FROM: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuskegee_syphilis_experiment In accordance with Federal Laws provided For Educational and Information Purposes – i.e. of PUBLIC Interest Tuskegee syphilis experiment From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A doctor draws blood from one of the Tuskegee test subjects The Tuskegee syphilis experiment [1] (also known as the Tuskegee syphilis study or Public Health Service syphilis study) was an infamous clinical study conducted between 1932 and 1972 in Tuskegee, Alabama by the U.S. Public Health Service to study the natural progression of untreated syphilis in poor, rural black men who thought they were receiving free health care from the U.S. government. [1] The Public Health Service, working with the Tuskegee Institute, began the study in 1932. Investigators enrolled in the study a total of 600 impoverished, African-American sharecroppers from Macon County, Alabama; 399 who had previously contracted syphilis before the study began, and 201 without the disease. For participating in the study, the men were given free medical care, meals, and free burial insurance. They were never told they had syphilis, nor were they ever treated for it. According to the Centers for Disease Control, the men were told they were being treated for "bad blood," a local term used to describe several illnesses, including syphilis, anemia and fatigue. The 40-year study was controversial for reasons related to ethical standards; primarily because researchers knowingly failed to treat patients appropriately after the 1940s validation of penicillin as an effective cure for the disease they were studying. Revelation of study failures by a whistleblower led to major changes in U.S. law and regulation on the protection of participants in clinical studies. Now studies require informed consent (with exceptions possible for U.S. Federal agencies which can be kept secret by Executive Order [2] ), communication of diagnosis, and accurate reporting of test results. [3] By 1947, penicillin had become the standard treatment for syphilis. Choices available to the doctors involved in the study might have included treating all syphilitic subjects and closing the study, or splitting off a control group for testing with penicillin. Instead, the Tuskegee scientists continued the study without treating any participants and withholding penicillin and information about it from the patients. In addition, scientists prevented participants from accessing syphilis treatment programs available to others in the area. [4] The study continued, under numerous US Public Health Service supervisors, until 1972, when a leak to the press eventually resulted in its termination. The
Tuskegee Tests Provides information as to the REASONS why the FEDERAL BUREAU OF INVESTIGATION, JUDICIAL COMPLAINTS and CONGRESSIONAL COMPLAINTS Filed by Vogel Denise Newsome are being OBSTRUCTED from being PROSECUTED! Garretson Resolution Group appears to be FRONTING Firm for United States President Barack Obama and Legal Counsel/Advisor (Baker Donelson Bearman Caldwell & Berkowitz) which has submitted a SLAPP Complaint to OneWebHosting.com in efforts of PREVENTING the PUBLIC/WORLD from knowing of its and President Barack Obama's ROLE in CONSPIRACIES leveled against Vogel Denise Newsome in EXPOSING the TRUTH behind the 911 DOMESTIC TERRORIST ATTACKS, COLLAPSE OF THE WORLD ECONOMY, EMPLOYMENT violations and other crimes of United States Government Officials. Information that United States President Barack Obama, The Garretson Resolution Group, Baker Donelson Bearman Caldwell & Berkowitz, and United States Congress, etc. do NOT want the PUBLIC/WORLD to see. Information of PUBLIC Interest!
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After penicillin was found to be an effective treatment for syphilis, the study continued for another 25 years
without treating those suffering from the disease. After the study and its consequences became front-page news, it
was ended in a day.[26]
The aftershocks of this study, and other human experiments in the United States, led to the
establishment of the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral
Research and the National Research Act. The latter requires the establishment of institutional review boards (IRBs)
at institutions receiving federal support (such as grants, cooperative agreements, or contracts).
[edit] In popular culture
Dr. David Feldshuh wrote a stage play in 1992 based on the history of the Tuskegee study, titled Miss Evers' Boys. It
was a runner-up for the 1992 Pulitzer Prize in drama.[27]
In 1997 it was adapted for an HBO made-for-TV movie. The HBO adaptation was nominated for eleven Emmy Awards,
[28] and won in four categories.
[29]
Don Byron's debut album, Tuskegee Experiments, is named after the study.[30]
Marvel Comics' limited series Truth: Red, White & Black reinterpreted the Tuskegee Experiment as part of the Weapon Plus program.
[31]
Carlo Boccadoro's composition Bad Blood, takes inspiration from the tragic facts and discrimination related to the
study.[32]
The book, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks briefly discusses the study, when discussing African Americans and science.
[33]
In the movie Half Baked, Dave Chappelle's character Thurgood Jenkins states that his grandfather was a participant
in the Tuskegee Experiment.[34]
[edit] See also
Shiloh Missionary Baptist Church
Human experimentation in the United States
Guatemala syphilis experiment Human subject research
World Medical Association
International Conference on Harmonisation for Registration of Pharmaceuticals Declaration of Geneva
Declaration of Helsinki
Operation Whitecoat
Frank Zappa's album Thing-Fish
[edit] References
1. ^ a b "Tuskegee Study - Timeline". NCHHSTP. CDC. 2008-06-25. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
2. ^ "Code of Federal Regulations Title 45 Part 46 Protections of Human Subjects 46.1.1(i)" (PDF). U.S. Department of
Health and Humand Services. 2009-01-15. Retrieved 2010-02-22. 3. ^ "Final Report of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee". Tuskegee Syphilis Study Legacy Committee.
1996-05-20. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
4. ^ a b Jones J (1981). Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0029166764.
5. ^ Heller J (1972-07-26). "Syphilis Victims in U.S. Study Went Untreated for 40 Years; Syphilis Victims Got No
Therapy". New York Times (Associated Press). Retrieved 2008-12-04.
6. ^ Katz RV, Kegeles SS, Kressin NR, et al. (November 2006). "The Tuskegee Legacy Project: willingness of
minorities to participate in biomedical research". J Health Care Poor Underserved 17 (4): 698–715. doi:10.1353/hpu.2006.0126. PMC 1780164. PMID 17242525.
7. ^ Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) (2005-06-23). "Protection of Human Subjects". Title 45, Code of
Federal Regulations, Part 46. US Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 2008-12-04. 8. ^ "Office for Human Research Protections". Department of Health and Human Services. 2008-09-28. Retrieved
2008-12-04.
9. ^ Cockburn, Alexander; Jeffrey St. Clair (1998). Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press. London: Verso. pp. 67. ISBN 1859841392.
10. ^ DiClemente RJ, Blumenthal DS (2003). Community-based health research: issues and methods. New York:
Springer Pub. pp. 50. ISBN 0-8261-2025-3. 11. ^ "Impact on Health Care". Tuskegee University. Retrieved 2011-02-26.
12. ^ a b Parker, Laura (1997-04-28). "'Bad Blood' Still Flows In Tuskegee Study". USA Today. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
13. ^ a b c "Doctor of Public Health Student Handbook" (PDF). University of Kentucky College of Public Health. 2004.
pp. 17. 14. ^ http://www.spiked-online.com/articles/0000000CA34A.htm
15. ^ Chris McGreal (2010-10-01). "US says sorry for 'outrageous and abhorrent' Guatemalan syphilis tests Experiments
in 1940s saw hundreds of Guatemalan prisoners and soldiers deliberately infected to test effects of penicillin". Guardian UK (Guardian News and Media Limited). Retrieved 2010-10-01.
16. ^ Stephen Smith (2010-10-02). "Wellesley professor unearths a horror: Syphilis experiments in Guatemala". Boston
Globe (Boston.com). Retrieved 2011-01-18. 17. ^ Maggie Fox (2010-10-01). "US apologizes for '40s syphilis study in Guatemala". Reuters. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
18. ^ Bill Jenkins left the PHS in the mid-1970s for doctoral studies. In 1980, he joined the CDC Division of Sexually
Transmitted Diseases, where he managed the Participants Health Benefits Program that ensured health services for
survivors of the Tuskegee Study. 19. ^ "Remarks by the President in apology for study done in Tuskegee". Office of the Press Secretary, The White
House. 1997-05-16. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
20. ^ Thomas SB, Quinn SC (November 1991). "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932 to 1972: implications for HIV education and AIDS risk education programs in the black community". Am J Public Health 81 (11): 1498–505.
21. ^ Cohen E (2007-02-26). "Tuskegee's ghosts: Fear hinders black marrow donation". CNN. Retrieved 2008-12-04. 22. ^ "Did Tuskegee damage trust on clinical trials?". CNN. 2008-03-17. Archived from the original on 2008-06-13.
Retrieved 2008-12-04.
23. ^ Ralph V. Katz, DMD, MPH, PhD, S. Steven Kegeles, PhD, Nancy R. Kressin, PhD, B. Lee Green, PhD, Min Qi
Wang, PhD, Sherman A. James, PhD, Stefanie L. Russell, DDS, MPH, PhD, Cristina Claudio, PhD (November 2006). "The Tuskegee Legacy Project: Willingness of Minorities to Participate in Biomedical Research". Journal of
Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 17 (4): 698-715. doi:10.1353/hpu.2006.0126. PMC 1780164.
24. ^ Brandon DT, Isaac LA, LaVeist TA. (2005). "The legacy of Tuskegee and trust in medical care: is Tuskegee responsible for race differences in mistrust of medical care?". J Natl Med Assoc. 97 (7): 951-6. PMC 2569322.
PMID 16080664.
25. ^ Ralph V. Katz, DMD, PhD, MPH, S. Stephen Kegeles, PhD, Nancy R. Kressin, PhD, B. Lee Green, PhD, Sherman
A. James, PhD, Min Qi Wang, PhD, Stefanie L. Russell, DDS, PhD, MPH and Cristina Claudio, PhD (September 2008). "Awareness of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the US Presidential Apology and Their Influence on Minority
Participation in Biomedical Research". American Journal of Public Health 98 (6): 1137-1142.
doi:10.2105/AJPH.2006.100131. PMC 2377291. PMID 17901437. 26. ^ Chadwick A (2002-07-25). "Remembering the Tuskegee Experiment". NPR. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
27. ^ "The Pulitzer Prizes : Drama". The Pulitzer Prizes -- Columbia University.
28. ^ Geddes, Darryl (1997-09-11). "HBO's adaptation of Feldshuh's play Miss Evers' Boys is up for 12 Emmys". Cornell Chronicle.
Hiltner, S. (1973). "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study under review". Christ Century 90 (43): 1174–6. PMID 11662609. Kampmeier, R. H. (1972). "The Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis". South Med J 65 (10): 1247–51.
Kampmeier, R. H. (1974). "Final report on the "Tuskegee syphilis study". South Med J 67 (11): 1349–53.
PMID 4610772. Olansky, S.; L. Simpson, et al. (1954). "Environmental factors in the Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis". Public
Health Rep 69 (7): 691–8. PMC 2024316. PMID 13177831.
Rockwell, D. H.; A. R. Yobs, et al. (1964). "The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis; the 30th Year of
Observation". Arch Intern Med 114: 792–8. PMID 14211593. Schuman, S. H.; S. Olansky, et al. (1955). "Untreated syphilis in the male negro; background and current status of
patients in the Tuskegee study.". J Chronic Dis 2 (5): 543–58. doi:10.1016/0021-9681(55)90153-3. PMID 13263393.
Photocopied documents from the study
The Tuskegee Study Group Letter inviting subjects to receive "special treatment", actually a diagnostic
lumbar puncture.
Document from Tuskegee Syphilis Study, requesting that after test subjects die, an autopsy be performed,
and the results sent to the National Institutes of Health
Table depicting number of subjects with syphilis and number of controlled non-syphlitic patients, and how
many of the subjects have died during the experiments, 1969
Memo ordering termination of the study
[edit] Secondary Sources
Gjestland T (1955). "The Oslo study of untreated syphilis: an epidemiologic investigation of the natural course of the
syphilitic infection based upon a re-study of the Boeck-Bruusgaard material". Acta Derm Venereol 35 (Suppl 34): 3–368.
Gray, Fred D. (1998). The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: The Real Story and Beyond. Montgomery, Alabama: NewSouth
Books. Jones, James H. (1981). Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. New York: Free Press.
The Deadly Deception, by Denisce DiAnni, PBS/WGBH NOVA documentary video, 1993.
Reverby, Susan M. (1998). "History of an Apology: From Tuskegee to the White House". Research Nurse. Reverby, Susan M. (2000). Tuskegee's Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. University of North Carolina
Press.
Reverby, Susan M. (2009). Examining Tuskegee: The Infamous Syphilis Study and its Legacy. University of North
Carolina Press. Jean Heller (Associated Press), "Syphilis Victims in the U.S. Study Went Untreated for 40 Years" New York Times,
July 26, 1972: 1, 8.
Thomas, Stephen B; Sandra Crouse Quinn (1991). "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1932–1972: Implications for HIV Education and AIDS Risk Programs in the Black Community". American Journal of Public Health 81 (1503).