part
question:
Is the subject performing the action of the verb or is the
subject receiving the action of the verb?
If the subject is receiving the action, then the verb is in
passive voice.
Sometimes the passive voice is the best way to express a
thought. Used carelessly, however, passive
voice can produce a ponderous, inexact writing style.
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Verbs Mood
English verbs have four moods: indicative, imperative,
subjunctive, and infinitive.
Mood is the form of the verb that shows the mode or manner in
which a thought is expressed.
1. Indicative Mood: expresses an assertion, denial, or
question:
Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas.
Ostriches cannot fly.
Have you finished your homework?
2. Imperative Mood: expresses command, prohibition, entreaty, or
advice:
Dont smoke in this building.
Be careful!
Dont drown that puppy!
3. Subjunctive Mood: expresses doubt or something contrary to
fact.
Modern English speakers use indicative mood most of the time,
resorting to a kind of mixed
subjunctive that makes use of helping verbs:
If I should see him, I will tell him.
Americans are more likely to say:
If I see him, I will tell him.
The verb may can be used to express a wish:
May you have many more birthdays.
May you live long and prosper.
The verb were can also indicate the use of the subjunctive:
If I were you, I wouldnt keep driving on those tires.
If he were governor, wed be in better fiscal shape.
4. Infinitive Mood: expresses an action or state without
reference to any subject. It can be the
source of sentence fragments when the writer mistakenly thinks
the infinitive form is a fully-
functioning verb.
When we speak of the English infinitive, we usually mean the
basic form of the verb with to in
front of it: to go, to sing, to walk, to speak.
Verbs said to be in the infinitive mood can include participle
forms ending in -ed and -ing. Verbs in
the infinitive mood are not being used as verbs, but as other
parts of speech:
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To err is human; to forgive, divine. Here, to err and to forgive
are used as nouns.
He is a man to be admired. Here, to be admired is an adjective,
the equivalent of admirable. It
describes the noun man.
He came to see you. Here, to see you is used as an adverb to
tell why he came.
Verbs Tense
Modern English has six tenses, each of which has a corresponding
continuous tense.
The first three tenses, present, past, and future, present few
problems. Only third person singular in
the present tense differs in form:
Present tense of regular (weak) verbs:
Today I walk. Today he walks.
Yesterday I walked.
Tomorrow I shall/will walk.
The dwindling class of irregular (strong) verbs must be learned
individually.
Today I go. Today he goes.
Yesterday I went.
Tomorrow I shall/will go.
The other three tenses, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect,
are formed with the helping verbs
have, has, and had.
perfect: used to express an event that has just finished, and to
describe an event which, although in
the past, has effects that continue into the present.
Queen Elizabeth has reigned for 56 years.
pluperfect (past perfect): used to express an event that took
place before another action, also in the
past.
I had driven all the way to Oklahoma when I realized my
mistake.
future perfect: used to express an event that will have taken
place at some time in the future.
As of February 26, I shall have been in this job six years.
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For complete conjugation tables of weak and strong English
verbs, see the Wikipedia article.
Adverbs
Adverbs are used to describe or modify a verb, adjective,
clause, or another adverb. Basically, they
modify everything except nouns and pronouns (which are modified
by adjectives).
Example of an adverb modifying a verb: He was running fast.
(fast modifies running)
Example of an adverb modifying an adjective: She took a very
small piece of the cake. (very modifies
small)
Example of an adverb modifying a sentence: Strangely, the man
left the room. (strangely modifies
the whole sentence)
Usually adverbs answer to the questions When? (adverbs of time),
Where? (adverbs of place),
and How? (adverbs of manner).
Adverbs can also be used to connect clauses and sentences (in
this case they are called conjunctive
adverbs).
For example: It was dark. Therefore, we needed the torch.
(therefore connects the two sentences)
Prepositions
Prepositions are used to link nouns and pronouns to other words
within a sentence. The words
linked to are called objects.
Usually prepositions show a spatial or temporal relationship
between the noun and the object, like
in the example below:
The cat is under the table.
Cat is the noun. Under is the preposition. Table is the
object.
Here is a list with the most common prepositions: about, above,
after, among, around, along, at,
before, behind, beneath, beside, between, by, down, from, in,
into, like, near, of, off, on, out, over,
through, to, up, upon, under, and with.
Notice that you can also have a prepositional phrase, which is
formed by the preposition and its
object. A preposition phrase can function as adverb, adjective
or noun. For example:
The dog was running under the rain.
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The prepositional phrase under the rain acts as an adverb,
specifying where the dog was running.
Conjunctions
A conjunction joins words and groups of words.
There are two classes of conjunction: co-ordinate or
coordinating and subordinate or subordinating.
Co-ordinate conjunctions: and, but, eitheror, neithernor.
Subordinate conjunctions: that, as, after, before, since, when,
where, unless, if.
Mother and Father are driving me to New Orleans. (and is a
coordinate conjunction joining words of
equal significance in the sentence.
I painted the walls but Jack painted the woodwork. (but is a
coordinate conjunction joining clauses
of equal significance in the sentence. Either clause could stand
alone as a sentence.)
Since you cant get away, well go without you.
(Since is a subordinate conjunction joining a less important
thought to a more important thought.
The main clause, well go without you, can stand alone as a
complete thought. The subordinate
clause, Since you cant get away, is an incomplete thought. It is
dependent upon the main clause for
meaning.)
Note: The relative pronouns who, whom, which, and that are used
in the same way that subordinate
conjunctions are. The difference is that the relative pronouns
serve three purposes at once:
1) they stand for a noun in the main clause
2) they connect the clauses
3) they serve as a subject or object word in the subordinate
clause:
He is the man who invented the hula hoop. (who stands for man
and is the subject of invented)
Charles is the boy whom the other children tease. (whom stands
for boy and is the object of tease)
Give me the piece of string that is waxed. (that stands for
string and is the subject of is waxed)
There goes the horse which won the Derby. (which refers to horse
and is the subject of won)
The possessive adjective whose can also be used to join
clauses:
Thats the bird whose plumage I admire. (whose refers to bird and
describes plumage)
Interjections
Interjection comes from from a Latin word that means throw
between. Its a word or phrase that is
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thrown into a sentence to express an emotion:
Goodness, how youve grown!
Darn, I forgot my lunch!
Alas, will he never return?
All the impolite expressions that we call expletives are
interjections.
Strictly speaking, an interjection is not a part of speech. It
serves no grammatical function but is
rather a noisy utterance like the cry of an animal (F.J. Rahtz).
Interjections express feeling or
emotion, not thought and have been called the miserable refuge
of the speechless.
If youve ever stood lunch duty on a high school campus, you know
just how vapid conversation can
be when larded with meaningless interjections.
IF-Clause / Conditional Sentence
1. The Zero Conditional (Type 0)
The zero conditional is a structure used for talking about
general truths, or scientific facts -- things
which always happen under certain conditions.
A zero conditional sentence consists of two clauses, an "if"
clause and a main clause (note that most
zero conditional sentences will mean the same thing if "when" is
used instead of "if"). For example:
If the "if" clause comes first, a comma is usually used. If the
"if" clause comes second, there is no
need for a comma.
The simple present tense is the tense use in both clauses.
Examples:
If you cross an international date line, the time changes.
Phosphorus burns if you expose it to air.
2. First Conditional (Type I)
The first conditional (also called conditional type 1) is a
structure used for talking about possibilities
in the present or in the future.Type 1: if + present +
future.
Example:
If I have the money, I will buy this car.
If it's sunny, we'll go to the park.
Peter will be sad if Susan leaves.
If you cook dinner, I'll wash the dishes.
Among other variations the structure if + present + present is
also possible. It is used when the
results are habitual or automatic. Example: If a commodity is in
short, supply prices tend to rise.
3. Second Conditional (Type II)
The second conditional (also called conditional type 2) is a
structure used for talking about unreal
situations in the present or in the future.Type 2: if + past +
conditional
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Example:
If I had the money, I would buy this car. (Since I do not have
the money I cannot buy any new car).
The action in type 2 is characterized by unreality.
If I were you, I would drive more carefully in the rain.
If dogs had wings, they would be able to fly.
Paula would be sad if Jan left.
4. Third Conditional (Type III)
The third conditional (also called conditional type 3) is a
structure used for talking about unreal
situations in the past. In other words, it is used to talk about
things which DID NOT HAPPEN in the
past. Type 3: if + past perfect + perfect conditional
Full form : If I had studied harder, I probably would have
passed the exam.
Contracted form :If I'd studied harder, I probably would've
passed the exam.
Example:
If I had had the money, I would have bought this Audi. (But I
did not have it, and so did not buy).
If you had driven more carefully, you would not have had an
accident. (You had an accident because
you didn't drive carefully enough.)
If we had played a little better, we could have won the game.(We
didn't play well, so we lost the
game.)
The action in type 3 is characterized by impossibility.
While type 1 and type 2 focus on the present or future, the time
in type 3 is the past and signifies a
completed action in the past. The condition, therefore, cannot
be fulfilled because the action in the
if-clause did not happen.
5. Wish Sentences
The verb wish expresses a desire for a situation that does not
exist right now in the present. A wish is
a desire to change a real situation into an unreal one. The
unreal situation is expressed in the simple
past. For example:
I wish I lived in a house. I live in an apartment.
Wish sentences often express regret about a situation that you
would like to change e.g.
A:Can you help me? B: No, I'm sorry. I wish I could, but I have
an appointment.
In order to express future actions that you want to happen , you
use would e.g.
I wish the bus would come. I'm cold.
I wish you'd have a car to take me to the beach.
I wish I were thin.
I wish I hadn't said that. (If fact, I said it)
-Source- (netgrammar.altec.org)
Gerunds
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A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun.
The term verbal indicates that a
gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb
and therefore expresses action or a
state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it
occupies some positions in a sentence
that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct
object, subject complement, and object of
preposition.
Gerund as subject:
* Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.
(Traveling is the gerund.)
* The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new
experiences. (The gerund has been
removed.)
Gerund as direct object:
* They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund is
singing.)
* They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been
removed)
Gerund as subject complement:
* My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is
sleeping.)
* My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been
removed.)
Gerund as object of preposition:
* The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is
speeding.)
* The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The gerund has
been removed.)
A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and
the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s)
or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s),
indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the
action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:
The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're
trying to do.
Finding (gerund)
a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)
The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb
appreciate.
I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.
my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund)
offering (gerund)
you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in
gerund)
The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement.
Newt's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents.
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lying to (gerund)
his constituents (direct object of action expressed in
gerund)
The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition
for.
You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid
work.
faking (gerund)
an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)
The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.
Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.
Being (gerund)
the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being
expressed in gerund)
Punctuation
A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.
Points to remember:
1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a
noun.
2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s),
object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require
punctuation.
Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb
(in its simplest "stem" form) and
functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal
indicates that an infinitive, like the other
two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses
action or a state of being. However,
the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject
complement, adjective, or adverb in a
sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of
the to + verb form, deciding what
function it has in a sentence can sometimes be confusing.
* To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required.
(subject)
* Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)
* His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)
* He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective)
* We must study to learn. (adverb)
Be sure not to confuse an infinitivea verbal consisting of to
plus a verbwith a prepositional
phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or
pronoun and any modifiers.
* Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand,
to catch, to belong
* Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house,
to the mountains, to us, to this
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address
An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an
infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or
(pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s),
direct object(s), indirect object(s), or
complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the
infinitive, such as:
We intended to leave early.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb
intended.
to leave (infinitive)
early (adverb)
I have a paper to write before class.
The infinitive phrase functions as an adjective modifying
paper.
to write (infinitive)
before class (prepositional phrase as adverb)
Phil agreed to give me a ride.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb
agreed.
to give (infinitive)
me (indirect object of action expressed in infinitive)
a ride (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)
They asked me to bring some food.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb
asked.
me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
to bring (infinitive)
some food (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)
Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of the team.
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb
wanted.
Carol (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
to be (infinitive)
the captain (subject complement for Carol, via state of being
expressed in infinitive)
of the team (prepositional phrase as adjective)
Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive
phrase could be roughly characterized
as the "subject" of the action or state expressed in the
infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use
the word subject, however, since an infinitive phrase is not a
full clause with a subject and a finite
verb. Also notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears
in the objective case (me, not I, in the
fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive
direct object, require an actor for the
infinitive phrase; others can't have an actor.
Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the
beginning phrase in a sentence, it should
be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for
an infinitive phrase.
* To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last
dollar.
* To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and
audience.
-
Points to remember
1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a
verb; it may be used as a noun, adjective,
or adverb.
2. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus
modifier(s), object(s), complement(s), and/or
actor(s).
3. An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as
an adverb at the beginning of a
sentence.
Split infinitives
Split infinitives occur when additional words are included
between to and the verb in an infinitive.
Many readers find a single adverb splitting the infinitive to be
acceptable, but this practice should be
avoided in formal writing.
Examples:
* I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. *
(unacceptable)
On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised)
* I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions.
(acceptable in informal contexts)
I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for
formal contexts)
-Source- (owl.english.purdue.edu)
Participles
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most
often ends in -ing or -ed. The term
verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of
verbals, is based on a verb and therefore
expresses action or a state of being. However, since they
function as adjectives, participles modify
nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present
participles and past participles.
Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed,
-en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked,
eaten, saved, dealt, and seen.
* The crying baby had a wet diaper.
* Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.
* The burning log fell off the fire.
* Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.
A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a
participle and the modifier(s) and/or
(pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct
object(s), indirect object(s), or
complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the
participle, such as:
Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying
Jack.
Removing (participle)
his coat (direct object of action expressed in participle)
Delores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying
cousin.
-
walking (participle)
along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as adverb)
Children introduced to music early develop strong intellectual
skills.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying
children.
introduced (to) (participle)
music (direct object of action expressed in participle)
early (adverb)
Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance of exercise.
The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying
Lynn.
Having been (participle)
a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn, via state of being
expressed in participle)
Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase
must be placed as close to the noun it
modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.
* Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step.
*
* Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a
step.
In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or
what is performing the action expressed in
the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically
understood to function in this way. This
situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the
modifier (the participial phrase) is not
modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left
"dangling." Since a person must be doing
the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun
that refers to a person must be in
the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the
second sentence.
Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a
comma should be placed after the
phrase.
* Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.
* Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore
muscles.
If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a
sentence, it should be set off with
commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning
of the sentence.
* Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.
* The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.
Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning
of the sentence, no commas should be
used:
* The student earning the highest grade point average will
receive a special award.
* The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.
If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma
usually precedes the phrase if it
modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase
directly follows the word it modifies.
-
* The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the
streets.
(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)
* Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)
Points to remember
1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed,
-en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that functions as an
adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.
2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus
modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).
3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close
to the nouns or pronouns they modify
as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly
stated.
4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it:
* a) comes at the beginning of a sentence
* b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element
* c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the
word it modifies.
Question Tag
A question tag or tag question is a grammatical structure in
which a declarative statement or an
imperative is turned into a question by adding an interrogative
fragment (the "tag"). The term
"question tag" is generally preferred by British grammarians,
while their American counterparts
prefer "tag question".
Forms and uses
In most languages, tag questions are more common in colloquial
spoken usage than in formal
written usage. They can be an indicator of politeness, emphasis,
or irony. They may suggest
confidence or lack of confidence; they may be confrontational or
tentative. In legal settings, tag
questions can be found in leading question. Some examples
showing the wide variety of structure
possible in English are:
* Open the window, will you?
* She doesn't really want those apples, does she?
* You'd better stop now, hadn't you?
* So you thought it would be a good idea to reprogram the
computer, did you?
* It's quite an achievement, isn't it, to win a Nobel prize!
* Oh I must, must I?
* I just adore Beethoven, don't you?
* I'm coming with you, all right?
* You've been there, right?
* Easier said than done, eh?
* You went there, no?
Auxiliary
The English tag question is made up of an auxiliary verb and a
pronoun. The auxiliary has to agree
with the tense, aspect and modality of the verb in the preceding
sentence. If the verb is in the
perfect tense, for example, the tag question uses has or have;
if the verb is in a present progressive
form, the tag is formed with am, are, is; if the verb is in a
tense which does not normally use an
-
auxiliary, like the present simple, the auxiliary is taken from
the emphatic do form; and if the
sentence has a modal auxiliary, this is echoed in the tag:
* He's read this book, hasn't he?
* He read this book, didn't he?
* He's reading this book, isn't he?
* He reads a lot of books, doesn't he?
* He'll read this book, won't he?
* He should read this book, shouldn't he?
* He can read this book, can't he?
A special case occurs when the main verb is to be in a simple
tense. Here the tag question repeats
the main verb, not an auxiliary:
* This is a book, isn't it?
(Not doesn't it?, as the normal rules for present simple would
suggest.)
If the main verb is to have, either solution is possible:
* He has a book, hasn't he?
* He has a book, doesn't he?
Negation
English tag questions may contain a negation, but need not. When
there is no special emphasis, the
rule of thumb often applies that a positive sentence has a
negative tag and vice versa:
* She is French, isn't she?
* She's not French, is she?
These are sometimes called "balanced tag questions". However, it
has been estimated that in
normal conversation, as many as 40%-50%[2] of tags break this
rule. "Unbalanced tag questions"
(positive to positive or negative to negative) may be used for
ironic or confrontational effects:
* Do listen, will you?
* Oh, I'm lazy, am I?
* Jack: I refuse to spend Sunday at your mother's house! Jill:
Oh you do, do you? We'll see about
that!
* Jack: I just won't go back! Jill: Oh you won't, won't you?
Patterns of negation can show regional variations. In North East
Scotland, for example, positive to
positive is used when no special effect is desired:
* This pizza's fine, is it? (standard English: This pizza's
delicious, isn't it?)
Note the following variations in the negation when the auxiliary
is the I form of the copula:
-
* England (and America, Australia, etc.): Clever, aren't I?
* Scotland/Northern Ireland: Clever, amn't I?
* nonstandard dialects: Clever, ain't I?
Intonation
English tag questions can have a rising or a falling intonation
pattern. This is contrasted with Polish,
French or German, for example, where all tags rise. As a rule,
the English rising pattern is used when
soliciting information or motivating an action, that is, when
some sort of response is required. Since
normal English yes/no questions have rising patterns (e.g. Are
you coming?), these tags make a
grammatical statement into a real question:
* You're coming, aren't you?
* Do listen, will you?
* Let's have a beer, shall we?
The falling pattern is used to underline a statement. The
statement itself ends with a falling pattern,
and the tag sounds like an echo, strengthening the pattern. Most
English tag questions have this
falling pattern.
* He doesn't know what he's doing, does he?
* This is really boring, isn't it?
Sometimes the rising tag goes with the positive to positive
pattern to create a confrontational effect:
* He was the best in the class, was he? (rising: the speaker is
challenging this thesis, or perhaps
expressing surprised interest)
* He was the best in the class, wasn't he? (falling: the speaker
holds this opinion)
* Be careful, will you? (rising: expresses irritation)
* Take care, won't you? (falling: expresses concern)
Sometimes the same words may have different patterns depending
on the situation or implication.
* You don't remember my name, do you? (rising: expresses
surprise)
* You don't remember my name, do you? (falling: expresses
amusement or resignation)
* Your name's Mary, isn't it? (rising: expresses
uncertainty)
* Your name's Mary, isn't it? (falling: expresses
confidence)
It is interesting that as an all-purpose tag the London
set-phrase innit (for "isn't it") is only used with
falling patterns:
* He doesn't know what he's doing, innit?
* He was the best in the class, innit?
On the other hand, the adverbial tag questions (alright? OK?
etc.) are almost always found with
rising patterns. An occasional exception is surely.
-
Emphasis
English tag questions are normally stressed on the verb, but the
stress is on the pronoun if there is a
change of person.
* I don't like peas, do you?
* I like peas, don't you?
This is often a rising tag (especially when the tag contains no
negation), or the intonation pattern
may be the typically English fall-rise
Modal Verbs
In the English language, a modal verb is an auxiliary verb that
can be used to change the grammatical
mood of a sentence. The key way to identify a modal verb is by
its defectiveness (they have neither
participles nor infinitives).
The modal verbs in English are as follows, paired as present and
preterite forms:
* shall and should
* will and would
* may and might
* can and could
* mote (Archaic) and must
The following are not modal verbs but may be used for a similar
purpose:
* ought to and had better
* used to
* dare and need
* do
* going to
* have to
Although historically referring to past time, the preterite
forms have come to be used in many cases
with no such meaning.
Syntax
If a verb is preceded by multiple auxiliary verbs including a
modal, as in "it could have been eaten,"
the modal will always appear before the other auxiliary verbs. A
verb or auxiliary verb following a
modal always appears in its basic form (for example, "could have
gone" instead of "could had
gone").
Past time use of preterite forms
Preterite forms may be used when referring to situations seen
from the perspective of an earlier
time. For example, would is originally the past tense of will,
and it can still be used in that sense. The
statement "People think that we will all be driving hovercars by
the year 2000", in the context of the
1960s, can be represented in the present by replacing the verbs
in italics by the appropriate
preterite forms: "In the 1960s, people thought we would all be
driving hovercars by the year 2000."
-
Likewise, "I can do that" may become "I could do that when I was
younger, but not anymore."
Conditionals
The preterite forms can also be used in the apodosis in the
conditional mood, such as in
counterfactual conditionals: "If they had wanted to do it, they
would have done it by now." "If you
bought a bus pass, you could catch as many buses as you liked
without worrying about the cost of
the fares." "If he were more polite, he might be better
liked."
There is not always an explicit protasis ("if" clause) in this
use: "Someone who likes red and hates
yellow would probably prefer strawberries to bananas" means the
same as "If someone who liked
red and hated yellow were offered a choice of fruit, he or she
would probably prefer strawberries to
bananas." "I could help you with your work" gives a more
tentative sense of ability to help than, say,
"I can help you with your work" would. The implied protasis
could, depending on the context, be
along the lines of "If I wanted to".
Shall and will
Shall is used in many of the same senses as will, though not all
dialects use shall productively, and
those that use both shall and will generally draw a distinction
(though different dialects tend to draw
different distinctions). In standard, perhaps old-fashioned
English, shall in the first person, singular
or plural, indicates mere futurity, but in other persons shows
an order, command or prophecy:
"Cinderella, you shall go to the ball!" It is, therefore,
impossible to make shall questions in these
persons. Shall we? makes sense, shall you? does not.
Shall derives from a main verb meaning to owe, and in dialects
that use both shall and will, it is often
used in instances where an obligation, rather than an intention,
is expressed.
Shall is also used in legal and engineering language to write
firm laws and specifications as in these
examples: "Those convicted of violating this law shall be
imprisoned for a term of not less than three
years nor more than seven years," and "The electronics assembly
shall be able to operate within its
specifications over a temperature range of 0 degrees Celsius to
70 degrees Celsius."
Should
Should is commonly used, even in dialects where shall is not.
The negation is "should not" (or the
contraction "shouldn't").
Should can describe an ideal behaviour or occurrence and imparts
a normative meaning to the
sentence; for example, "You should never lie" means roughly, "If
you always behaved perfectly, you
would never lie"; and "If this works, you should not feel a
thing" means roughly, "I hope this will
work. If it does, you will not feel a thing." In dialects that
use shall commonly, however, this
restriction does not apply; for example, a speaker of such a
dialect might say, "If I failed that test, I
think I should cry," meaning the same thing as, "If I failed
that test, I think I would cry."
In some dialects, it is common to form the subjunctive mood by
using should: "It is important that
the law should be passed" (where other dialects would say, "It
is important that the law be passed")
or "If it should happen, we are prepared for it" (or "Should it
happen, we are prepared for it"; where
-
early Modern English would say, "If it happen, we are prepared
for it," and many dialects of today
would say, "If it happens, we are prepared for it").
Would
The contracted form of would is "'d". The negation is either
"would not" or "wouldn't".
Would can be used in some forms that are viewed as more formal
or polite. For example, "I would
like a glass of water" compared with "I want a glass of water";
and "Would you get me a glass of
water?" compared with the bare "Get me a glass of water."
"Would" can also be used for the imperfect tense. In the
sentence "Back then, I would eat early and
would walk to school...." "would" signifies not the conditional
mood, but rather, repeated past
actions of imperfect tense in English, and one must use care
when translating to other languages.
May and might
May and might do not have common negative contractions
(equivalents to shan't, won't, can't,
couldn't etc.), although mightn't can occur in asking questions.
("Mightn't I come in if I took my
muddy boots off?" as a reply to "Don't come in here! You'll get
the floor dirty!")
Both forms can be used to express a present time possibility or
uncertainty ("That may be."). Might
and could can also be used in this sense with no past time
meaning. Might and may would carry the
same meaning in "John is not in the office today, and he could
be sick."
May is also used to express irrelevance in spite of certain or
likely truth: "He may be taller than I am,
but he is certainly not stronger" may mean roughly, "While it is
true that he is taller than I am, that
does not make a difference, as he is certainly not stronger."
(However, it may also mean, "I am not
sure whether he is taller than I am, but I am sure that he is
not stronger.") This is the meaning in the
phrase "Be that as it may." Might can be used in this sense as
well.
Might can be used in the first person to express that future
actions are being considered. "I might go
to the mall later" means that the speaker is thinking about
going to the mall.
May or might can be used in a question to ask for permission.
One who is saying "May I use your
phone? is asking for permission to use the phone of the person
being spoken to. 'Can' or 'could' can
be used instead, although formal American English prefers 'may'.
In both cases the preterite form is
viewed as more hesitant or polite.
Can and could
The negation of can is the single word "cannot", occasionally
written as two words "can not" or the
contraction "can't". The negation of could is "could not", or
"couldn't".
Can is used to express ability. "I can speak English" means "I
am able to speak English", or "I know
how to speak English".
It is also used to express that some state of affairs is
possible, without referring to the ability of a
-
person to do something: "There can be a very strong rivalry
between siblings" can have the same
meaning as "There is sometimes a very strong rivalry between
siblings".
Cannot and can't can be used to express beliefs about
situations: "He cannot have left already; why
would he want to get there so early?" expresses with less
certainty the same proposition as "He has
not left already" does.
Both can and could can be used to make requests: "Can you pass
me the cheese? means "Please
pass me the cheese". Could can be used in the same way, and
might be considered more polite.
Note that the form could is either preterite (past = was able
to) or conditional (would be able to)
Must
Must has no corresponding preterite form. The negation is "must
not" or "mustn't". An archaic
variant is the word mote, as used in the expression "so mote it
be".
Must and have to are used to express that something is
obligatory ("He must leave"). It can be used
to express a prohibition such as "You must not smoke in here",
or a resolution such as "I mustn't
make that mistake again".
There is a distinction between must and have to in the negative
forms. In the sentence "You must
not go", it is being expressed that it is obligatory for the
person being spoken to not to go; whereas
in the sentence "You do not have to go" it is being expressed
that it is not obligatory for the person
to go.
Have to can be used for an ongoing obligation, such as "he has
to be careful".
Must and have to are used to express beliefs (the epistemic
rather than deontic use), such as "It
must be here somewhere" or "It has to be here somewhere", with
the same meaning as "I believe
that it very likely that it is here somewhere."
Modal Verbs Part 2
Words with a similar function to the modal verbs
Have to
Have to is used in a similar way to must, as discussed above.
Except where Have to is used more with
an outside obligation such as You have to wear a seatbelt when
driving and must is used more
commonly with personal obligations I must go to the dentist.
Ought to and had better
Ought to and had better are used to express an ideal behavior or
occurrence or suggested
obligation, in a similar way to should. The negations are,
respectively, ought not to (or rarely,
oughtn't to) and had better not. The "had" in "had better" can
be contracted, such as "You'd better
shut up." In informal American usage, the had in had better is
sometimes omitted.
-
Used to
Used to is used to express past states that were habitual but
which are no longer. For example, "I
used to go to college" suggests that the speaker no longer goes
to college. Negative constructions
exist in expressions such as "She used to not like me", or if
the speaker is trying to avoid the split
infinitive, "She used not to like me".
In some non-standard dialects, used to can follow did not (or
didn't), as in "She didn't use to like
me".
Dare and need
Dare and need are not commonly used as auxiliaries nowadays, but
formerly they both were. Dare is
rare with the exception of "How dare you!". "He dare not do it"
is equivalent to "He does not dare to
do it", while "It need not happen today" is equivalent to
today's "It does not need to happen today"
or "It might not happen today." However, in the sentence "I need
to lose weight," need is not being
used as an auxiliary, as takes the infinitive "to lose" as the
head of the verb phrase rather than the
bare infinitive "lose" that occurs in a phrase like "I can lose
weight".
Do
As an auxiliary, do is essentially a "dummy"; that is, it does
not generally affect the meaning. It is
used to form questions and negations when no other auxiliary is
present: "I do not (don't) want to
do it." This particular use of do, known as do-support, is
attested from around 1400.
It is also sometimes used for emphasis: "I do understand your
concern, but I do not think that will
happen." Also, do sometimes acts as a pro-verb: "I enjoy it, I
really do [enjoy it], but I am not good at
it." (Other auxiliaries do this as well: "I can do it, I really
can [do it], it just takes me longer"; but it
bears particular note that in the case of do, it is often used
as a pro-verb when it would be absent if
the verb were present.) Because it does not affect the meaning
of its verb, not all grammarians
acknowledge do as a modal auxiliary. In a sense, it indicates a
lack of modal auxiliary. (Do is also
different in that it has a distinct third-person singular form,
does, and in that its past tense, did, is
used exactly as a past tense, not as a more general remote
form).
Double modal
In standard English usage, it is grammatically incorrect to use
more than one modal verb
consecutively, although modals can be used together with
modal-like constructions. Thus, 'might
have to' is acceptable, but 'might must' is not, even though
'must' and 'have to' can normally be used
interchangeably. A greater variety of double modals appears
colloquially in some regional or archaic
dialects. In Southern American English, for example, phrases
such as might could or ought to should
are sometimes used in conversation.[4][5] The double modal may
sometimes be redundant, as in "I
ought to should do something about it", where ought to and
should are synonymous and either one
could be removed from the sentence. In other double modals, the
two modal verbs convey different
meanings, such as "I might could do something about it
tomorrow", where might indicates the
possibility of doing something and could indicates the ability
to do it.
Double modals also occur in the closely related Germanic
language Scots.
An example of the double modal used to could can be heard in
country singer Bill Carlisle's 1951
-
song "Too Old to Cut the Mustard":
I used to could jump just like a deer,
But now I need a new landing gear.
I used to could jump a picket fence,
But now I'm lucky if I jump an inch.[6]
These kind of double modal phrases are generally not regarded as
correct grammar, although other
double modals may be used instead. "I might could do something
about it" is more often expressed
as "I might be able to do something about it", which is
considered more grammatical. Similarly used
to could is usually expressed as used to be able to. Double
modals can also be avoided by replacing
one of the modal verbs with an appropriate adverb, such as using
probably could or might possibly
in place of might could.
-
Tenses Part 1
Simple Present (Present Simple)
Simple present is also called present simple.
The simple present expresses an action in the present taking
place once, never or several times. It is
also used for actions that take place one after another and for
actions that are set by a timetable or
schedule. The simple present also expresses facts in the
present.
Form
be
Use:
* am with the personal pronoun I
* is with the personal pronouns he, she or it (or with the
singular form of nouns)
* are with the personal pronouns we, you or they (or with the
plural form of nouns)
example: I am hungry.
have
Use:
* have with the personal pronouns I, you, we und they (or with
the plural form of nouns)
* has with the personal pronouns he, she, it (or with the
singular form of nouns)
example: I have a dog. / I have got a dog
All other verbs
Use:
* the infinite verb (play) with the personal pronouns I, you, we
and they (or with the plural form of
nouns)
* the verb + s (plays) with the personal pronouns he, she, it
(or with the singular form of nouns)
-Source- (www.ego4u.com)
Present Progressive
The present progressive puts emphasis on the course or duration
of an action.
-
The present progressive is used for actions going on in the
moment of speaking and for actions
taking place only for a short period of time. It is also used to
express development and actions that
are arranged for the near future.
Present progressive is also known as present continuous.
Form
Use a form of to be and the infinite verb plus -ing.
Use:
* am with the personal pronoun I
* is with the personal pronouns he, she or it (or the singular
form of nouns)
* are with the personal pronouns you, we, they (or the plural
form of nouns)
Example:
I am playing.
He is not playing.
Are you playing?
Tenses Part 2
Simple Past
FORM
[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs
Examples:
* You called Debbie.
* Did you call Debbie?
* You did not call Debbie.
USE 1 Completed Action in the Past
Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started
and finished at a specific time in the
past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the
specific time, but they do have one
specific time in mind.
-
Examples:
* I saw a movie yesterday.
* I didn't see a play yesterday.
* Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.
* Did you have dinner last night?
* She washed her car.
* He didn't wash his car.
USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions
We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in
the past. These actions happen 1st,
2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.
Examples:
* I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place
to swim.
* He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at
9:00, and met the others at 10:00.
* Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the
eggs?
USE 3 Duration in Past
The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and
stops in the past. A duration is a longer
action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years,
for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.
Examples:
* I lived in Brazil for two years.
* Shauna studied Japanese for five years.
* They sat at the beach all day.
* They did not stay at the party the entire time.
* We talked on the phone for thirty minutes.
* A: How long did you wait for them?
B: We waited for one hour.
USE 4 Habits in the Past
The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which
stopped in the past. It can have the same
meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about
a habit, we often add expressions
such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when
I was younger, etc.
Examples:
* I studied French when I was a child.
* He played the violin.
* He didn't play the piano.
* Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid?
-
* She worked at the movie theater after school.
* They never went to school, they always skipped class.
USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations
The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or
generalizations which are no longer true.
As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar
to the expression "used to."
Examples:
* She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing.
* He didn't like tomatoes before.
* Did you live in Texas when you were a kid?
* People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the
past.
IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First
Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not
complete sentences. Some
clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped my
pen..." or "when class began..."
These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very
important. The examples below contain
when-clauses.
Examples:
* When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question.
* She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.
When-clauses are important because they always happen first when
both clauses are in the Simple
Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I
paid her one dollar, and then, she
answered my question. It is not important whether "when I paid
her one dollar" is at the beginning
of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the
example below has a different meaning.
First, she answered my question, and then, I paid her one
dollar.
Example:
* I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such
as: always, only, never, ever,
still, just, etc.
Examples:
* You just called Debbie.
* Did you just call Debbie?
-Source- (www.englishpage.com)
Past Continuous
-
FORM
[was/were + present participle]
Examples:
* You were studying when she called.
* Were you studying when she called?
* You were not studying when she called.
USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past
Use the Past Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the
past was interrupted. The
interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past.
Remember this can be a real interruption
or just an interruption in time.
Examples:
* I was watching TV when she called.
* When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.
* While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.
* What were you doing when the earthquake started?
* You were not listening to me when I told you to turn the oven
off.
* While John was sleeping last night, someone stole his car.
* Sammy was waiting for us when we got off the plane.
* While I was writing the email, the computer suddenly went
off.
* A: What were you doing when you broke your leg?
B: I was snowboarding.
USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption
In USE 1, described above, the Past Continuous is interrupted by
a shorter action in the Simple Past.
However, you can also use a specific time as an
interruption.
Examples:
* Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.
* At midnight, we were still driving through the desert.
* Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work.
IMPORTANT
In the Simple Past, a specific time is used to show when an
action began or finished. In the Past
Continuous, a specific time only interrupts the action.
Examples:
* Last night at 6 PM, I ate dinner.
I started eating at 6 PM.
* Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.
-
I started earlier; and at 6 PM, I was in the process of eating
dinner.
USE 3 Parallel Actions
When you use the Past Continuous with two actions in the same
sentence, it expresses the idea that
both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are
parallel.
Examples:
* I was studying while he was making dinner.
* While Ellen was reading, Tim was watching television.
* Were you listening while he was talking?
* I wasn't paying attention while I was writing the letter, so I
made several mistakes.
* What were you doing while you were waiting?
* Thomas wasn't working, and I wasn't working either.
* They were eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a
good time.
USE 4 Atmosphere
In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to
describe the atmosphere at a particular time in
the past.
Example:
* When I walked into the office, several people were busily
typing, some were talking on the phones,
the boss was yelling directions, and customers were waiting to
be helped. One customer was yelling
at a secretary and waving his hands. Others were complaining to
each other about the bad service.
USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"
The Past Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly"
expresses the idea that something
irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The concept
is very similar to the expression "used
to" but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words
"always" or "constantly" between "be"
and "verb+ing."
Examples:
* She was always coming to class late.
* He was constantly talking. He annoyed everyone.
* I didn't like them because they were always complaining.
While vs. When
Clauses are groups of words which have meaning, but are often
not complete sentences. Some
clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when she called" or
"when it bit me." Other clauses
begin with "while" such as "while she was sleeping" and "while
he was surfing." When you talk about
things in the past, "when" is most often followed by the verb
tense Simple Past, whereas "while" is
usually followed by Past Continuous. "While" expresses the idea
of "during that time." Study the
-
examples below. They have similar meanings, but they emphasize
different parts of the sentence.
Examples:
* I was studying when she called.
* While I was studying, she called.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs
It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be
used in any continuous tenses.
Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be
used in continuous tenses.
Instead of using Past Continuous with these verbs, you must use
Simple Past.
Examples:
* Jane was being at my house when you arrived. Not Correct
* Jane was at my house when you arrived. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such
as: always, only, never, ever,
still, just, etc.
Examples:
* You were just studying when she called.
* Were you just studying when she called?
Tenses Part 3
Present Perfect
FORM
[has/have + past participle]
Examples:
* You have seen that movie many times.
* Have you seen that movie many times?
* You have not seen that movie many times.
USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now
We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an
unspecified time before now. The
exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect
with specific time expressions such
as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when
I lived in Japan, at that moment,
that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with
unspecific expressions such as: ever,
never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already,
yet, etc.
Examples:
* I have seen that movie twenty times.
* I think I have met him once before.
* There have been many earthquakes in California.
-
* People have traveled to the Moon.
* People have not traveled to Mars.
* Have you read the book yet?
* Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
* A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?
B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.
How Do You Actually Use the Present Perfect?
The concept of "unspecified time" can be very confusing to
English learners. It is best to associate
Present Perfect with the following topics:
TOPIC 1 Experience
You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It
is like saying, "I have the experience
of..." You can also use this tense to say that you have never
had a certain experience. The Present
Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event.
Examples:
* I have been to France.
This sentence means that you have had the experience of being in
France. Maybe you have been
there once, or several times.
* I have been to France three times.
You can add the number of times at the end of the sentence.
* I have never been to France.
This sentence means that you have not had the experience of
going to France.
* I think I have seen that movie before.
* He has never traveled by train.
* Joan has studied two foreign languages.
* A: Have you ever met him?
B: No, I have not met him.
TOPIC 2 Change Over Time
We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has
happened over a period of time.
Examples:
* You have grown since the last time I saw you.
* The government has become more interested in arts
education.
* Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the
university since the Asian studies
program was established.
* My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.
TOPIC 3 Accomplishments
We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of
individuals and humanity. You
cannot mention a specific time.
Examples:
* Man has walked on the Moon.
* Our son has learned how to read.
* Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
-
* Scientists have split the atom.
TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting
We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we
expected has not happened. Using
the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the
action to happen.
Examples:
* James has not finished his homework yet.
* Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can communicate.
* Bill has still not arrived.
* The rain hasn't stopped.
TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times
We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different
actions which have occurred in the
past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is
not complete and more actions are
possible.
Examples:
* The army has attacked that city five times.
* I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this
semester.
* We have had many major problems while working on this
project.
* She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but
nobody knows why she is sick.
Time Expressions with Present Perfect
When we use the Present Perfect it means that something has
happened at some point in our lives
before now. Remember, the exact time the action happened is not
important.
Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in for an
experience. We can do this with
expressions such as: in the last week, in the last year, this
week, this month, so far, up to now, etc.
Examples:
* Have you been to Mexico in the last year?
* I have seen that movie six times in the last month.
* They have had three tests in the last week.
* She graduated from university less than three years ago. She
has worked for three different
companies so far.
* My car has broken down three times this week.
NOTICE
"Last year" and "in the last year" are very different in
meaning. "Last year" means the year before
now, and it is considered a specific time which requires Simple
Past. "In the last year" means from
365 days ago until now. It is not considered a specific time, so
it requires Present Perfect.
Examples:
-
* I went to Mexico last year.
I went to Mexico in the calendar year before this one.
* I have been to Mexico in the last year.
I have been to Mexico at least once at some point between 365
days ago and now.
USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous
Verbs)
With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed
Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to
show that something started in the past and has continued up
until now. "For five minutes," "for two
weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used
with the Present Perfect.
Examples:
* I have had a cold for two weeks.
* She has been in England for six months.
* Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.
Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to
Non-Continuous Verbs and non-
continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work,"
"teach," and "study" are sometimes used
in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such
as: always, only, never, ever,
still, just, etc.
Examples:
* You have only seen that movie one time.
* Have you only seen that movie one time?
-Source- (www.englishpage.com)
Present Perfect Continuous
FORM
[has/have + been + present participle]
Examples:
* You have been waiting here for two hours.
* Have you been waiting here for two hours?
* You have not been waiting here for two hours.
USE 1 Duration from the Past Until Now
-
We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something
started in the past and has
continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and
"since Tuesday" are all durations
which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous.
Examples:
* They have been talking for the last hour.
* She has been working at that company for three years.
* What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?
* James has been teaching at the university since June.
* We have been waiting here for over two hours!
* Why has Nancy not been taking her medicine for the last three
days?
USE 2 Recently, Lately
You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous WITHOUT a
duration such as "for two weeks."
Without the duration, the tense has a more general meaning of
"lately." We often use the words
"lately" or "recently" to emphasize this meaning.
Examples:
* Recently, I have been feeling really tired.
* She has been watching too much television lately.
* Have you been exercising lately?
* Mary has been feeling a little depressed.
* Lisa has not been practicing her English.
* What have you been doing?
IMPORTANT
Remember that the Present Perfect Continuous has the meaning of
"lately" or "recently." If you use
the Present Perfect Continuous in a question such as "Have you
been feeling alright?", it can suggest
that the person looks sick or unhealthy. A question such as
"Have you been smoking?" can suggest
that you smell the smoke on the person. Using this tense in a
question suggests you can see, smell,
hear or feel the results of the action. It is possible to insult
someone by using this tense incorrectly.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs
It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be
used in any continuous tenses.
Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be
used in continuous tenses.
Instead of using Present Perfect Continuous with these verbs,
you must use Present Perfect.
Examples:
* Sam has been having his car for two years. Not Correct
* Sam has had his car for two years. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such
as: always, only, never, ever,
still, just, etc.
-
Examples:
* You have only been waiting here for one hour.
* Have you only been waiting here for one hour?
Tenses Part 4
Past Perfect
FORM
[had + past participle]
Examples:
* You had studied English before you moved to New York.
* Had you studied English before you moved to New York?
* You had not studied English before you moved to New York.
USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past
The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred
before another action in the past. It can
also show that something happened before a specific time in the
past.
Examples:
* I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to
Kauai.
* I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.
* Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city
several times.
* Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?
* She only understood the movie because she had read the
book.
* Kristine had never been to an opera before last night.
* We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked
in advance.
* A: Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 2006?
B: Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.
USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous
Verbs)
With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed
Verbs, we use the Past Perfect
to show that something started in the past and continued up
until another action in the past.
Examples:
* We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.
* By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London
for over eight years.
* They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned
it for more than forty years.
Although the above use of Past Perfect is normally limited to
Non-Continuous Verbs and non-
continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work,"
"teach," and "study" are sometimes used
in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.
-
IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect
Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific
time words or phrases with the Past
Perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not
necessary.
Example:
* She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she
moved in with them in 1996.
MOREOVER
If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the
Simple Past can be used instead of the Past
Perfect when "before" or "after" is used in the sentence. The
words "before" and "after" actually tell
you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional. For
this reason, both sentences below are
correct.
Examples:
* She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she
moved in with them in 1996.
* She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she
moved in with them in 1996.
HOWEVER
If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specific
time, Past Perfect is not optional.
Compare the examples below. Here Past Perfect is referring to a
lack of experience rather than an
action at a specific time. For this reason, Simple Past cannot
be used.
Examples:
* She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not
Correct
* She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska.
Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such
as: always, only, never, ever,
still, just, etc.
Examples:
* You had previously studied English before you moved to New
York.
* Had you previously studied English before you moved to New
York?
-Source- (www.englishpage.com)
Past Perfect Continuous
-
FORM
[had been + present participle]
Examples:
* You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she
finally arrived.
* Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she
finally arrived?
* You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when
she finally arrived.
USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Past
We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something
started in the past and continued up
until another time in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two
weeks" are both durations which can
be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is
related to the Present Perfect
Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now,
it stops before something else in
the past.
Examples:
* They had been talking for over an hour before Tony
arrived.
* She had been working at that company for three years when it
went out of business.
* How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?
* Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day
at work.
* James had been teaching at the university for more than a year
before he left for Asia.
* A: How long had you been studying Turkish before you moved to
Ankara?
B: I had not been studying Turkish very long.
USE 2 Cause of Something in the Past
Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the
past is a good way to show cause and
effect.
Examples:
* Jason was tired because he had been jogging.
* Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.
* Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending
class.
Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous
If you do not include a duration such as "for five minutes,"
"for two weeks" or "since Friday," many
English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than
the Past Perfect Continuous. Be
careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence.
Past Continuous emphasizes
interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes
a duration of time before
something in the past. Study the examples below to understand
the difference.
Examples:
* He was tired because he was exercising so hard.
-
This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he was
exercising at that exact moment.
* He was tired because he had been exercising so hard.
This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he had been
exercising over a period of time. It is
possible that he was still exercising at that moment OR that he
had just finished.
REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs / Mixed Verbs
It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be
used in any continuous tenses.
Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be
used in continuous tenses.
Instead of using Past Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you
must use Past Perfect.
Examples:
* The motorcycle had been belonging to George for years before
Tina bought it. Not Correct
* The motorcycle had belonged to George for years before Tina
bought it. Correct
ADVERB PLACEMENT
The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such
as: always, only, never, ever,
still, just, etc.
Examples:
* You had only been waiting there for a few minutes when she
arrived.
* Had you only been waiting there for a few minutes when she
arrived?
Tenses Part 5
Simple Future
Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be
going to." Although the two forms
can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two
very different meanings. These
different meanin