-
T.C. ANADOLU NVERSTES YAYINI NO: 2421
AIKRETM FAKLTES YAYINI NO: 1405
TURKISH SYNTAX, SEMANTICS,PRAGMATICS
AND DISCOURSE
(TRKE TMCE BLGS,ANLAMBLM, EDMBLM
VE SYLEM ZMLEMES)
YazarlarDo.Dr. mit Deniz TURAN (nite 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)Prof.Dr. Gl
DURMUfiOLU KSE (nite 6, 7)
EditrProf.Dr. Zlal BALPINAR
ANADOLU NVERSTES
-
Bu kitabn basm, yaym ve satfl haklar Anadolu niversitesine
aittir.Uzaktan retim tekniine uygun olarak hazrlanan bu kitabn btn
haklar sakldr.
lgili kurulufltan izin almadan kitabn tm ya da blmleri mekanik,
elektronik, fotokopi, manyetik kaytveya baflka flekillerde
oaltlamaz, baslamaz ve datlamaz.
Copyright 2011 by Anadolu UniversityAll rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced or stored in a retrieval
system, or transmittedin any form or by any means mechanical,
electronic, photocopy, magnetic, tape or otherwise, without
permission in writing from the University.
UZAKTAN RETM TASARIM BRM
Genel Koordinatr Prof.Dr. Levend Kl
Genel Koordinatr YardmcsDo.Dr. Mjgan Bozkaya
retim TasarmcsProf.Dr. Erhan Erolu
Program YneticisiProf.Dr. Handan Yavuz
Grafik Tasarm YnetmenleriProf. Tevfik Fikret Uar
r.Gr. Cemalettin Yldz r.Gr. Nilgn Salur
lme Deerlendirme Sorumlusur.Gr. Ayflegl Tokbudak
r.Gr. Mutlu Dnmez
Kitap Koordinasyon BirimiDo.Dr. Feyyaz BodurUzm. Nermin zgr
Kapak DzeniProf. Tevfik Fikret Uar
DizgiAkretim Fakltesi Dizgi Ekibi
Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse(Trke Tmce
Bilgisi, Anlambilim, Edimbilim ve Sylem zmlemesi)
ISBN 978-975-06-1094-3
2. Bask
Bu kitap ANADOLU NVERSTES Web-Ofset Tesislerinde 2.000 adet
baslmfltr.ESKfiEHR, Ocak 2013
-
indekilernsz
............................................................................................................
vii
Syntax
..........................................................................................
1INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................
3SYNTAX
.........................................................................................................
3GRAMMAR.....................................................................................................
4Descriptive and Prescriptive
Grammar?.......................................................
4Mental
Grammar............................................................................................
4Competence and
Performance.....................................................................
6Grammaticality vs. Acceptability
..................................................................
7Summary
........................................................................................................
9Self-test
..........................................................................................................
10Turkish Alive
.................................................................................................
11References
.....................................................................................................
12Key to it is your
turn..................................................................................
12
The Internal Structure of Syntactic Categories:Constituents
.............................................................................
14
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................
15CONSTITUENTS
............................................................................................
15Relationships Between the Members of a Constituent
.............................. 18Tests for Constituency
..................................................................................
21
Substitution Test
...................................................................................
21Deletion Test
........................................................................................
22Moveability............................................................................................
23
Summary
........................................................................................................
24Self-test
..........................................................................................................
25Turkish Alive
................................................................................................
27References
.....................................................................................................
27Key to it is your turn
.................................................................................
28
Sentence Structure And Phrase Structure
.......................... 30INTRODUCTION
..........................................................................................
31SENTENCES AND CLAUSES
........................................................................
31Immediate Constituents of Clauses: Subjects and Predicates
.................... 31Subjects
.........................................................................................................
33
Subject-verb Agreement in Sentences
................................................ 34Predicates
......................................................................................................
34PHRASES AND PHRASE STRUCTURE RULES
............................................ 34NOUN PHRASES (NPs)
................................................................................
36POSTPOSITIONAL PHRASES
.......................................................................
39ADJECTIVE
PHRASES...................................................................................
41ADVERB PHRASES AND ADVERBIALS
...................................................... 43The
Realization of Adverbials
.....................................................................
44
indek i ler iii
UNIT 1
UNIT 2
UNIT 3
-
VERB PHRASES
............................................................................................
47Types of Verbs in Turkish
...........................................................................
47Why Are Object Complements Inside The VP?
.......................................... 49What Else is in VPs?
.....................................................................................
49Copular Verbs
...............................................................................................
50Summary
........................................................................................................
54Self-test
..........................................................................................................
55Turkish Alive
................................................................................................
56References
.....................................................................................................
57Key to it is your turn
.................................................................................
57
Complex Sentences: Noun Clauses, Relative Clauses,Adverbial
Clauses
...................................................................
60
INTRODUCTION
..........................................................................................
61TYPES OF CLAUSES
.....................................................................................
61COORDINATION
..........................................................................................
64SUBORDINATION
........................................................................................
65SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN COMPLEX SENTENCES
............................... 65NOUN
CLAUSES............................................................................................
65The Internal Structure of Noun Clauses
...................................................... 67Fact and
Act Noun Clauses
..........................................................................
72Independent Clauses That Function as Noun Clauses
.............................. 73ki
....................................................................................................................
74Diye
...............................................................................................................
74RELATIVE CLAUSES (RCs)
...........................................................................
74Forming Relative Clauses in Turkish
.......................................................... 74NP
Accessibility Hierarchy in RCs
...............................................................
75RC Morphemes and Their Meanings
........................................................... 76-En
................................................................................................................
77-DIk
...........................................................................................................
77-(y)EcEk
........................................................................................................
78-mIfl
...............................................................................................................
79Unproductive RC Morphemes
.....................................................................
80-Ir and -mEz
..................................................................................................
80-mE
...............................................................................................................
80-Esl
...............................................................................................................
80RCs as Independent Clauses
.......................................................................
80TYPES OF RELATIVE CLAUSES
..................................................................
81Restrictive Relative Clauses (RRC)
............................................................
81Non-restrictive Relative Clauses (NRC)
.......................................................
81Differences Between Restrictive and Non-restrictive
RelativeClauses
..........................................................................................................
81Headless Relative Clauses
............................................................................
82ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (Adv.C)
....................................................................
83Summary
.......................................................................................................
86Self-test
.........................................................................................................
87
indek i leriv
UNIT 4
-
Turkish Alive
................................................................................................
88References
.....................................................................................................
89Key to it is your turn
.................................................................................
89
Semantics
.................................................................................
92INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................
93Denotation and Connotation
.......................................................................
93Lexical
Relations............................................................................................
94Hyponymy
....................................................................................................
94Synonymy
......................................................................................................
95Antonymy
.....................................................................................................
95Homonymy
...................................................................................................
96Polysemy
......................................................................................................
97SENTENCE LEVEL SEMANTICS: BASIC CONCEPTS
................................... 98Entailment
.....................................................................................................
98Presupposition...............................................................................................
98Summary
.......................................................................................................
100Self-test...........................................................................................................
101Turkish Alive
.................................................................................................
102References......................................................................................................
103Key to Its your
turn......................................................................................
104
Pragmatics................................................................................
106INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................
107DEFINING PRAGMATICS
.............................................................................
108THE FEATURES OF PRAGMATICS
..............................................................
109Context
........................................................................................................
109SPEECH
ACTS................................................................................................
111Direct Speech Acts
........................................................................................
111Performative...................................................................................................
112
Performative
Verbs..................................................................................
112Identifying Performatives
......................................................................
113Felicity
Conditions...................................................................................
114Indirect Speech Acts
...............................................................................
115
CONVERSATIONAL MAXIMS (GRICEAN
MAXIMS).................................... 116Quantity
.........................................................................................................
117Quality
...........................................................................................................
117Relation
..........................................................................................................
117Manner
...........................................................................................................
117Implicature.....................................................................................................
118DEIXIS............................................................................................................
119Deictic Reference
..........................................................................................
120Person
Deixis.................................................................................................
120Place Deixis
...................................................................................................
120Time
Deixis....................................................................................................
121Presupposition...............................................................................................
122POLITENESS PRINCIPLE AND FACE-SAVING
............................................ 123Politeness as
Face-Saving
.............................................................................
124CONVERSATION
ANALYSIS.........................................................................
126
indek i ler v
UNIT 5
UNIT 6
-
Summary
........................................................................................................
128Self Test
.........................................................................................................
129Turkish Alive
.................................................................................................
130References......................................................................................................
131Key to Self Test
.............................................................................................
131
Discourse Analysis
...................................................................
134INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................
135Defining Discourse Analysis (DA)
...............................................................
135Examples Of Discourse / Text
.....................................................................
136Pragmatics vs. Discourse
Analysis................................................................
141Properties Of Discourse / Text
...................................................................
141
Cohesion..................................................................................................
141Coherence
..............................................................................................
145
Other Aspects Of Discourse
........................................................................
146Summary Of Discourse Properties
...............................................................
148Types Of
Discourse.......................................................................................
149Written and Spoken
Discourse.....................................................................
151Spoken Discourse
Analysis...........................................................................
152
Turn-Taking
.............................................................................................
152Discourse
Markers...................................................................................
153
Summary
.......................................................................................................
155Self-test
.........................................................................................................
156Turkish Alive
................................................................................................
157References
....................................................................................................
158Key to Its your turn
....................................................................................
159
Key to self-test
................................................................
161Glossary
...............................................................................
163
indek i lervi
UNIT 7
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nszSevgili renciler,
Gz Dneminde Trke Ses ve Biim Bilgisi dersinizi tamamladnz.
Trkeninses ve biim yaps hakknda bilgi edindiniz. Bu dersimiz de
ise, Trkenin szckdizini hakknda bilgi edinecek ve dilin farkl
kullanmlarda, balamlarda ve sylem-de nasl farkllafltn greceksiniz.
Bu ders neden burada diye sorarsanz, size yineayn yant vereceiz.
Bir yabanc dili renmenin, hele iyi bir yabanc dil renme-nin ve
retmenin yolu ok iyi bir anadil bilgisi ve becerisinden geer. Nasl
m? Si-ze flyle aklamaya alflalm.
nsanolunun sahip olduu en nemli zellii dil becerisidir. nsan dil
kul-la-narak doadaki pek ok canlya stnlk kurabilmifltir. Dili iyi
kullanmak onu dahaetkin klar. Dili iyi kullanmak ise dil konusunda
iyi bilgi sahibi olmay ve dil bilinci-ni gelifltirmeyi gerektirir.
nsanolu'nun dil bilincini gelifltirebilecei ve canlandraca- ilk
alan ise kendi dilidir. Bir baflka deyiflle, anadili. Neredeyse
doduumuz gn-den itibaren duyduumuz, farkna bile varmadan edinip,
kullandmz anadilimizikonuflabilmek iin, ne olduunu, nasl
ifllendiini bilmeye gerek bile duymayz. Birflairin dedii gibi o
bize ana st gibi helal verilmifl bir dldr. Ninnisiyle, masa-l ve
kfr ile her an elimizin altndaki bu kymetli dln, armaann nedense
hikymetini de bilmeyiz. Kt kullanmamzdan te, bir de hi merak
etmeyiz. Nasl birdildir, ne zellii vardr diye. stelik bir de fakir
dil, Trke'de her fley anlatla-maz gibi bilir bilmez konufluruz.
Yukarda szn ettiimiz trden yaklaflmlar ve nyarglar bizi yalnz
kendi di-limiz konusunda deil genel anlamda dil olgusu konusunda da
bilgisiz ve bilin-siz klyor. Bu durumda da bir yabanc dil renirken
ikinci dilin yapsna, szckdaarcna sanki hi bir fley bilmezmifl gibi
yaklaflyoruz. Trke'de kurulmayacakcmleleri ngilizce'de kurmaya
kalkyoruz. Kendi dilimizi iyi gelifltiremediimiz iinde ikinci dilde
anlatma zorluu ekiyoruz. Szmzn en baflnda dediimiz gibi iyibir
ikinci dil kullanmann yolu iyi bir anadil bilgisi ve bilincinden
geer.
Kitabmzda Trke Sz Dizinine ait drt nite var. Bu nitelerde
dilimizin tm-ce yapsn inceleyeceksiniz. Anlambilim, Edimbilim ve
Sylem zmlemesine aitdier blm ise size dilimizin farkl zelliklerini
gsterecek. Dil kullanmmz an-lam, kullanm ve sylem boyutunda size
tantmaya alflacak. Her niteyi sizlerin ko-layca anlayabilecei, sk
sk kendinizi kontrol edebileceiniz flekilde dzenledik. Ya-ntlar da
kendinizi snadktan sonra kontrol edebilirsiniz.
Sizleri bu kitab hazrlarken, yazdklarmzn anlafllabilirlii ve
ieriin geerlilii-ni snamak iin rencilerimizden yardm istedik. Onlar
zellikle Morphology veSyntax blmlerini dikkatle okuyarak bize yol
gsterdiler. Ayflenur Dizkara, EbruEylem Gegil ve Yusuf Ylmaz'a
sizler adna da burada teflekkr ediyoruz.
Bu kitabn hazrlanmas srasnda karikatrlerden birisini kullanmamza
izin verenkarikatr sanats sayn Erdil Yaflaroluna flkranlarmz
sunuyoruz.
Umarz bu dersin sonunda kendi dilimizle ilgili biraz daha bilgi
ve bilin sahibi olur,dil bilincinizi gelifltirir, her iki dil iin
de geerli dil kullanma becerilerinizi artrrsnz.
Hepinize baflarlar diliyorum.Editr
Prof.Dr. Zlal BALPINAR
indek i ler vii
-
In this unit we will try to seek answers to the following
questions: What is syntax? What is grammar? What types of grammar
do we know? What is the distinction between descriptive and
prescriptive grammar? What does mental grammar mean? What is
competence? What is performance? What is grammaticality? What is
acceptability?
Contents
syntax grammar descriptive grammar prescriptive grammar mental
grammar creativity Language Acquisition Device
Universal Grammar principles parameters competence performance
grammaticality acceptability
Key Words
Aims
NNNNNNN
Turkish Syntax, Semantics,Pragmatics and Discourse
(Trke Tmce Bilgisi, Anlambilim,Edimbilim ve Sylem zmlemesi)
Syntax
INTRODUCTION SYNTAX GRAMMAR
1TURKISH SYNTAX, SEMANTICS, PRAGMATICS AND DISCOURSE(TRKE TMCE
BLGS, ANLAMBLM, EDMBLM VE SYLEMZMLEMES)
-
INTRODUCTIONTurkish speakers know that a sentence like Ali iin
geldim is grammatical.However, Ali geldim is not a good Turkish
sentence. This is because there arerules that govern sentence
structure. These rules are part of our native speakerknowledge. We
acquire these rules during our very early ages when we hear
ourlanguage in our household. Only human beings are capable of
acquiring languages.People can make infinite number of sentences.
All of these facts make syntacticanalysis very interesting.
Every language has a set of rules to form sentences. Syntax
investigates sentenceformation rules. Surprisingly, languages show
similarities in their sentenceformation rules, as well as
differences. Linguists investigate similar and differentsentence
formation rules in languages to write Universal Grammar.
Syntax is the study of the rules of sentence-level grammar and
the structureinside the sentence. We shall discuss what grammar
means in linguistics and howit differs from traditional grammar. We
shall make a difference between descriptiveand prescriptive
grammar. We shall also be concerned with how native speakerscan
distinguish grammatical and ungrammatical sentences. We shall see
that thereare cases where a sentence can be understood and accepted
but it is ungrammatical.The opposite is also true. For example,
akll mavi elbisem flark sylyor iscompletely grammatical. But do you
think that a native speaker can accept it? Ifyou want to know the
answer and be informed on syntax, start reading the chapter.
SYNTAXSyntax is the study of sentence structure as well the
structure of phrases that makea sentence. The sentence is
considered to be the longest structural unit of whichfull
grammatical analysis is possible even though there are sub-fields
of linguisticsthat investigate beyond the sentence level rules of
language (pragmatics anddiscourse analysis). Thus, the domain of
syntax is confined to the analysis ofsentence and its smaller
components, such as clauses and phrases. As we shall seelater,
sentences can consist of one or more clauses, clauses can consist
of two ormore phrases, phrases consist of one or more words, and
finally words consist ofone or more morphemes. Syntax investigates
both how sentences are formed andinterpreted by speakers and
hearers.
Syntax
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GRAMMAR
Descriptive and Prescriptive Grammar For non-linguists, grammar
pertains to a set of rules that prescribes what shouldbe said and
how certain sounds, phrases or sentences should not be used.
Forexample, dont use olan in a sentence as yarn gelecek olan
arkadaflm zmirdeoturuyor. Yaln (1997:13) gives some prescriptive
rules in his book as commonmistakes made in Turkish. He says: Dont
say banyo, dufl, kahvalt, iki aldm; butsay iki itim, banyo yaptm,
dufl yaptm, kahvalt yaptm, etc. These and othersuch rules try to
explicate some of the standard and non-standard varieties of
thelanguage as well as some rules made up by a language authority
who thinks thatthe language should be used in a particular way.
This type of normative grammarthat imposes correct language use is
known as prescriptive grammar and itsfunction is to tell people
what is good vs. bad language use. Most of the time theserules do
not reflect the way in which language is actually used by native
speakersand they fail to account for the real rules of the
language.
In contrast to prescriptive grammars, descriptive grammars
consist of accountsfor the real life language use. Descriptive
grammar does not impose patterns of theso-called correct language
rules. Unlike prescriptive grammar, descriptive grammaris not
judgmental, it does not group the language produced by native
speakers ascorrect or incorrect. In other words, it does not
dictate that language should beused in a particular way.
Descriptive grammar aims to explain the language exactlyas it is
spoken or written by native speakers. A linguist is necessarily
descriptive,but language teachers are prescriptive since they must
teach the varieties of thelanguage that are spoken by well-educated
speakers.
Read the following sentence (from Oya Adals book (2003:
79)):
Sinirleri bir hayli bozulmufl, ziyadesiyle zlmflt.
Adal suggests that the sentence above is not a good sentence of
Turkish. Instead, shesuggests that the sentence should be used as
in the following: Sinirleri bir hayli bozulmufl,kendisi ziyadesiyle
zlmflt.
Adal says that the sentence above consists of two sentences. The
subject of the first sentenceis the answer to the question bozulan
ne?, sinirleri. The subject of the second sentenceis Kim zlmflt?
She says that since the one who feels sad is not sinirleri, we
shoulduse a subject in the second sentence. Answer the following
questions about Adals remark:
I. Why do you think that Adal does not like the first sentence
above? II. Is her approach descriptive or prescriptive? III. Would
the syntactic analysis approach be different from Adals suggestion?
IV. What would a teacher of Turkish say about this sentence?
Mental Grammar As the American linguist Noam Chomsky, as well as
the German linguist Wilhelmvon Humboldt noted, any language
consists of infinite number of sentences thatcan be created by
speakers of that language. The number of vocabulary in alanguage is
limited. We can find all words in a language in a dictionary;
whereas,it is impossible to find a list of all possible sentences
of a language. Language is
4 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke Tmce
Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
-
creative in this sense. This means that people can produce or
understand sentencesthat they have never heard before. They can
bring words together to form phrasesor sentences that they have
never heard before. They can bring words together toform phrases or
sentences that are completely new.
This creativity and the relative ease and rate of language
acquisition have ledlinguists like Chomsky to believe that there is
an independent biological device inthe human mind that is
specifically reserved for language faculty. Formerly, thisdevice
was coined as Language Acquisition Device (LAD) by Chomsky,
laterrenamed as Universal Grammar (UG). Universal Grammar
postulates that thelanguage faculty in the human mind is
biologically pre-programmed with thecommon properties and
constraints of human languages. Human languages havea great deal in
common, which enables us to translate ideas from one language
toanother. They also have differences. The Universal Grammar
approach claims thathuman beings are inherently endowed with a
universal set of principles andparameters which limit the possible
structures in a particular language and whichallows all languages
to be similar in some respects. Principles are thoseabstractions
that do not vary across languages. No principle can be violated in
anyhuman language. For example, all human languages are
structure-dependent.This means that every human language is
systematic at every level, including thelevels of phrase and
sentence structure. We do not obtain phrases or sentencesmerely by
putting words in a random order. Rather, there are some
underlyingrules that govern sentence structure. So, all sentences
in any language are formedand understood based on rules. No
sentence can be formed without any systematicunderlying rules.
Furthermore, all human languages exhibit the property of
recursion. Thismeans that it is possible for one sentence to
contain other clause(s). A clause is agrammatical unit that has a
subject and a verb. For example, the simple sentencein (1) forms
part of the complex sentence in (2), and the resulting sentence
canform part of a still more complex sentence. Recursive embedding
is shown in (5)up to a level of five embeddings.
1. Ali gitti.
2. Ahmet Alinin gittiini syledi.
3. Can bana Ahmetin Alinin gittiini sylediini haber verdi.
4. Okulda karfllafltm Can bana Ahmetin Alinin gittiini sylediini
haber verdi.
5. Dn gittiim okulda karfllafltm Can bana Ahmetin Alinin
gittiinisylediini haber verdi.
The property of recursion of clauses is also known as the
Embedding Principleof human languages.
There are also variations in human language, which are known as
parameters.For example, while Turkish is a verb-final language,
English has Subject-Verb-Object order. While all English tensed
clauses must have an overt subject, we candrop subjects in Turkish
sentences. These types of possibilities constituteparameters.
5Unit 1 - Syntax
-
Since the human brain is not a blank slate, but it is
biologically pre-programmedincluding these principles and
parameters of Universal Grammar, most theories ofsyntax aim at
investigating the mental grammar. More specifically, the aim
oflinguistic research is to seek answers to questions such as:
a) What constitutes knowledge of language? b) How is knowledge
of language acquired? c) How is this knowledge put into use? Even
though native speakers speak and write their language perfectly
well, the
linguistic knowledge of native language is usually taken for
granted. Everybodyhas some assumptions about language and the
structure of language is assumed tobe transparent for native
speakers. However, this knowledge is implicit andsubconscious.
Thus, native speakers have subconscious mental representations
oflanguage which underlie language use. Linguistic theory aims to
describe themental representations of language which are stored in
the human mind. Thenotion of Universal Grammar, therefore, is a
term of grammar that investigates thecognitive system of language
in the human mind. Human beings are special interms of their
capacity for language; no other species owns language faculty
assuch. Thus, there must be some specific property of human mind
which can beilluminated through analysis of language.
Answer the following questions. I. Turkish sentences have an
order of Subject-Object-Verb, while English sentences
are ordered as Subject-Verb-Object. What would Universal Grammar
say about thistype of variation across languages?
II. In Turkish we can use sentences with null subjects, as
Gittiini grdm. Whatwould Universal Grammar say about this?
Competence and Performance As has been stated above, linguists
investigate what native speakers actually dorather than what a
rule-maker says what native speakers should do. Linguists tryto
understand how mental grammar works. In order to achieve their
goal, theyinvestigate the actual data as it is spoken or written by
native speakers, and theyask judgments of native speakers on some
made-up sentences. Native speakershave unconscious knowledge of the
rules of their native language in their minds.This is known as
grammatical competence. Competence is the knowledge of anative
speaker about the rules of his/her native language in an ideal
community,under ideal circumstances. Competence includes the
knowledge of both formingphrases and sentences as well as native
speaker intuitions about the grammaticalityor ungrammaticality of
sentences. Native speaker intuitions are thus part of
theircompetence.
This notion is in contrast with performance, which includes the
production ofa speakers native language. Very often performance is
an imperfect reflection ofcompetence. For example, people can have
slips of the tongue in every dayspeech, they may have false starts;
they may not complete their sentences becausethey may be tired or
bored. All these are called performance errors. Thus, nativespeaker
mistakes cannot be attributed to lack of knowledge of linguistic
rules butto other performance factors we gave above, such fatigue,
boredom, etc.
6 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke Tmce
Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
It is your turn!
10It is your turn!
10
It is your turn!
11 11It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12 12It is your turn!
-
Syntax is primarily concerned with the native speakers
competence, i.e. whatone needs to know in order to be a fluent
speaker of that language in terms ofsentence structure. As a
result, syntax investigates what native speakers implicitlyknow
about sentence grammar of their language. So, in a way it can be
consideredas a study on a part of cognition.
Answer the following questions. I. What is the difference
between competence and performance? II. Is syntactic analysis
mainly concerned with competence or performance? Why?
Grammaticality vs. Acceptability We have stated above that
descriptive grammar does not make judgments aboutthe correct use of
language. This should not be confused with grammaticalityjudgments
of native speakers. Grammaticality is a descriptive term,
whilecorrectness is a prescriptive term. Native speakers of Turkish
can recognizeungrammatical and grammatical sentences, such as:
6. *Geldi grdm Ali ben.
7. Ben Alinin geldiini grdm.
The sentence in (6) is an ungrammatical, or a syntactically
ill-formed, sentence;while, (7) is grammatical. A grammatical, or
well-formed, sentence means asentence which can possibly be
produced spontaneously by a native speaker inthe appropriate
context. It is a convention to mark an ungrammatical sentencewith
an asterisk (*) in the linguistics literature. As far as the
structure of sentencesis concerned, we have to account for
grammaticality as well as ungrammaticalityin order to explain how
ungrammatical sentences are differentiated fromgrammatical
sentences. Native speakers can recognize ungrammatical
andgrammatical sentences of their language. Since, as we stated
above, linguisticresearch, including syntax, aims at investigating
this mental knowledge of grammarof a native speaker, both
grammaticality and ungrammaticality should be explained.Grammatical
analysis must provide a set of well-formedness conditions and
shoulddistinguish them from ill-formed sentences. A very important
notion of syntacticendeavor is descriptive adequacy. Linguists
achieve descriptive adequacywhen they can accurately describe a
syntactic rule and when their rule does notovergenerate, namely
when the rule does not generate ungrammatical sentences.Thus,
explicit rules posited by syntax must be able to reflect the native
speakersmental model about producing those grammatical sentences.
It should be able totell that certain sentences are grammatical,
while others are not, it should explainsome sentences are ambiguous
(they have more than one meaning,), etc.
There are cases where sentences can be grammatical but strange,
as we shallsee below. Consider the following sentences:
8. Ben balmn yemini yemediini grdm. 9. Ben kardeflimin geldiini
grdm. 10. Ben balmn geldiini grdm.
The sentences in (8) and (9) are completely grammatical and
acceptable.However, most Turkish speakers would think that a
sentence like (10) is somewhat
7Unit 1 - Syntax
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
It is your turn!
10It is your turn!
10
It is your turn!
11 11It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12 12It is your turn!
It is your turn!
13 13It is your turn!
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weird. There does not seem to be a problem with the structure of
the sentence,because (10) is exactly like (9), except for the fact
that one word is different in(10), i.e. balmn, which is a noun like
the word in (9) kardeflimin. The problemhere is not a structural
problem. Nevertheless, we tend to reject the sentencebased on our
world knowledge. We know that under normal circumstances
(e.g.except for in novels, stories, etc.) fish cannot walk. We can
say that (10) isgrammatical and yet it is not acceptable. Now
consider (11):
11. *Ben balmn yemini yemedi grdm.
Sentence (11) is ungrammatical. It may be produced by a tired
native speaker.Still, hearers can interpret this sentence in terms
of meaning. So, it can beacceptable, although it is
ungrammatical.
Therefore, as we have separated the notion of grammaticality
from that ofcorrectness, we have to make a distinction between the
terms of grammaticalityand acceptability. Syntax is primarily
concerned with whether words are properlycombined to form a
sentence rather than whether the sentence is meaningful,weird, or
logical. Sentence (10) above thus shows a sentence in which words
areproperly put to form a grammatical sentence, but the result is
semantically odd.This shows that syntax is autonomous, it has an
independent status apart frommeaning.
Our aim in the following chapters on syntax is to make the
reader aware of thestructure of Turkish. Such awareness is of
crucial importance for language teachersand any language
professional, such as translators, textbook writers, etc.
Thisknowledge will provide a systematic frame of reference for the
language teacherto relate details to one another within a
systematic whole, which would otherwiseremain obscure and
unrelated.
Answer the following questions. Discuss whether the following
sentences are grammatical, acceptable, and correct or not.
I. Ahmet yaflayan bir ldr. II. Bu flekilde befl kfleli bir gen
grnmektedir. III. Sana 1.85 cm. boyunda olman emrediyorum. IV. Dn
akflam sinemaya gideceiz. V. Duymadm ben Muratn geldi dn.
8 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke Tmce
Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
It is your turn!
10It is your turn!
10
It is your turn!
11 11It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12 12It is your turn!
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9Unit 1 - Syntax
In this unit, we have seen that syntax investigates thestructure
of sentences and their component units. Theaim of syntactic
analysis is to write rules to specify, orgenerate, all and only
grammatical sentences in alanguage, while excluding those that
areungrammatical. We can define grammar as a set of rulesin a
language that describes phonological,morphological, and syntactic
regularities.
We have seen that syntactic investigation is notprescriptive.
This means that it does not provide anyrules that should be obeyed
by speakers. Therefore,syntactic analysis, like all levels of
linguistic analysis, isdescriptive. Syntax describes how language
isstructured, rather than imposing correct language use.
We have also seen that since language is specifically ahuman
property, language analysis will shed light onhow the human mind
works. Thus, syntactic analysiscan be considered as a study of
human cognitiveabilities. The human mind consists of a faculty
which isspecific for language. All native speakers have
implicitknowledge of the grammatical rules of their nativelanguage.
This knowledge is known as competence.Competence is in contrast
with performance, which isdefined as the manifestation of language
in actual use.
In syntax, we analyze grammatical sentences and wetry to write
rules that can only generate grammaticalsentences. Since we do not
want our rules to generateungrammatical sentences, we also compare
and contrastungrammatical sentences with grammatical sentences.So,
ungrammaticality is a notion that concerns us aswell as
grammaticality. We have also seen that somesentences can simply be
weird even if they aregrammatical. This is a difference that we
explained bythe notion of acceptability vs. unacceptability.
Summary
-
10 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke
Tmce Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
1. Consider the following: It is not correct to use neden and
iin together in asentence as ok alflmamm nedeni snav gemek iin. One
would expect to find such a statement in:
a. Descriptive grammarb. Prescriptive grammar c. Mental grammar
d. Competencee. Grammaticality
2. Descriptive grammar:a. is judgmental b. does not make a
distinction between correct and
incorrect language use. c. describes only the use of the
language of highly
educated people. d. states that we should always make
grammatical
sentences. e. sets some norms.
3. Language is creative because: a. The number of sentences in a
language is
limited. b. Speakers can make sentences that they have
never heard before. c. Speakers can create new words. d. There
are many rules in a language. e. Speakers can create new rules in
their native
language.
4. Universal Grammar: a. investigates some inborn and
unconscious
knowledge about what can constitute a humanlanguage.
b. includes descriptive and prescriptive grammar.c. informs us
that not all languages are alike. d. informs us that some languages
do not have any
rules. e. informs us that there are no differences in human
languages.
5. Which one of the following is an example ofrecursion?
a. Ben bunu yapmadm. b. Nuri her gn salata yer. c. Canan Aliye
olay anlatt. d. Ben senin ne yaptn bilmiyorum. e. Her akflam iki
saat boyunca kitap okur.
6. Which one of the following is NOT correct aboutsyntax?
a. It is the study of sentence structure b. It is the study of
rules of a language beyond
sentence. c. It investigates how sentences are made. d. It
investigates how sentences are understood. e. It investigates
smaller units of sentences.
7. Competence: a. is what a native speaker knows about the
grammatical rules of his/her language. b. is what a native
speaker knows when s/he learns
a foreign language.c. is full of hesitations and other
imperfections. d. is not abstract. e. includes a speakers knowledge
about the world
in general.
8. Consider the following:Some native speakers of Turkish inform
us that bothkzn ylan sokan adam dn geldi and kzn ylannsoktuu adam
dn geldi are sentences that can be usedin the language. In the
former case ylan is indefinite;while in the latter it is definite,
a certain snake that isknown by the speaker and hearer. This type
of analysis is an example of:
a. Descriptive grammar b. Prescriptive grammar c. Universal
Grammar d. Acceptability e. Grammaticality
9. Competence of a native speaker does NOT include: a.
hesitations, false starts, etc. in spoken language.b. unconscious
knowledge about the rules of
grammar.c. intuitions about ungrammatical sentencesd.
interpretation of sentencese. knowledge about forming phrases.
10. What can we say about the following sentence?
nsanlar krmz sevgi denizinde boulmufllar.
a. It is grammatical but unacceptable. b. It is grammatical and
acceptable. c. It is illogical. d. It is ungrammatical but
acceptable. e. It is ungrammatical and unacceptable.
Self-test
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11Unit 1 - Syntax
Read the following and try to answer whether it has adescriptive
or prescriptive approach.
Herkesin yapt, yanlfl olur mu?Radikal 2 10 Temmuz 1999NECMYE
ALPAYTrke sz konusu olduunda, bilimsel disiplin gereikesinleyici
dil kullanmaktan kanmas beklenebilecekkifliler bile kolayca
yanlfl/doru hkm verebiliyor.Tank olduum ilk rnek kendi kalemimden
kmflt.Sonuncusu, Emre Kongarn 3.6.1999 tarihli
Cumhuriyetgazetesindeki En ok Yaplan Yanlfllar bafllkl yazs.lk rnek
dediim yazm on yl nce, Metis eviri dergisi-nin dokuzuncu saysnda
yaymlanmflt. Konu, kt evi-rilerin ve ngilizcenin Trke stndeki
olumsuz etkilerin-den kaynaklandn dflndm sorunlar, pardon,
yan-lfllard. Anlamfl olduunuz zere, o yazda ben de oukifli gibi dil
yanlfl szn byk bir rahatlkla, bol bula-ma kullanyor, kendime gre
doru olan belirli bir kulla-nma aykr grdm her rnei yanlfl
buluyordum. Ku-ralc dilbilgisi yandafl saylacam aklma bile
gelmemiflti.Bu yndeki bilimsel elefltiri, Boazii
niversitesinden,Ifln Bengiden geldi. Bengi, Dilbilim Arafltrmalar
adl ni-versiteleraras ylln 1993 saysnda (Hitit Yay.,
Ankara),benimki de iinde olmak zere Metis eviri dergisindekmfl
yazlardan bazlarn elefltirel bilin asndan eldengeiriyordu. Benginin
yazsn ilk okuduumda tatsz bir duyguyakapldm anmsyorum. Ne
demifller, elefltiri ikolatadeil ki aza tat versin. [...]Dolaysyla,
Ifln Benginin yazsn bir gzel unutmu-flum. Buna karfllk, yazdan
yararlanmaktan geri dur-mayp Trke konusunda kolay kolay
yanlfl/dorudiyemez olmuflum. Sonradan fark ettim.Kuralc teriminin
aklamasn, Berke Vardar yneti-minde hazrlanmfl Dilbilim Terimleri
Szlnden ala-lm: Gerekten kullanlan olgular ortaya koymaya a-lflan
betimsel dilbilime karflt olarak, bir dilde zorunluolarak ortaya
kan yeni biimleri, lksel ve donmuflbir rnek uruna yadsyan, iyi
kullanm, gzel kulla-nm, yanlfl diye nitelendirilen biimlere karfl
savu-nan, sorunlar yanlfl-doru karfltl iinde ele alan ge-leneksel
dilbilgisini nitelemek iin kullanlr. Dilbilgi-sinde kuralc tutum,
bilimsel anlayflla eliflir.Benzer bir tanm iin, Nurettin Koun
Dilbilgisi Terim-leri Szlne de baklabilir.Denebilir ki bizler iflin
bilimini yapmyor, uygulamasnabakyoruz. Ancak, byle olmas iflin
bilimini gznndetutmay engellemedii gibi, gerekli de klyor. Bilim
herzaman doru sylediinden deil. (Kuralclk da bilim-dendi).
Birincisi, insann ufkunu geniflletip dflnme, bilerekkonuflma olana
verdiinden. kincisi, dilbilim yazla-
rnda, kesinleyici dil de iinde, elefltirilecek pek okTrke
uygulama sorunu bulunduundan!Kongarn sz konusu yazsndaki bu yanlfl
da hemenhemen herkes yapyor belirtimi, aka kuralc dilbilgi-sinden
yana grnyor. fiu var ki Kongarn, bu belirti-minde kuralc /
betimlemeci ayrmn dikkate aldnpek sanmyorum: Almfl olsa bunu zel
olarak belirtir-di. Yukarda da dediim gibi, dile dikkat eden
ouokuryazarda grlen bir eilim olarak, belirli kullanm-lar, ok da
tanmlanmamfl, en azndan gelifltirilmemiflbir doruya gre yanlfl
buluyor. Bu, izlenimsel elefl-tiri diyebileceimiz, benim yazdklarm
da kapsayanbir elefltiri/deerlendirme trnn kolayca dflebilece-i bir
tuzak, ama kanlmaz deil, gibi geliyor bana.Kongarn hemen hemen
herkes tarafndan yaplyorderken kastettii yanlfl merak edilmifl
olabilir. Arapaoul ekine bir de Trke oul eki eklenmesinden
szediyor: mcevheratlar, icraatlar gibi. Bylece, yaygnla-flan
gereksiz anlamsal yinelemelerden birine iflaret et-mifl oluyor.
Yine de bu yaygnlaflmann nedenleri ara-snda, Trkenin bir huyu
bulunuyor olamaz m? Za-man iinde ouldan oula fark oluflturmak
istiyordurbelki... Ya da, sz konusu szcklere zaman iinde te-killik
kazandracaktr. Szgelimi, icraat szcnn te-kiline pek rastlanmaz
oldu... Akas, aykrlklara ifla-ret edilirken, cahillikten ve
ukalalktan baflka ne-denleri de olabilecei dflnlse demeye
alflyorum.Kongar sz konusu yazsnda yle yapmyor. Sraladyanlfllardan
biri de ne... ne... balacndan sonra cm-lenin olumsuz fiille
bitirilmesi. Ancak, bu fikri, yerleflikbir kuraldan sz edercesine,
gerekelendirmeden dilegetiriyor. Oysa Memet Fuatn Cumhuriyetteki
kflesin-de de (21.1.1995 ve 8.2.1995) uzun uzun ele almfl ol-duu
zere, tartflmal bir nokta bu. Uygulamada iki tr-lsne de rastlanyor.
(Yeri gelmiflken bu konuda Kon-garn seimine katldm belirtmeliyim.
Ne... ne...balacndan sonra fiil de olumsuz yaplrsa anlamsal
yi-neleme douyor; olumsuzluk, gereksiz yere
yinelenmifloluyor.)Herkesin yapt yanlfltan sz etmek belki daha
ok,bilimsel disiplini baflka alanlarda edinmifl olanlarn ba-flna
geliyordur: Bilindii gibi, pek ok alanda, herkesinyapt yanlfl,
yanlfl olmaktan kmyor. Dil alanndaise bir adm sonra, galatmeflhur
nitelemesiyle de olsabnyeye yerleflip, gze batmaz oluyor.Kongarn
ele aldm yazsnda bir ktleflme bulduu-mu sylemek zorundaym. Tam bir
yl nce ayn stun-larda yazd birka yaz, karfllafltrlmaz lde
iyiydi.11.6.1998 tarihli olanna, oul eki konusundaki (t-myle
katldm) grfln kimsede rastlamadm birnetlik ve incelikle
gerekelendiriyordu. stelik, dildebu budur demek zor anlayfln
savunarak.
Turkish Alive
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12 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke
Tmce Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
Adal, Oya/(2003) Anlamak ve Anlatmak. PanYaynlar, stanbul.
Radford, Andrew (1997) Syntax: A MinimalistIntroduction.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Yaln, fiiar. (1997) Doru Trke. Metis Yaynlar,stanbul.
http://www.lsadc.org/web2/fldfr.htm Linguistic Societyof America
What is Correct Language?
I. Adal says that a sentence such as Sinirleri birhayli
bozulmufl, ziyadesiyle zlmflt is notcorrect, because there are two
clauses here, asfollows: a. Sinirleri bozulmufltu.
b. Ziyadesiyle zlmflt.
In (a) the subject is sinirleri and in (b) the subjectis the
person who is being talked about. Sincethe subjects are different,
Adal suggests that weshould express both subjects.
II. Adals approach is prescriptive because sheprescribes how the
sentence should be used. Adescriptive approach would only describe
thesentence as it is used.
III. Syntactic analysis would suggest that nativespeakers can
use null subjects and that Turkishallows subject drop.
IV. A Turkish teacher can be prescriptive and s/hemight state
the same rule as Adal.
I. Turkish has Subject-Object-Verb order, butEnglish has
Subject-Verb-Object order. This is avariation and it is considered
to be a parameterof Universal Grammar.
II. In Turkish, while a sentence such as Gittiinigrdm is
grammatical, in English saw is gone isnot. This is a difference
across languages. Somelanguages allow subject drop; others like
Englishdo not. Snice this is also a difference, it is knownas
parameter. This is known as pro-drop or null-subject parameter.
References Key to It is your turn! It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
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13 13It is your turn!
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
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2 2It is your turn!
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3 3It is your turn!
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4 4It is your turn!
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5 5It is your turn!
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6 6It is your turn!
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7 7It is your turn!
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8 8It is your turn!
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9 9It is your turn!
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11 11It is your turn!
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13 13It is your turn!
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13Unit 1 - Syntax
I. Competence is the subconscious knowledge ofa native speaker
about the rules of his/herlanguage. Performance is the language
that isused by the native speaker. Thus, competenceis abstract
because it cannot be directly seen orheard, but it can be tested by
asking thespeakers intuitions on sentence
grammaticality.Performance, on the other hand, is concretebecause
we can hear and tape record what aspeaker says or we can read what
a writer haswritten.
II. Syntax is mainly concerned with the analysis ofsentence
formation rules in the cognition ofnative speakers. Linguists who
are involved insyntactic analysis ask native speaker judgmentsin
order to understand the rules they have as apart of their
competence. Syntax is notconcerned with performance errors, such as
slipsof the tongue or incomplete sentences that areproduced under
stress or fatigue, etc.
I. Ahmet yaflayan bir ldr.This sentence is grammatical. However,
it is notacceptable because being alive and dead at thesame time is
a contradiction. We can interpretthe sentence as a metaphor only.
This isgrammatcal, but unacceptable under normalcircumstances.
II. Bu flekilde befl kfleli bir gen grnmektedir.This sentence is
grammatical; yet it isunacceptable since gen has only three
sides,not five. This contradicts with our worldknowledge.
III. *Sana 1.85 boyunda olman emrediyorum.This sentence can be
considered asungrammatical, because one cannot ordersomeone to do
something that is beyond hiscontrol. To be tall is not our choice,
so we cannotbe tall or short with our own will. As a
result,emretmek is incompatible with an involuntaryverb, such as
being tall.
IV. *Dn akflam yemee gideceiz.This sentence is ungrammatical
because the timeadverb shows past; while the morpheme. -EcEkat the
verb stem indicates future.
V. *Duymadm ben Murat geldi dn.This sentence is ungrammatical
because thewords are not in the correct order and the verbin the
embedded clause does not have thecorrect morphemes, such as
geldiini.
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
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12 12It is your turn!
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13 13It is your turn!
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1 1It is your turn!
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4 4It is your turn!
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5 5It is your turn!
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6 6It is your turn!
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7 7It is your turn!
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8 8It is your turn!
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In this unit we will try to seek answers to the following
questions: What is a constituent?How do we represent constituents?
How are constituents organized? What relationships do the members
of a constituent have?What tests do we use to check
constituency?
Contents
constituents nodes binary branching heads
immediate constituents ultimate constituents modifiers
complements
Key Words
Aims
NNNNN
INTRODUCTION CONSTITUENTS
2TURKISH SYNTAX, SEMANTICS, PRAGMATICS AND DISCOURSE(TRKE TMCE
BLGS, ANLAMBLM, EDMBLM VE SYLEMZMLEMES)
The Internal Structureof Syntactic Categories:Constituents
Turkish Syntax, Semantics,Pragmatics and Discourse
(Trke Tmce Bilgisi, Anlambilim,Edimbilim ve Sylem zmlemesi)
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INTRODUCTIONAll languages have systematic patterns. Sentences
are formed based on rules.Likewise, smaller units in sentences have
rules. We cannot imagine a sentence orany structural unit without
patterns. This unit focuses on the rules govern theseinternal
structural units in Turkish. We shall also see how we represent
these rulesin syntactic analysis.
As we know, syntax investigates the internal structure of
syntactic categories,such as phrases and sentences. Phrases consist
of words; and sentences consist ofphrases. In other words, larger
syntactic categories consist of constituents. Aconstituent is a
structural unit i.e. an expression which is one of the componentsof
a phrase or sentence is built up. (Radford 1997:256). We shall see
examples ofconstituents below, as well as their representations in
syntax, their hierarchicalorganization, and their relationships
with other constituents
CONSTITUENTS In order to understand the notion of constituent,
consider an example like en baflarlrenci: The category en baflarl
is composed of the constituents en and baflarl.Since there is no
intermediate unit of which en and baflarl that is itself a
constituentof the category en baflarl; en and baflarl are not only
constituents but also theyare immediate constituents of the
category. Similarly, en baflarl renci is composedof three words all
of which constitute a category together. However, not all of
themare immediate constituents of this category. The words en and
baflarl combineto make the intermediate category en baflarl; and
then this intermediate categorycombines with renci to form the
larger category en baflarl renci. Modernlinguists represent these
categories using tree diagrams as in the following:
The Internal Structure ofSyntactic Categories:
Constituents
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In Figure: 2.1 the lines in the tree diagram are its branches.
The points of thebranches, which are labeled with capital letters,
like A, B, C, etc. are nodes. Thelabels represent the type of the
constituent, which we shall discuss later. (A) is themother node;
(B) and (C) are daughters of (A); and they are sisters of
eachother. Likewise, (B) is the mother node of (D) and (E), which
are sisters. Sisterconstituents are at the same level of structure
in organization. In general,constituents have functions in respect
to their sisters. Nodes (C), (D), and (E) areterminal nodes because
there are no other branches that derive from thesenodes. The words
in the terminal nodes are the ultimate constituents becausethey
cannot be divided into any further constituents. Mother nodes
immediatelydominate their daughters. For example, (A) immediately
dominates (B) and (C); so(B) and (C) are immediate constituents of
(A). This is because there is no otherintervening constituent
between the mother node and the immediate constituents.
We see that there are two branches at both levels in the tree
diagram above.Thus, this tree diagram shows that the constituent
structure of the category has ahierarchical organization, which
starts from the smallest words which it includesinto layers of
successively larger categories. It appears that syntactic
categories arenot merely sequence of words. Rather, they are
structural units that can be analyzedinto immediate constituents
and then each of these categories can be divided intotheir own
immediate constituents, and so on. What happens if we have a tree
withthree branches that derive from the same mother node, as in the
following?
In the tree diagram in Figure 2.2, we have a flat structure as
opposed to ahierarchical structure. This is because it has three
branches deriving from the samemother node. Thus, (B), (C), and (D)
are sisters. This shows that all constituents
16 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke
Tmce Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
Figure 2.1
A
CB
en baflarl renci
ED
en baflarl
A
CB
en baflarl renci
renciD
en baflarl
Figure 2.2
-
are supposedly at the same level. In this case, we have no node
where we couldseparate en baflarl as a constituent to substitute it
with a word such as hangi ifwe want to ask a question such as hangi
renci? This substitution test, as weshall see in further detail
later, shows that we need a separate node for theconstituent en
baflarl. Furthermore, both en and baflarl do not both modifyrenci;
but rather firstly en modifies baflarl; and then en baflarl
modifiesrenci. We can see that *en renci is not a possible
constituent. Therefore, enbaflarl should apparently form a separate
syntactic unit than renci and thisseparate constituent should be
represented in a separate node in the tree diagram.Since flat
structure trees fail to represent facts about syntactic categories
andconstituent structure, we use binary branching trees as shown in
Figure: 2.1. Abinary-branching tree is a tree diagram in which
there are two branches atevery level of representation. Each node
represents a constituent. In most cases atree diagram with three or
more sisters is not a legitimate way of representing theconstituent
structure in Turkish. (But see section on Coordination) We
concludethat Turkish constituents have hierarchical structures.
Therefore, we reject a flatstructure tree diagram as in Figure: 2.2
in order to represent Turkish constituents.
Now, let us investigate the structure of the following
sentence.
1. En baflarl renci yarflmay kazanr.
At this point, let us assume that en baflarl renci and yarflmay
kazanr aretwo immediate constituents of the sentence. (We will see
the reasons for this inthe next unit). These constituents can
further be divided into smaller constituents,as en baflarl, renci,
yarflmay, and kazanr. The constituent structure isrepresented in
Figure: 2.3.
The constituent structure can also be shown using square
brackets as in thefollowing:
2. [H en] [I baflarl] [E renci] [F yarflmay] [G kazanr]
17Unit 2 - The Internal Structure of Syntact ic Categor ies :
Const i tuents
A
CB
en baflarl renci yarflmay kazanr
ED
en baflarl renci
Figure 2.3
GF
yarflmay kazanr
IH
en baflarl
-
The representation in (2) provides ultimate constitutes, but
higher constituentscan also be presented by using square brackets,
as well:
3. [[A[B[en] baflarl] renci]] [C [yarflmay] kazanr]]]The
representation in square brackets given above in (3) is equivalent
to the
tree diagram in Figure: 2.3. Linguists use both tree diagrams
and square bracketingto represent constituent structures. Radford
(1997: 254) states that Bracketing is atechnique [used] for
representing the categorical status of expressions, wherebythe
expression is enclosed in square brackets, and the left -hand
bracket is labeledwith the appropriate category symbol. The
information given in a tree diagramand square bracket techniques
provide the same type of information. The differenceis that tree
diagrams can be easier to read because the information provided is
notas condensed as in the brackets.
Answer the following questions: Consider the tree diagram given
below:
I Which one of the following square bracket representations is
identical with the treediagram above?a. [A [B Ali][C [D Ayfleyi] [E
seviyor]]]b. [A [B Ali ] [D Ayfleyi[E seviyor]]]
II Why? Explain.III What are the immediate constituents in the
tree diagram? A, B, C, D, or E? IV What are the ultimate
constituents? V How many sisters are there in the tree diagram?
What are they?
VI Which constituents can the following question words replace?
Kim, kimi, and neyapyor?
VII Draw the tree diagram of the following sentence: Sar sal kz
okula gitti.
Relationships Between the Members of a ConstituentWe have stated
above that the relationships between constituents can bedetermined
in relation to their sisters. In this section, we will see two
types ofrelationship between the sisters of a constituent:
18 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke
Tmce Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
A
CB
Ali Ayfleyi seviyor
Ali Ayfleyi seviyor
ED
Ayfleyi seviyor
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
It is your turn!
10It is your turn!
10
It is your turn!
11 11It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12 12It is your turn!
It is your turn!
13 13It is your turn!
-
Modifier-Head: Head is the central word in a constituent. A
constituent witha head is called a phrase. Modifiers modify the
head, they express some qualityor aspect of the head. Modifiers are
adjectives, adverbs, relative clauses, andadverbials. Modifiers are
also known as adjuncts. Adjectives and relative clausesmodify
nouns, adverbs and adverbials basically modify verbs, adjectives,
andother adverbs. Modifiers are optional, i.e. they may or may not
appear in phrases.If they are omitted, the result will not be
ungrammatical, as in the followingexamples:
4. Yeflil elbise elbise 5. Koyu yeflil yeflil6. Hzl kofluyor
kofluyor 7. ok gzel gzel
In the examples above, yeflil in (4), koyu in (5), hzl in (6),
and ok in (7) aremodifiers.
The sisters in the following tree diagrams all show
modifier-head relationships:
19Unit 2 - The Internal Structure of Syntact ic Categor ies :
Const i tuents
A
CBModifier of C
Koyu yeflilHead of B
elbise
DC
Modifier of Dkoyu
Head of Cyeflil
Figure 2.4
Modifieryeflil
Headelbise
ModifierHzl
Headkofluyor
Modifierok
HeadGzel
A
CB
A
B C
A
B C
-
Complement-Head The second relationship between the sister
constituentsis that of complement-head relationship. While
modifiers are optional,complements are obligatory. In a way, the
head governs a complement, and thecomplement completes the head.
For example, postpositions like gre and iinassign case to their
complements. Furthermore, these postpositions cannot standon their
own, they need to be completed by some complements and they
assigncase to their objects.
Likewise, transitive verbs require objects to become complete
constituents, andthey assign case to their objects. Objects are
complements of transitive verbs. Thefollowing examples show that
heads cannot stand without their complements:
8. ocuklarm iin - *iin 9. Ahmete gre - *gre 10. Yemeini yedi -
*yedi 11. Yaflar Kemal hayran - *hayran
Complement-head relationships are also represented as sisters in
the treediagrams, as shown in the following examples:
20 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke
Tmce Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
Complementocuklarm
Headiin
Figure 2.5
A
B C
ComplementAhmete
Headgre
A
B C
ComplementYemeini
Headyedi
A
B C
ComplementYaflar Kemal
Headhayran
A
B C
-
To sum up, the differences between modifiers and complements are
thefollowing:
Syntactically, a modifier (adjunct) is an optional element,
while acomplement is an obligatory element. That means that a
modifier can beomitted, but a complement cannot.
Semantically, a modifier modifies the meaning of its head, while
acomplement completes the meaning of its head.
There can be more than one modifier but there is usually only
onecomplement.
Which one of the following constituents are in the
complement-head and modifier-headrelationship? Why? a. kitab yazmak
b. mavi duvarc. gzel iekd. bilimsellik urunae. yeni proje
Tests for Constituency Not all groups of word form constituents.
Remember we have already discussedthe following sentence:
12. En baflarl renci yarflmay kazanr.
Remember that Figure: 2.3 is a tree diagram representation of
this sentence. Weobserve that en is a constituent; en baflarl is a
constituent, en baflarl renci isalso a constituent, etc. However,
en renci does not form a constituent. This isbecause en modifies
baflarl, but not renci. Furthermore, as reflected in Figure:2.3, en
baflarl renci yarflmay are words that do not belong together.
Thus,they do not form a constituent, either.
How can we make a distinction between constituents and
non-constituents? There are certain tests that we can use in order
to understand whether a set of
words form a constituent or not.
Substitution TestOnly constituents can be substituted by other
words or constituents. Each of thephrases represented in the nodes
in Figure: 2.3 can be replaced with some otherwords or word
combinations. For example, in the case of each constituent, thereis
a question word which can replace it, as shown in (13) (16)
below:
13. Kim yarflmay kazanr? 14. Hangi renci yarflmay kazanr? 15. En
baflarl renci ne yapar? 16. En baflarl renci neyi kazanr?
As you see in (13) (16), the constituents en baflarl renci, en
baflarl,yarflmay kazanr, and yarflmay, are questioned,
respectively. Constituents canbe replaced by other words such as
question words. Note that each of thesequestion words can find a
node for substitution. On the other hand, there is no
21Unit 2 - The Internal Structure of Syntact ic Categor ies :
Const i tuents
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
It is your turn!
10It is your turn!
10
It is your turn!
11 11It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12 12It is your turn!
It is your turn!
13 13It is your turn!
-
way in which you can use a question word for en iyi renci
yarflmay, andrenci yarflmay, because these words do not form
constituents. As you can alsoobserve in Figure: 2.3, there is no
node for any word which can substitute wordgroups, such as renci
yarflmay.
Another example is illustrated in the tree diagram below:
17.Nuriye yeflil elbisesini giydi.
The tree diagram above illustrates our claim schematically. All
of the constituentsrepresented by each node can be substituted by
the question words given in boldcharacters. Thus, the following are
constituents: Nuriye, yeflil elbisesini giydi, yeflilelbisesini,
yeflil, elbisesini, and giydi. However, Nuriye and yeflil do not
form aconstituent. This is verified by the fact that there is no
word or word group thatcan substitute Nuriye yeflil.
Furthermore, we can replace some constituents by pronouns. Both
Nuriye andyeflil elbisesini in the sentence can be replaced by
pronouns, such as o and bunu,respectively:
18.O yeflil elbisesini giydi. 19.Nuriye bunu giydi.
I Is Nuriye elbisesini a constituent? II Why ? Why not ?
Explain.
Deletion TestOnly full constituents can be deleted in a
sentence. For example:
20. Yeflil elbisesini giydi.21. Nuriye giydi. (As an answer to
the question Kim yeflil elbisesini giydi?)
22 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke
Tmce Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
NE YAPTIKM
Nuriye yeflil elbisesini giydi
giydiyeflil elbisesini
NEY NE YAPTI
elbisesiniyeflil
HANG NESN
Nuriye yeflil elbisesini giydi
NE OLDU
Figure 2.6
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
It is your turn!
10It is your turn!
10
It is your turn!
11 11It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12 12It is your turn!
It is your turn!
13 13It is your turn!
-
Note that Nuriye and yeflil elbisesini giydi are deleted in (20)
and (21),respectively, and they are both grammatical.
MoveabilityWe can move only the whole constituent; we cannot
separate its parts:
22. Yeflil elbisesini giydi Nuriye. 23. *Yeflil giydi Nuriye
elbisesini. 24. *Elbisesini yeflil Nuriye giydi.
We can move Nuriye at the end of the sentence because it is a
constituent.However, as you see, sentences in (23) and (24) are
ungrammatical because theirinternal structures are destroyed by
separating phrasal constituents from theirsmaller parts.
I Try to account for the grammaticality or ungrammaticality of
the following sentencesbased on the constituency tests:
a. Yeni bilgisayarn ofisindeki masann zerine kurdu. b. Mehmet
yeni bilgisayarn kurdu. c. Mehmet ofisindeki masann zerine kurdu.
(as an answer to Yeni bilgisayar nerede?) d. *Mehmet yeni kurdu. e.
*Mehmet yeni bilgisayarn zerine kurdu.
23Unit 2 - The Internal Structure of Syntact ic Categor ies :
Const i tuents
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
It is your turn!
10It is your turn!
10
It is your turn!
11 11It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12 12It is your turn!
It is your turn!
13 13It is your turn!
-
24 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke
Tmce Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
A constituent is a word or a group of words that belongtogether.
Constituent structure of syntactic categoriescan be represented by
tree diagrams or square bracketnotation. Constituents are organized
hierarchicallyrather than in a flat structure. Linguists,
therefore,represent constituent structure with binary branchingtree
diagrams.
Members of a constituent can be in modifier-head
andcomplement-head relationship. Modifiers are optional,and hence
they can be omitted; but complements areobligatory members, so they
cannot be omitted.Therefore, complements cannot be taken out of
aconstituent, while modifiers can.
We use constituency tests to check whether a group ofwords forms
a constituent or not. These tests includesubstitution, deletion,
and moveability tests.
Summary
-
25Unit 2 - The Internal Structure of Syntact ic Categor ies :
Const i tuents
Answer questions (1)-(6) based on the following treediagram:
1. Which is the mother node of B and C? a. Ab. D and Ec. Bd. Ge.
I
2. Which of the following are not sisters? a. B and Cb. D and E
c. E and F d. F and G e. H and I
3. What is the relationship between fikirlerini andanlatt.
a. modifier- headb. complement-headc. modifier-complement d.
head-heade. immediate constituent
4. What are the immediate constituents of C? a. A and B b. B and
C c. D and E d. F and G e. H and I
5. Which node can the question word neredesubstitute?
a. Bb. Cc. Dd. Ee. F
6. How would you define the word toplantda? a. It is a modifier
b. It is a complement. c. It is not an adjunct. d. It is not a
constituent. e. None of the above.
7. Which one of the following word groups can NOTform a
constituent in the following sentence?
Gen adam deniz kenarnda oluyla oynuyordu.a. gen adam b. deniz
kenarnda oluyla c. deniz kenarnda d. oluyla oynuyordu. e. deniz
kenarnda oluyla oynuyordu
8. Which nodes are in modifier-head relationship inthe following
tree diagram?
Kadnlar erkeklere gre daha ok alyorlar.
a. D-H b. F-Gc. B-Cd. G-He. H-I
Self-test
A
Fakltenin dekantoplantda fikirlerini anlatt
B C
fakltenin dekanD E
toplantda fikirlerini anlattF G
fikirlerini anlattH I
A
kadnlar
B C
D E
erkeklere greF G H
J K
daha ok
alyorlar
I
-
26 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke
Tmce Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
9. Which one of the following represents the correctconstituent
structure?
a. [[Kadnlar] [[[erkeklere] [gre] [[daha ok]alyorlar]]]
b. [Kadnlar erkeklere] [gre daha ok] alyorlar]c. [Kadnlar]
[[erkeklere gre daha ok] alyorlar]]d. [Kadnlar] [[[erkeklere] [gre]
[[daha ok]
alyorlar]]]e. All of the above.
10. What do the following word groups illustrate?Sinema tutkunu,
*tutkunu; barfl uruna,*uruna; yavafl yrmek, yrmek; karfldakiocuk,
ocuk
a. Complements can be omitted, but modifierscannot.
b. Modifiers can be omitted, but complementscannot.
c. Both modifiers and complements can beomitted.
d. Heads can be omitted. e. Neither complements nor modifiers
can be
omitted.
-
27Unit 2 - The Internal Structure of Syntact ic Categor ies :
Const i tuents
Read the following texts and then try to answer
thequestions:
What have you learned about human languages? Where does the big
language family come from? Hew did languages change?
Langaney, Andre, ve dierleri (2000) nsann en gzelTarihi, fl
Bankas Yaynlar, stanbul. (eviren Emineaykara) (sayfa: 45-46)
1. Bugn, artk daha ok tm dillerin tek bir kkendendoduu dflnlyor.
Bunu dorulayan dillerinbirbiriyle uyuflma katsays. Amerikal
NoamChomskynin alflmalar sonucunda dilbilimciler, tmdiller iin
ortak bir gramer yaps olduunu keflfettiler.Ayn zamanda, kkeni ne
olursa olsun bir bebeinevrensel bir lisan yetenei tafld biliniyor:
nsanlarndoduklarnda, btn lisanlar renme ve konuflmaimkan var; ama
insan evresinde duyduu lisan veyalisanlara iliflkin seslere ncelik
vererek bu yeteneinikaybediyor. Buradan hareketle, btn insanlarda
btnsesleri retme ve cmle kurma gibi ortak bir yeteneinvarl sonucu
kyor. Ayrca, dilbilimciler, mevcut dillerarasndaki balar yeniden
oluflturarak bunlarn iindekiok uzak akrabalklar arafltrd ve byk dil
ailesinisaptadlar.
(sayfa 47)2. Konufltuumuz lisan belirleyenin genler
olmadnbiliyoruz. Bir bebek, kkeni ne olursa olsun, yetifltiiyerdeki
lisan reniyor. Lisanlar ve genler arasndabylesine bir paralellik
bulunmasnn nedeni,gnmzden nce 30 000 ile 3 000 yllar
arasndainsanlarn Afrika ktasna drt dalga halinde yaylmasve bunun
drt byk dil ailesine denk gelmesi. Bugruplarn birbirleriyle ok
iliflkileri yoktu, lisanlar okhzl birbirinden ayrlrken genlerinin
tekrar da paralelolarak deifliyordu.Lisanlar ok abuk deiflti. Dflnn
ki bin yl ncekonuflulan ortaa Franszcasn bugn biz
anlamyoruz.Franszca ve talyanca en azndan iki bin yldrbirbirinden
ayrld. Diller gen frekansndan ok dahaabuk deifliyor. Yeni
diyalektlerin ve ardndan yenilisanlarn domas iin iki ya da asr
yeterli.
Berk; Lynn (1999) English Syntax: From Word toDiscourse. Oxford
University Press,Oxford.
Brinton, Laurel J. (2000) The Structure of ModernEnglish. John
Benjamins, Amsterdam andPhiladelphia.
Dowty, David. (2000) The Dual Analysis ofAdjuncts/Complements in
Categorial
Grammar. ZAS Papers in Linguistics Volume 17,Pp. 53-78.
Johanson, Lars and Eva A. Csato (1998) The TurkicLanguages.
Routledge. London and New York.
Kornfilt, Jaklin (1997) Turkish. Routledge. London andNew
York.
OGrady, William, Michael Dovrovolsky, and FrancisKatamba.
((1996, 3rd edition) ContemporaryLinguistics. Pearson Education
Limited, London.
Radford, Andrew (1988) Transformational Grammar.Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
Wardaugh, Ronald (1995) Understanding EnglishGrammar. Blackwell,
London.
Turkish Alive
References
-
28 Turkish Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics and Discourse (Trke
Tmce Bilgisi , Anlambil im, Edimbil im ve Sylem zmlemesi)
I. The following square bracket representation is theidentical
equivalent of the tree diagram:[A[B Ali] [C[D Ayfleyi] [E
seviyor]]]]
II. The square bracket representation above directlyreflects the
immediate and ultimate constituents.The other representation has
problems becausethe string Ali Ayfleyi does not form a
constituent.
III. The immediate constituents are [[B Ali]
[CAyfleyiseviyor]].
IV. The ultimate constituents are [D Ayfleyi] [E seviyor].V. The
following words can be substituted under the
following nodes: Kim: Node B (Ali) Kimi: Node D (Ayfleyi) Ne
yapyor: Node C (Ayfleyi seviyor)
VII. The tree diagram of the sentence Sar sal kzokula gitti is
given below:
I. a. kitab yazmak: Complement: kitab; Head:yazmak
b. mavi duvar: Modifier: mavi; Head: duvarc. gzel iek: Modifier:
gzel; Head: iekd. bilimsellik uruna: Complement
bilimsellik;Head:
uruna
e. yeni proje: Modifier: yeni; Head: proje
I. The words Nuriye and elbisesini do not form aconstituent.
II. This is because these two words can not besubstituted with a
question word. Besides, they arenot in any kind of relationship,
such as Modifier-Head, or Complement-Head.
I. a. Yeni bilgisayarn ofisindeki masasnn zerinekurdu.
This sentence is grammatical, because, the subject,which forms a
constituent on its own in deleted.
b. Mehmet yeni bilgisayarn kurdu.This sentence is also
grammatical since theconstituents are all in the sentence.
c. Mehmet ofisindeki masann zerine kurdu.This sentence is
grammatical so long as it is theanswer of Mehmet yeni bilgisayarn
nereye kurdu?
Note that the constituent yeni bilgisayarn isdeleted.
d. * Mehmet yeni kurdu.This sentence is ungrammatical due to the
fact thatthe modifier of yeni bilgisayarn is not deleted; butthe
head bilgisayarn is omitted. Remember thatHeads cannot be deleted
if their modifiers are inthesentence. We could have deleted the
wholeconstituent yeni bilgisayarn.
e. * Mehmet yeni bilgisayarn zerine kurdu.The sentence above is
ungrammatical because thecomplement of zerine, i.e. masann is
deleted.Thus, zerine is left alone without its complements.Thus, it
cannot form a constituent. One part of aconstituent cannot be
deleted as such.
Key to It is your turn!
A
B Csar sal kz okula gitti
D E F G
H I
sar sal
kz okula gitti
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
It is your turn!
10It is your turn!
10
It is your turn!
11 11It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12 12It is your turn!
It is your turn!
13 13It is your turn!
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
It is your turn!
10It is your turn!
10
It is your turn!
11 11It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12 12It is your turn!
It is your turn!
13 13It is your turn!
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
It is your turn!
10It is your turn!
10
It is your turn!
11 11It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12 12It is your turn!
It is your turn!
13 13It is your turn!
It is your turn!
1 1It is your turn!
It is your turn!
2 2It is your turn!
It is your turn!
3 3It is your turn!
It is your turn!
4 4It is your turn!
It is your turn!
5 5It is your turn!
It is your turn!
6 6It is your turn!
It is your turn!
7 7It is your turn!
It is your turn!
8 8It is your turn!
It is your turn!
9 9It is your turn!
It is your turn!
10It is your turn!
10
It is your turn!
11 11It is your turn!
It is your turn!
12 12It is your turn!
It is your turn!
13 13It is your turn!
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In this unit we will try to seek answers to the following
questions: How do we define sentences and clauses? What are
subjects and predicates? What is a phrase? What types of phrases
are there in Turkish?What are Phrase Structure R