Turki and Hindavi in the World of Persian: 14th and 15th century Persian dictionaries

/ OXFORD

TE~WkUre and~irCluallioI2

i:q FmeeQkh:-~eI2~Ury

North India

TI u fTCulture and Circulation in

Fifteenth-Century North India

edited byFRANCESCA ORSINI

andSAMIRA SHEIKH

.edited byFRANCESCA

ORSINI

. andSAMIRA .SHEiKH I~~~~~~~~~gg~ OXFORD

UNIVERSITY PRESS

CONTENTS

\ OXFORDUNIVERSITY PRESS

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© Oxford University Press 2014 -Acknowledgements

Note on Tramliteration

List of Plates and Figures

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righrs organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside me scope of theabove should be sent to the Righrs Departrnent, Oxford University Press, at me

address above.

1. Introduction by Francesca Orsini and Samira Sheikh

STATES, SUBJECTS, AND NETWORKS

You must nor circulate chis work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer

2. After Timur Left: North India in theFifteenth Century by Simon Digby

3. Bandagi and Naukari: Studying Transitions inPolitical Culture and Service under the NorthIndian Sultanates, Thirteenth-SixteenthCenturies by Sunil Kumar

ISBN-13: 978-0-19-945066-4

ISBN-I0: 0-19-945066-8PUBLIC LANGUAGES

Typeset in Adobe Garamond Pro 10.5113by SPEX Inforech, Puducherry, India 605 005

Printed in India ar Sapra Brothers, New Delhi 110 092

4. The Rise of Written Vernaculars:The Deccan 1450-1650 by RichardM. Eaton

5. Turki and Hindavi in the World of Persian:Fourteenth- and Fifteenth-CenturyDictionaries by Dilorom Karornat

Vll

ix

xi

47

60

111

130

'.~

vi CONTENTS

6. Local Lexis? Provincializing Persian inFifteenth-Century North India by Stefano Pell»

7. Languages of Public Piety: Bilingual Inscriptions fromSultanate Gujarat, c. 1390-1538 by Semira Sheikh

TElLINGS OF KINGS, SUFIS, ANI) WARRIORS

8. Universal Poet, Local Kings: Sanskrit, theRhetoric of Kingship and Local Ki d .. ' ng oms inGujarat by Aparna Kapadia

9. Warrior-Tales at Hinterland Courts in North I dic. 1370-1550 by Ramya Sreeniuasan n a,

Emo~i~n and. M~aning in Mirigdvati: Strategiesof Spiritual Signification in Hindavi SufiRomances byAditya Behl

10.

11.

CULTURAL SPACES AND LITERARY TRANSACTIONS

The Art of the Book in India under theSultanates by Eloise Brae de fa Perriere

Apabhramsha as a Literary Medium in .Fifteenth-Century North India by Eva De Clercq

Early Hindi Epic Poetry in Gwalior:Beginnings and Continuities in the RdmdyanofVishnudas by Imre Bangha

Traces of a Multilingual World: Hindavi inPersian Texts by Francesca Orsini

12.

13.

14.

Bibliography

About the Editors and Contributors

Index

166 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

186

213

242

273 THE VOLUME IS BASED ON papers presented at the conferenc~ 'AfterTimur Came: Multiple Spaces of Cultural Production and Circulationin Fiftee~th-Century North India' that was held at the School of Orientaland African Studies, London, on 29-31 May 2007. This was the firstof a series of workshops, reading sessions, and reading groups andintense interactions that formed the project on 'North Indian LiteraryCulture (1450-1650)' that Francesca Orsini led at SOAS, funded bythe Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC); the conferencealso benefited from a British Academy conference grant. We would liketo first of all acknowledge the AHRC for its generous funding, andthe British Academy for its additional sponsorship-the conferenceand the project provided wonderful opportunities for experienced andyounger scholars and students to come together and develop a trulycomparative and multilingual approach together. We also thank PreeriKhosla for the visual materials she brought to the conference, and weare glad that we could include Elorse Brac de la Perriere's essay in this

volume.We wanted the conference to do for the fifteenth century what

Simon Digby had done in his magisterial synthesis, 'Before TimurCame: Provincialization of the Delhi Sultanate through the FourteenthCentury' (2004); our title pays direct homage to his essay. We wereindeed fortunate in having the late Simon Digby as our keynote speaker,and we only wish that we could have continued to draw upon his

301

339

365

403

437

471

477

5

TURKI AND HINDAVI IN THE WORLDOF PERSIANFOURTEENTH- AND FIFTEENTH-CENTURYDICTIONARIES

Oi/oram Karomat

FOR .ABO.UT A THOUSAND YEARS, Persian was a multicultural languagewithin ~Ifferen~ empires and regions and served as a language of politi-cal administration, commerce, and literature. Over a very wide culturalarea, Persian .acted also as the intermediary berween a superordinatetongue, Arabic, and me various Iranian, Turkic, and Indic vernacularsin me domains of religion and science. I Given these rwo features, itIS unsurprisin~ that lexicography became one of the most impor-tant fields of literary endeavour in Persian literary culture, beginningIn me eleventh century and up to the present day, given that Persian

1 Arnir Khusraw Dihlawi wrote in his masnaui Nuh Sipibr (The Nine Skies1318): '

Next comes the Persian of tile Persi I I· I . .SIanpeop e. t ISa very sweet anguage With ItScentrearound Shiraz, The Persian sp d C rher d becarne a reoosi . rrea rrom ere an ecame a reposlrory of learning 0

the world. It shone over every ciry like [the] moon. Next comes Turki, which was thelanguage of the Turks of Araz and of the Tribes ofQanqali, Auyaghar, Irati, and GhuZ1-

TURKI AND HINDAVI IN THE WORLD OF PERSIAN 131

and literature were acquired and cultivated by people whoselanauage_ "I uage was not Persian, and mat people within the textual worldfirst angf Persian regularly encountered terms coming from a wide range ofo es both archaic and current. Persian dictionaries compiled inlanauag ,di were not bilingual in me modern sense of having one languageIn iafor che lemmata and one for the explanations (e.g., English-Persian Dr

P. n Enalish), yet they were sufficiently multilingual in their lemmata

ersla - '"and in the synonyms and terms used in the explanations to provide us

with a precious guide to the multilingual world they served.Persian dictionaries include rwo different kinds, me lughat and the

forhang. A lugha~, which can be glosse~ as '~ook of l.anguage', is a simpledictionary in which the words and their equivalents In one or several lan-C1uagesare given, sometimes as many as seven or rnoref A farhang insteadis a compilation of knowledge and culture and of the resources of the lit-erary language. It is an 'explanatory dictionary' of Persian vocabulary. ThelarC1enumber of such explanatory dictionaries in Persian bears witness

'"to the ereat demand for these scholarly works, which contain valuable'" .material for the historicallexicology of me Persian language and Iranian

dialectology, the history of classical literature and textual criticism, andalso for ethnography, historical geography, and cultural hisrory'

It originated in the plains of Khafchaq (Qipchaq) and Yamak. Thence it spread toother countries. like the salt of India. Though other languages (of the world) arealso very beautiful, they are neither as sweet or enlightening (as Arabic, Persian, and

Turki).Translated by R. Nath and Faiyaz 'Gwaliari', in India as Seen by Amir Khusrau (in

1318 A.D.), Jaipur: Hisrorical Research Documentation Programme, 1981, p. 72,

lines33-7 If.

Healsowrote: 'Persian is famous for its sweetness. There is the Persian saying:"Arabicis knowledge and learning, Turki is Art [though mastery isa more correcttranslation],Persian is sweet, all other languages are bad and worth nothing."Nathand Faiyaz (1981), p. 77. In Central Asia there is a popular saying: 'Arabicis [he language of knowledge, Persian is the language of poetry, Turkic is thelanguageof war (warriors).' Already in the thirteenth century Arabic. Persian,andTurkicwere the literary languages of the Muslim world.

2 For examples, the Turki sections in Persian farhangs can be called lughatbecause[hey do not include explanations, only equivalents.

3 SeeS.l. Baevskii's fundamental research on early Persian dictionaries origi-nallypublished in Russian in 1989, and in English translation by J .R. Perry as

--. ...-~. ,

132 AFTER TIMUR LEFT

As Baevskii noted, Arabic lexicography came into existence, Ostensiblat least, as a tool for reading religious texts, the Qur'an in prien' BY

h ~ Ycontrast, t e impetus for Persian farhanzs came from the need to. 4. .. b appre_

crate poetry. Reading Persian literary texts was often impeded b hf Y t e

occurrence 0 obsolete and archaic words introduced by earlier poetsof numerous names of. historic~l figures, legendary and mythologicalp~rsonages, of geographical locations, of terms from different tradition ISCiences, of curiosities pertaining to foreign cultures, and of words use:by poets in unfamiliar dialectal or allegorical senses Moreover the. .. . '~Gnee of wnnng poetry and ornate prose required authors to be fluent inthe use of the vast vocabulary of literary Persian. Thus, farhangs were~aluable guid~s for poetry readers and writers. They also, by necessity,involved certain elements of linguistics. Lexicographers not only calledattention to phonology in order to establish the correct pronunciationof a word, they also examined individual lexical and grammatical forma-tives, singled out synonymic and homographic groups, and traced theetymology of individual words. Each farhang provided its own range ofvocabulary that required definition and would not simply copy or repeatwhat was in other dictionaries.P

The early period of Persian lexicography in India, from the thirteenthto fifteenth centuries, played a significant part in the history of Persianlexicography in general, and many of the technical principles intro-duced by the authors of the first Persian farhangs in India were widelyadopted, and elaborated by later Persian lexicographers in India, in thesixteenth to nineteenth centuries. The early dictionaries were character-ized by a gradual and significant increase in scope-with foreign words,dialectal and colloquiallexis, phraseology, and in particular the orderingof words by initial and the systematic ordering of the following letters,culminating in general alphabetical reference books that are standardtoday. 6

Early Persian Lexicography: Farhangs of the Eleventh to the Fifteenth Centuries,Folkesrone: Global Orient, 2007.

4 Baevskii (2007), p. 128.5 Baevskii (2007), especially pp. 173-4 for this point.6 Persian farhangs from the fifteenth century onwards are characterized by

the increasing volume of their vocabulary: while, for example, the Lughat-i fimhad 1,700 lemmata and Mi'yar-i [amdli had 1,600, the Farhang-i zafongiiya


d al with farhangs written in India in the fourteenth andThis essay e s th h. and in particular with the clues at t e presence

h centUnes,fifi:eent. f -r: kic and Indian words can zive us about the produc-

d ange 0 1ur b.. 7an r d ction of multilingual north India at the time. These. and repro u .

[lon. compiled in the various locales of the north Indian. . nanes werediC

tlO D Ihi Jaunpur Bihar/Benzal, and Malwa-but as each sue-I nates- euu. ' bSU (a d' . ary was aware and made use of the ones before, they were

ssive lctlOn ., ., .ce f well-connected world. The dictlonanes In question areI 1 part 0 ac ear Y -r al-a'iiiil f l-lughat alfaiti'il (1342) by Hajib-i Khayrat Rafi(he Dastu 'J" h dJ ... ) 8 h Ad.-

. . (whose patron was Shams aI-Din Mu amma ajmru: teatDlhlawl M h d Dihl ..

. I~ com iled in 1419 by Qazi Badr al-Din u amma I awialjuzar,a, p . h - - - '1 d .

d'Dh wal'·9 the Farhang-i zafdnguyd U Ja anptlya, compl e Incalle ar ,

-. d proximately 5 170 lemmas, the sixteenth-century dictionary Tubfotcontalne ap' - . _., ..

'-d b t 14000 lemmas and the Burhdn-i qatl (DeCISIVe argument,al-saa at a ou, '1652)20,000. . . _

7 The first Persian dictionary compiled in India, the Farhang-I-QaUJUJas(alsocalled Farhangnam~, Farhang-i Fakhr-i QaUJUJds:Farhang-i panjbakhshi,Fllrhang-i Shahnama) written by the poet Fakhr al-Din Mubarak. Sh.al1.Qaw-was Ghaznavibetween the end of the thirteenth century and the begmnmg of .thefourteenth, falls outside the purview of this volume, though it was used bylater lexicographerssuch as the authors of the Dastur al-aJazil, Addt al-fuialLi,lilfongilya, Baht al-jaZii'il, Sharafndma-yi Munyan, Muayyid al-(ttialLi, Farhang-i-Jahangiri, and so on. The Farbang-i QaUJUJdsis preserved in a single manuscript

at theAsiaticSociety,Kolkata, and was described by W Ivanow (ConCISe Descrip-tive Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts in the Curzon Collection, Asiatic Society ofBengal,Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1926) and edited by Nazir Ahmad, Teh-ran:Bungah-iTarjumah wa Nashr-i Kirab, 1974; see Baevskii (2007), pp. 71-7.

8 Dastur al-aftii:il f I-Iughat al-jaZii'il, Asiatic Society, Kolkata, Ms. 517;seew.1. Ivanow (J 924), p. 676; edited by Nazir Ahmad, Tehran: Bunyad-iFarhang-iIran, 1973; see Baevskii (2007), pp. 77-83. It was used by the authorsofAdat aljuiald, Farhang-i zafangitya, Bahr al-faZti'il, Sharafnama-yi Munyari,Tu&fot al-sa'ddat (1510), Muayyid al-ft/zalLi (1519), Madar al-aJazil (1592),Farhang-ijahangiri (1609).

9 Ado.t al-fitiald, British Library, Mss. Or.1262 (copy dated 1691) and Or.265(n.d.),fols. 2-60; C. Rieu, Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts in the BritishMuseum, London: British Museum, vol. 2, 188 J, pp. 491-3; see also Baevskii(2007),pp. 87-94. It was used by the authors of the Sharafnama-yi Munytiri,MU'Il)'Yidaljuiald, and Madar al-afdii/.

134 AFTER TlMUR lEFT

1433 by Badr al-Din Ibrahim, who in 1409 or 1419 had set 0

J . d 'ki th th hh ' ut frolllaunpur In or er to ss e res old of the illustrious prin Q. ~ ~

Khan b. Dilawar Khan, the founder of the Ghurid dynasty in AA" [ rh·,,· l I' . lVla wa·1fJ

t e lYluJma a - aJam (also called Farhang-i ~imi, 1493), com'[ ,'A_' Sh' b' bd . c P1edbyAsrrn U ay 'A USI ror the ruler of Berar, son of the vizier JlJi AkDadu Khan ibn 'Irnad al-Mulk, II and the Shara.{:.,dma-yi Mu __bar

- _ _ . 'J" nya71(orManyart or Manerz) , also called Farhang-z Ibrdbimi, compiled in 1473by Ibrahim Qiwam al-Din Faruqi, a native of Bihar, under the [-4S I b ' ru e of

u tan A u I Muzaffar Barbak Shah of Bengal (r. 1457 to 1474) hd . , tough

edicared to the celebrated Sufi saint Sharaf al-Din Ahmad b Y hM '(d'h 3 ·ayaan en . err er 1 71 or 1381). The author was also a poet a dh', n used

I~ own v~rses to introduce the work and each letter chapter (bab), in

this case with verses that ended with the letter of that particular bab.12

10 Nazir Ahmad, Farhang-i zafongtlya u jahanpitya of Badr ai-Din Ibrahim(1433), Khuda Bakhsh Library Journal, 55-6 (1990 and 1997): 1-173'Baevskii (2007), pp. 94-104. According to Baevskii (2007 p 99) thi 'b ,see

o. : }. ,lSecame:he au.thonratlve lexlc.ographical work'. It consists of seven pans (bakhsh),mcludmg Pahlavi, Dan, Arabic, Rumi, and Turki words.

11 Mujmal al-Ajam, British Library, Or. 265, fols. 62-161 (copied approx.seventeenth century); see Rieu (1881), p. 493. Baevskii notes that

[n]o information about the author, 'Asim Su'ayb Abdusl, has survived. Like otherauthors of medieval forhangs, Asirn Su'ayb states in his preface that he compiled hisdictionary at the request of friends who were having difficulty reading poetical textsIII which they came upon unfamiliar words 'in Persian, Pahlavi, Rum], Naban (i.e,Aramaic), and Turki'. The Mujmal al-'Ajam consists of rwo parts (qism): Par; Onedefines simple words, and Part Two defines compound words. Each part is orderedalphabetically by initial (bab) , then by final. The gloss is typically illustrated withnumerous verse quotations, with no indication, however, of the names of the poets.For a number of entry words, the compiler of the forhang furnishes Indic equivalents.Baevskii (2007), pp. 113-14.

12 Baevskii notes that the Sharafoama-yi Munydri contains ' ... a lengthy

author's preface (muqaddima) of a lexico-grammatical character' where the

author explains the use of some suffixes and enclirics. The dictionary containsthirty-one letter chapters (bab), _

ordered alphabetically by initial, and further subdivided by final letter (fill!). The glo<sosdefine general Persian vocabulary chosen from the works of early Persian languagepoets, and includes many names. There are also a few Arabic words, unlabelled.At the end of some of the subdivisions, the lexicographer glosses Turkish words.labeled as Turlei. Indic equivalents are occasionally given in the text of the definition.


f: hangs were not only explanatory and defining dictionaries, 131hese ar . d simultaneously as encyclopedias.t'' dictionaries of

a1 a funCtlonebut S

----. of entry words (for only some of the vocabulary) is provided inThepronunCiatiOn

h d Baevskii (2007), p. 111.~w. .ks rhat rhe 'definitions of a considerable portion of vocabulary

H also rernar , . h f 'I ical' P .e '11 red by supportive verses, en er 0 c assi ersian poers. are I ustra b bentnes ,. A vari Khaqani Sa'di and Hafiz) or of his own; every a. Sana!, n ,1'Ul , ,

(Unsun, d b a qasida of his own composirion (p. 113). There are severalis preface of his work- for example British Library, Add. 7678 (copiedriptS 0 r I· ,manusc h century)' Rieu (1881) pp. 492-3. Another dicrionary

rex seventeent " J; . -'1app .' d b Baevskii that 1 have not been able ro see is rhe Bahr al""jazalmentlone Y .1: if h La ) '1 d .

'h" I ,r,-"I (The sea of scholarship for the benefit 0 sc 0 rs, compl e Inft mana)' a -a) aZI .' 6

. . h 1433 (according to Nazir Ahmad, reading 837H) or 133 -7India III eit er ib R

. 1 w reading 737H) by Muhammad ibn Qawwam I n ustam(accordlllg ro vano , . .,. Ah d Balkhi. Balkhi also wrote a commentary (sharh) on Nizami'sibn rna . d fi .. - f. M. kh al-asrdr around 1393. His dictionary gives e runons 0masnavi a zan ..

. I P . b t also Pahlavi Arabic: and Greek words. Baevskii no res that somarn y ersian u " . if d

frh bulary is non-Persian that the work might well be class I e asmuch 0 e vocaItl'II'n<7ualor an Arabic-Persian dictionary (p. 105).

amu " cis f Arab'13 An example from Zafongitya (fifth bakhsh: Miscellaneous wor a IC,

abatean [i.e. Aramaic), and Dari, voL 2, pp. 125-6):

Quqnus [: phoenix): with zamma [i.e, 'u'] on qaf and sometimes spoken wi~ qafand vtiv [as] QaqnUs, and sometimes [it is pronounced] With fatb~ [i.e. short a] o~fo [as] Qtifonus, that is, an animal with a pleasant VOice,named Thousand VOICes,and it has come to us that it does not have a cornparuon and gives birth once everythousand years; when its time comes [to die), it starts singing in so many vanouslycoloured notes (tunes) and becomes inebriated and dances, ro the pomt when firelights from its body and it begins to burn, and from its ashes an egg emerges, andfrom this egg another identical animal rises with the blessing [ord~r) of God; Wisemen have taken the knowledge of music from it. The same definition IS given inMu'ayyid al-foi;a/ii, whereas the Ghiyas al-lughtit (1887) maintains that it is a Greekword (in Arabic transcription) and says that when the Quqnus becomes very old ...It starts singing in differenr tunes, one of which is named in India 'Dtpak, and fromthat wood near it, it spontaneously ignites and the bird is burnt to ashes.

14 One example from the Sbarafndma-yi Munydri:

Bahrdm: with fatba; the name of the Padishah of Iran-some of whose qualities havebeen told in the word 'Bahram Gor' in Chapter 'Ra', and also the name of a majorgeneralof Hormuz bin Noushirvan nicknamed Bahram-i Chobln ... ; and [it is] thenameof the son of Goudarz, the Hero of Keykavus; and also the name of a planet onthe fifth heaven which is a guardian of the heavens; it has a house in the signs Aries

••••

136 AFTER T1MUR LEFT

rhyme,I5 of synonyms,I6 and anronyms.J? Furthermore, they ski d f . I' ks 'a11 ervedas a In 0 commentary on major irerary wor , especi y Fird

aw.,

Shdhndma, since Persian medieval manuscripts were not accompa .SISnledby notes or comments. It was the farhang that fulfilled this role. 18

In his pioneering work on Early Persian Lexicography: Farhangsof the Eleventh to the Fifteenth Centuries, the Russian scholar Solomon I.

Baevskii identified the following characteristic principles of dictiona

.flescompiled in this period:

1. Ordering of the vocabulary in alphabetical order by initial. The Daslliral-afoiil, Farhang-i zajdngityd, Addt al-foiald, Mujmal al- 'ajarn,andSharafodma-yi Munydri are thus organized.

2. Within the ordering by initial, consecutive alphabetical ordering ispredominantly by second letter. The third step in the struCtural order.ing of entries, by final letter, was pioneered by the Addt aljuzald.

3. Implementation of 11 grammatical classification of lexis: in thefarhang Zajdngityd, infinitives feature in a special section, and in bothZajdngityd and Addt aljttiald metaphorical and idiomatic expressions

and Scorpio. Sharafodma-yi Manyari [or MII"yariJ yli Farhang-i Ibrahim;, HakimaDabiran (ed.), Tehran: Pizhuhishgah-i 'Ulum-i Insani va Murala'ar-i Farhangi, 2006,vol. I, p. 186.

15 For example, 'Banj. rhyming with ganj, the same as batanj, thus in theLisdn ai-shu'ard), Sharafodma (2006), p.139.

16 From Addt af-foiala: 'Aywdn: roof, terrace, a high place for sining'; 'Khan:a room/house (khdna), a caravanserai, the name of the ruler of Samarqand, theruler ofTurkistan'.

17 From Zafongtlyd: 'Ashnd (= friend): is the opposite of stranger'; 'Zinda(= alive): is the opposite of dead'; 'Tang (= narrow): is the opposite of wide'.

18 Fakhr-i Qawwas composed his dictionary, the Farhang-i-Qawwds,mainlyfor use in reading the Shdhndma. For this reason the Sources sometimes referto it as the FIlI'hang-iShdhndma. It should be emphasized here that thesewerethe considerations that defined the essence of medieval Persian lexicographyforcenturies, as the following definition shows: 'Azhdahd, Azhdahd: with Persian"zh", male snake, big and very famous, also called Azhdar and Barghimdn;inArabic [Tazi] Tinnin and Thtt'bdn; and in the Shdhndma it means the mostpowerful Sultans like Zahhak and Aftasydb; and it is also the name of a sciencewhich has an image [figure] of an enormous snake'. Sharafoama (2006), vol. I,p. 26. Or: 'lilr: the land of Turan, Hakim Firdawsi has said: [verse follows]';Addt al-Iuiala, Or. 1262.


I . either an addendum or a. I ded within a specia section,are me use arate chapter. .. P . ease in the number of entries.G dual mer ... h

4. ra. ent of Persian defining dictionaries on a t e-N atlve arrangem h 1ft. _"11). tern. . I ( Fakhr-i Qawwdrand part two of Bai r a - uzatu,. nnclp e e.g., _ _ _ h

manc

~l' of partly multilingual dictionaries (Zafonguya, Ba. r6. Campi atl°h

n.a; - . "run,va-";) 19 The Addt al-foiald can also{, . -'"/ 5 aramama-yi lVli './ " .

aljaztll

'. d h though the Turkic words are given withoutbe mentlone ere,

special mention.any

I h text in the Persian dictionaries were written continu-As a ru e, t e Th dline without distinguishing columns. e entry wor s

Iy on one a: . th fjous , . d I' ed or written in red ink to dirrerennate em romeither un er 111 Id bwere f he text written in black. The text of an entry cou everythefres~

0t ontaining J' ust two words-the entry word and its one-wordbrie OIten c _ . .

'. 'valent But more often entries were qwte extensive:x lanatlon or eqw. . f,e.p. I d d not only an explanation of the given word but, or exam-theylfichu e ofa noun also the description of the object as well as ofIein r e case, d 20 I

P . I the object was made of, and how it functioned. n somerhe marena d i I d'

. th ecified whether such an object existe 111 n ra or not,entriesau ors sp . LId' d 21. that those dictionaries were wrrtten ror n Ian rea ers.a resnmony . .

Ofren the explanation of an entry was supported by a poetic quotanonwith an instance of how the entry word was used. One example fromSharafoama-yiMunydri:

Aqsllnqur,with quiescent qdf and zamma on sin and th~ second qaf,. is i:h· h . bird Turks also give such names to their slaves. [Thisw Ice untlng .

followedby a verse by Khaqani.]22Sharafndma, 2006, vol. 1, p. 57

19 Baevskii(2007), p. 115. .. . '. [;20 Forchisreason, they have been used by historians of science I~ I~dla, I: an

. . th "';I+'h t" u providesHabib,for example, notes that the illustration 111 e lVl/.;.a. a J.tu: . .f h Frh P· h eI in India I Habib, Medievaltheearliestevidence 0 t e use 0 e ersian we. .

India: A Study in Civilization, New Delhi: National Boo~ Trust, 20?7, p. 67.21 'Bdq!.ah:this is a grain which is not grown 111 India. Sharafoama (20.06),

vol I, p. 204. 'Shah: well-known, a broad avenue ... and the name of an animalwhichlivesin India'. Sharafoama, Add. 7678, British Library. ..

h dicti . Baevski!22 About the poets whose verses are cited in t ese . CtlO~arleS, .f th t: kh . Q . besides Firdawsi quoted fromnotesthat the author 0 e ra r-t aunoas, ,

138 AFTER T1MUR LEFT

The skill of 'sprinkling' one's speech and writing with poetic qUOtatiowas considered a crucial component of medieval Persian education. ns

As is widely known, the lack of diacritics in Persian manuscripts cancause a certain amount of difficulty in reading and undersranding thetext for people whose first language is not Persian. In the dictionari

es,the earliest known means for ensuring the correct reading and pronun.clarion of the words explained were the auxiliary upper- and underlinemarks, the so-called barakat, borrowed from Arabic. 23 The Persian far.hang, thus, played an irnportant role in fixing, correcting, maimaininand preserving the norms ofliterary pronunciation (and in providing:hisrorical account of phonological shift and variation).24 In the farhangsan entry word was repeated over and over again in a rhyme, so its metreand the metre of the neighbouring rhymes would confirm the aCCuratereading of a given word. It was a method of documenting pronuncia.tion through 'corroborative quotation' using well-known Persian versesthat was and remains a very valuable tool for the study of the language.

Indo-Persian poets Mas'ud Sa'd Salman, Taj-i Riza, 'Awfi, Shihab-i Mahmara,and Nasiri. Baevskii (2007), P: 73. He remarks that the Ddnishndma-yi QadllTKhan (Book of knowledge [in honor) of Qadar Khan) by Furughi quotes morethan seventy-rwo poets of the tenth to fifteenth centuries from TransoxianaandKhorasan (and Mas'ud Sa'd Salman and Arnir Khusraw from India [p, 86]),and that many of the verses attributed to a mysterious 'Buzurgt (i.e. a great/oldpoet) were in realiry the creation of many famous poets of different epochsanddiverse literary circles (pp. 168-70), See also Chapter 6 in this volume,

23 Diacritics (harakat) for short Arabic short vowels include /atba, a shortdiagonal line placed above the letter, for a short 'a', the kasra, a shorr diagonalline below the letter, for the shorr 'i', and the zamma, a small curl (vav) abovethe letter, for the short 'u'.

24 The question of correct pronunciation increased in importance for Indianspeakers of Persian, especially from the seventeenth century, when in Iran theso-called majhul vowels (i.e. e and 0) began to collapse with i and It, whereasinIndia and Central Asia the old values were preserved, In 1708 Arnin Allah wrotea pronunciation dictionary in verse, the Daft' al-lughat or Defender from erron,on the correct pronunciation of common Persian words that were often rnis-pronounced; c.A. Storey, Persian Literature: A Bio-Bibliographical Survey, vol.3,part I, London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1984, P: 37, In early Persian dictionar-ies, barakar were also written for rare words: e,g, 'Bayaganam: with Persiankdf[i.e,gdJj, it is barkunam';Adatal-foiald, Or,1262,


, notation was applied in rare circumstances also to1his kind of po:tl\;d been assimilated inro Farsi, such as in .th~ termTurkic words t ,at ed above, In the only copy of Miftab aljuzald, p~de-

r mentlon d ith different ai sAqslInqu BritiSh Library, words are presente Wit twO ,rved in the " , aI ks (harakat) and grammatical terms,se , ion diacritic mar , "

c pronunclat , I' th mentioning that diacriticslor I in the same entry, t IS wor ,(hough rare y I c P , Arabic orTurkiclanguages, For instance,

d only ror ersian, di "wereuse , n~t al- iald and in some of copies of Adiit aljuiald, l,aCfltlCSin (he Miftah fu d ' I dian languages and not Just forI . d uivalent wor s in n I ,vere apphe to eq II C Plate 5,1)26 This supports the\ ~ consonants as we , see ,vowelsbut or h di ries served a twofold purpose: as Persian, h t suc IctlOna ,hypotheSIStad anuals of Hindavi for Persian

b k for Indian learners an as m(ext 00 sak ~ b 'spe ers. . les it became a stable practice to egm aFrom the earh,est eXdam~ 'Cmuqaddima or dibacha), in which the

, h an mtro uctlon -farhang wit d" all invocations and tribute to his patron, usu-

h f r the tra inon indi daut or, a re ives th h d b ought him to this effort, rn icareid he motives at a r d 77ally lai out t h kn d the texts he had consulte .:

aI h I nguages e ew, an 'Ihis go , tea Id that a group of friends (or sometimes pUpl s,T ically he wou say b 1

ypl , dd d him with a request to create a text 00 < or a) had a resse I iate th for sons ional aid that would help them appreciate e text 0 akind of educatlon ar .', I ) 28 Arnone the poems

'I k ( ee also Chapter 6 m this vo ume , . bpoenca wor s

'Azukh' a iece of flesh that grows on the nose25 For another example, ,p d •.. bs call it sultll and Indians

d [' 1 bl k top' some cur It, an Araof men an IS ac on ;~ 0 1262 also J T Platts A Dictionary of' Adiit alfu.iaui r ; see ' , ,name it massa . . . - ;. h New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1997,Urdu, ClassicalHindi, and Eng IS , . alif. and a tasbdid on sin,

1029 The harakat here is on the letters mtm .and 'J' . hi h hildp. . da - ( . .)1) wood With w IC c I ren

26 'Korasht: with Persian vdv, 'Ymm ~ ' ith P , kaif,. , da da hi' also spoken WI erslan

play,and in Hindavi It IS,~all~, ;'b ::~a~mad ibn Mahmud Shadiabadi,[i.e.gorasht]'.Muhammad I n a u I n onl known copy); c. Rieu,Miftd& al-fuialti, British Library, Or. 3299, f. 220b ( y tI. British Museum.Su lementary Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts tn ie

PP B .. h M 1895 P 116, see also Platts (1997), p. 567.London: [IDS useum, ,. ,27 SeeBaevskii (2007), pp, 128, 132, . c.: ds d . d

. Q as mentioned that his men esire28 The author of the Farhang-i aww I d hi ,bl do They as ce 11m,full d d the Shdbndma but were una e to 0 S '

to y un erstan d '1 a dictionary so'Collect[wor~l of Persian and Pahlavi all together, an cornpr e

hi a es.' Accordingly, the author says,that everyone may benefit from t ese angu g , 0

140 AFTER TlMUR LEFT

frequently mentioned were the Shdhndma of Firdawsi and Iskandu.r.nama of Nizami.29 Muqaddimas often contained partial criticisms rprevious lexicographers, alongside with names of the dictionaries th:the compiler had used and an account and evaluation of his experiencetThus, the author of the Dastur al-afoiiL claimed:

I translated some Arabic and Persian dictionaries ... and I included in m

dictionary words of Arabic, Turkic, Mongolian, Pahlavi, Persian, Afgha~[Pashro], Jewish (Judaeo-Persian?l, Christian [Aramaic?]; rhe tongues of theMagians, Syrians, philosophers, and Tajiks; Hebrew; words from the dialectsof Rayy, Hijaz, and Transoxiana, poetical idioms from every city, scholar!,coinages, and popular sayings.30 )

Only a few lines long at first, these introductions sometimes attainedthe size of a complete article that discussed the lexico-grammatical OUt.lines of Persian and of rare Turkic languages, as in the Sharajndma_yiMunyan; 31 Grammatical elements began to appear consistently in farhangsonly in the seventeenth century,32 while Persian-language grammars of

'I resolved to bring rogerher all the dictionaries. First of all, [I cook) the Shahnama, which is a king among books, and read it from beginning to end. I jotteddown the Pahlavi words, each one of them on a separate sheet of paper, thendivided them inro bakhsh, gicna, and babr', Farhang-i Qawwds, ed. N. Ahmad,Tehran: Bungah-i Tarjumah va Nashr-i Kitab, 1974, pp.I-3; my cranslation,but see also Baevskii (2007), p. 132.

29 Baevskii (2007), p. 135.

30 Dasmr al-a/diil (1973), p. 57, translated by Baevskii (2007), p. 81. Seealso the Zafongu.ya, in which Badr al-Din writes:

Iaccepted their request. Taking up my pen and without regard to fatigue. Icollectedword after word. Ir was my firm intention to consolidate all the dictionaries and tobring together all the scattered words. And all the words that there are in Arabic. Per.sian, Pahlavi, Dari, Yunani [Greek], Turkish, and other tongues. I examined individu-ally, and one by one put them in a particular place. All that I was able to discover,allthat I heard and saw, I pur in order; each vocabulary 1 compiled separately. dividingthe forhang into bakhsh, gUM, and bahr.-And when I was arranging them, I found themost appropriate place for each word. I aimed at brevity and not verbosity, at utilicyand not diversion. Zafongiiyd (I989), vol. 1, pp. 143-6.

31 Baevskii (2007), p. 111.

32 For example, Farhang-i JaJari (1630-1), the Lughat-i jim, the Farbang-izafongtiya, the Si!;a/:J alfors; Baevskii remarks that 'artemprs at grammatical

OF PERSIAN 141TURKI AND HINDAVI IN THE WORLD

the si th to eighteenth. n at a much later stage, e sixteen. ere wnrte .Persian w Ch ter 6). thcentury (see . a~e works of the classics of Persian poetry at w:en~

What was rn h . of readers in north India and requirereemwn th f h

beyond the camp. and comment? The evidence from e ar angs. . explanatlon, 33

defintnon, following categories of words:'ggestS the

SU . I h' al as well as literary characters off histonca , myt IC , - h d\. proper names 0 ple: 'Zaratusht, Zardusht. Zaradtusht, Zaratusftlan

lPoems. For exam d h e of the wise man who a se yh h II five wor s are t e nam f

Dharadu s t: a ( . h b) He founded the religion 0b Prophet pazy, am an. h'

claimed (0 e a hi d wrote books of fire-wors 'PM . the fire-wors Ippers ... an "4

he ag1s, d 'Jt d p,- d Zandastd an so on.like the Zan , nzan 1 d ibes for example: 'Khifchdq: the nameethnic names of peop es an trl ks' I' , 35

2. . which nomadic Tur ive . . _of a desert in .' towns rivers and mountains:

fa hical names of countries, regwns, . ' , 363. geog Pod f Maward'an-nahr (TransOlaana) .'Wlzrzru : name a

. d e are evident in all- .al though quite caunous an rar,explanations of the rnaten , 1 h he fifteenth centuries. However, the

C h of the e event to t .c 'the Persian far angs . th . al aspects is far from ururorm

, 1 If' erest in e grammanc kalexicographers eve 0 IO~ , eo rammaticheskogo osmysleniia iazy(2007, p. 151). See also his Peevy pyty g matical conception of Persian],

)' [The first attempts at a gramFarsi(XI-XV vv. . . LO IVAN SSSR, Parr 2, Moscow,PPiPlKXVIJI Godichnaia naucbnaia sesszya

1985. pp. 1l5-18.. _ 133 Baevskii also noted It (2007), pp. 129 3 .

34 Adtil al-foiald, Or. 1262. 6 See also Adat al-flliald, Or. 1262:35 ZafongUya, fifth bakhsh, vol. 2, p. [lO'ld' sl which is named Dasht-i-

. h . ,.., a desert WI ernes'Khafhaq: wit Persian jrrn , ks d khifiha-qis" the Diuidn~' .. f th of the Turk name z t: ,Khtifchaq' and is the ong1l1 0 e name ib f Turks' 2 the name. . 'Qifj - . I. a rn eo, .It/ghat al- Turk (11 th century) gives. shzhari D- - lug hat al- Turk, Kazakh

h h ' Mah ud Kas 0' an, noanof a place near Kas gar. m .". h . duction by Z.A. Auezova.edition in one volume, Russian translation Wit 1I1t[0

Almary:Daik Press, 2005, p. 440. 44 See also 'Badakhshdn: the36 Zafan.uva 1997 second bakhsh, vol. 2, P: . Fci one

~' o-·J.' , , _ . ld Or 265); 'Bukhdrd: the name 0 City,nameof a provlOce (Adtit al-fuza , . . . iana]' (Adtit al-fuiald, Or.

. h U Region [I e Transoxianaof the famous cities 10 t e pper . . . there is not a better place1262); 'Bukhara: with zamma, the name of a greac City, 126I'k " hid' Sharar:..ama-yi Munyan (2006). vol. I, p. .I e It 111 t e wor; "'J" _

I 'I


4. local names of flora and fauna for example c r 'hI d' all . 37' , us turghar: In lans. c jamoasab. 'Darakbt sunbab: a black bee wh: a Pant

a hole III the wood of a tree or a bamboo I H' d . ich drillsbhonrd'.38 . n III aVI they call it

5. specificities of foreign cultures and lici (Zoroastrians, Buddhists etc.): <t t.;» [reAlglOn]s e.g., Christians, .. us.a = vesta: with za 'fatf;a, the name of a b0,,1( of the M' he i mma and

I~. agls on t e injuncri

re igion of fire-worship the co th IOns of the. . ,mmentary to e Zand hsmon of Ibrahim Zaratushr Also d' ,t e compo.

'

ill'/; . pronounce sata with .a 1:;" amza. They worship it And . h k . ' omltted

(c II . Wit asra It means 'ter .ro owed by a verse of Khaqani). 39 mtnatio

n'

6. term~ and de~nitions related to the sciences of astronomernancs, palmistry, chemistry . d y, math·. I ' music, an so on, as well asImp ements and toys: for example 'A'b' . h . . to tools,S .. ' an. t e penod III whi h

un remains III Cancer that Persians call the ' h f c theIndians call kdtig or auhan'.40 'U, t J. • ith mont 0 ayan' and

do' , q tats: WI zamma on ha [ ,.

an kasra on dal, the title of a b k the sci mza a ifl00 on e scrence f hil

~~;t]~~me~ after its author. One hears it from ;hi~a~ o~~~~~Imam and from Shaykh Wahidi with k .fath ddl. d h asra on alif and

;.:l~~h''~. ~ey s.ay that the meaning of this book is geomet.ill' d un-t zyavushan: the name of a medicine which in Arab' ryc e dam al-akbioin and in Hindavi pdndurot.42 'iiti e-; h IC ISof the fourtee h fi . h ' J ma. t e name

h. I' . nt gure III t e science of geomancy'.43 'b 'dlft

w rr IgIg with which children I .' a ra: a

~hread i~ the. middle: children r!is;~ad :~:Ifc:eI~ ~~n:~:i~h:it~~It phzrkz. Children run and it spins when they run.'44 y

f hInhis modnograph, Baevskii outlined the significant features of eachar ang un er study he 45 I hi. reo n t IS essay, instead, I will focus on

:: ZaJt:ngUyd (1997), second bakhsh, vol. 2, p. 3.ZafangUyd (1997). second bakhsh vol 2 p 26

39 Sh .i: ' ...40 arajruima (2006). vol. 1. p. '27. .41 Sharafotima (2006). vol. 1, p. 84.42 Sha~afo~ma (2006). vol. 1, p. 64.43 Zafanguyd (1997). second bakhsh, vol. 2. P: 21.44 Sharafndma (2006). vol. 1. p. 67.

ZaftingUyd. vol. 2. second bakhsh p 945 B 1 • . .

aevscii (2007). Chapter 4.

TURK 1 AND HINDAVI IN THE WORLD OF PERSIAN 143

Indo.Persian farhangs as documents of the intermediary place of Persian. h' rnultilingual north India. I will, therefore, focus on the presence

Wit InofTurki

• the language of much of the Sultanate military elite. and ofBinda

vi• the local language that lexicographers customarily referred to,

and which they and their readers must have known, though it normallyremained outside the world of written Persian (see Chapter 14). In order

ush a little further Baevskii's argument that farhangs provide a pre-

to pciouSsource for the history of culture, we shall see how much of the Turki

I nCTuaaewas preserved and considered Significant in fifteenth-century

a 0 0north India, and what aspects ofTurkic and Indian culture (including'material culture) Indo-Persian lexicographers deemed worthy of notice.

TURKI IN INDO-PERSIAN DICTIONARIES

The Turks, who were divided into different tribes who spoke at leastthirty-five languages and inhabited a vast territory spanning differentcultural zones. not only contributed to the development of Persianliterature but also played a considerable role in spreading the Persianand Turkic languages. Turkic languages were not only spoken by sol-diers and used at court or by the aristocracy. Although many Turkicpoets were bilingual and actually wrote more in Persian than in Turki,someTurkic languages, like Chaghatai with Wi Shir Nava'i in Khorasanand Azerbaijani with Fuzuli in Baghdad, became poetic languages

themselves.46In case of Indian dictionaries from the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-

turies. the term 'Turki' usually refers to Chaghatai (also called EasternTurki, Jagatai, ]aghatai), a Turkic literary language of Central Asia of thefourteenth to sixteenth centuries, named after Genghis Khan's secondson who ruled over this territory. I have chosen the term 'Turki' herein line with common Persian usage, though we have seen above thatlexicographers at times specified which Turki tribe (and language) they

were referring to.

46 Muhammad ibn Sulayman. who used the pen name Fuzuli (1498-1556)wroteverses with equal ease in Arabic. Persian. and Azeri Turki. Many of hispoeticand prose works are preserved in Indian libraries such as the AsiaticSociety.Kolkata, Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, Rampur Raza Library.

andthe Osmania Unlversiry Library.

-


Turkic lexicography dates back to at least the eleventh century, Withthe remarkable Diwan lughat aI-Turk by Mahmud Kashghari.47 Itis unlikely, however, that the farhang compilers in India knew of thisTurkic work, or of the Mul;akamat al-lughatayn (The trial of two lan_guages, 1499) written by their contemporary 1\li Shir Nava'i.48 Persianlexicographers in India referred to the Turki that was developed and USedin India by different Turkic trH:~Ssuch as the Chaghatai, theAq Qoyunluthe Barlas, or the Qanqali. Dictionaries compiled until the Sixteenthcentury contain words of Central Asian (Chaghatai) Turki, and later anadmixture of Chaghatai and Osmanli. This Turki was gradually assimi_lared into the local languages by the end of the eighteenth century.49

Turki terms featured in Indo-Persian dictionaries from the sran, firstwith a few terms in the Dastiir al-afoiil (1342) and the Adat alfuiala(1419), and then with as many as 603 dedicated word entries and acomplete separate section (bakhsh) in Badr aI-Din I~rahim's Zajdnguya(1433, according to the Parna manuscript).50 The Zafongiiya seems

47 Kashghari, Diwdn lughdt al- Tttrk, Russian trans. Z.A. Auezova, Almacy:Dajk-Press, 2005.

48 In the Muf;akamat al-Iughatayn, 'Ali Shir Nava'i wrote about the rich-ness of the Chaghatai language. Nava'i also compared Chaghatai Turkic andPersian and argued that Chaghatai was a very useful language in many waysthat poets could successfully use it for poetry alongside Persian; J\.1iShir Nava'i.Muf;akamat, R. Devereux (ed. and trans.), Leiden: Brill, 1966.

49 It is worth noting that, apart from Babur's memoirs and his Diwan,Turki literature written in India still remains uninvestigated. Though my per-sonal experience is that there are not many Turki manuscripts extant in Indianlibraries, even those have not been catalogued. Many manuscripts survivingin a single copy are often not dated and this makes it hard to determine theContext of their composition. For instance, the dictionary Amad-ndma-i Turkipreserved in the Rampur Raza library appears to be very old (late-fifteenth orearly-sixteenth century), but we cannot tell exactly when this dictionary waswritten. Benedek Peri of Budapest University, and Uzbek scholars like AfrandilErkinovand N. Nizamiddinov are currently working on Turki in Mughal times,

50 For Turki lemmata in the Dastiiral-afoiil (occasionally labelled by region)and Addt alfuiald, see Baevskii (2007), pp. 78-9 and 92-3, Muzaffar Alarnsclaim that '[i] t was only by the late fifteenth century that separate sectionsfor Turkish words in Persian began to appear, as in Shaikh Ibrahim Qavvam

RLD OF PERSIANTURKI AND HINDAVI IN THE WO 145

. c.i.:» ds and dialectsI dictionary in which rorelgn wor .h ve been the on ~ h ( d b khshs). Other dictionanes,to ad' n specIal c apters name a Ti ki d

werecollecte

I of the Sharafnama-yi Munyari, placed ur c an. the pattern 51follo

W1l1g d he end of each letter chapter. .'

Arabic wot sat t[. raphers thus considered Turkic words an inte-Indo-Persian eXlcko

gf d that they sought to explain, but while

f he sroc 0 wor s hgral part a t hers were aware of their predecessors, they often c ose tolater lexlcograp give different spellings. If we take theinclude different terms, or ple chapters (,alif-alif' and 'alif-te) of the

ds from rwo sam h hTurkic war .c: _ example we notice that t e aut or-' d Sharafnama, ror e • , . d'Zafonguya ~n d fi d Turkic words that were nor merinone Inof Sharafnam~ ed neh h t had been mentioned, and occasionally

rfi - - ornltte ot ers r a Z rfi' - - dZa angtlya, II' 52 The difference between the a anguya anaave different spe IngSI·. h choice of words and their spellings but" .i; - lies nor on y In t e dShara)"ama th f Sharafnama usefully described how a woralso in rhar the au or 0 _

h uld be pronounced: .

sad' '( ) on the. I d 'a' on the first and vowel soun u zammaAksur: with vowe soun. h f ther and without mother. _

third letter, Wit out a (Sharafodma, 2006, vol. 1, p. 57)'3

. Indo-Persian dictionaries we cannot discern an ori-In the earliest . h b hich I mean the desire co. wards Turkic lexicograp y, y w . d

entation co . d f Ti ki origin that were already Integrareinclude nor Just wor sour c . h th Add: l-fuiald

d used in Persian. This orientation emerges WIt e a a. d:d the Sharafndma, which distinguished berween the rwo categones an

. - (1472)' 'The Culture and Politics of PersianFarupqi's~ham{~a::~~;:~m:~71Literary 'Cultures in History, S. Pollock (ed.),III recoorua I, 149 tands to be corrected.Berkeley:University of California Press, 2003a, p. ,s Indic words that

51 S B I.,' (2007) p. Ill. Arabic, Turkic, Chinese, and . Iee aeVSKlI , I b II d mological yhadbecomefully assimilated into Persian were often not a e e ety

though. h Z .t;- - - f his al- Turki see-52 Thar the author of Sbarafnama used t e aj'f1nguyaor I h h did

. d . thoug e I notrion is clear from the face that he men Clone It as a source,

reproducethe section entirely. " .. a1 ~ f this [word] is53 Cf .:,(I uksuz: 'orphan, confused. The 111ICl arm a I"

. .r- C "k" II t compre lens IOniikwz [rncddle-beaded'], which is formed rrorn 0 inre ec ,Diwtinlughdtat-Turk (2005), vol. 3, P: 127.


sometimes note that 'this word is Turkic'. Many dictionaries incl dTurkic equivalents, which the author prefaced with the phrase ba_u ed,. Ti ki' 54 A ibl b turkzIn ur c. POSSI e reason ehind this orientation is that thSharafoama was compiled in Bihar, where many of the Sultanat e

. , , e Set-tlers lived and were called Turks, and where even today one can fimany Turkic words in the local dialects. Although we do not knnd

Ow~uc~ a~out the author of Addt af-Juiald, the unusual abundance inhl~. d.lctlonary of toponyms from Transoxiana, what is today SouthTajikistan, suggests that he or his family were probably originally frornthat region.

As already noted, whereas lexicographers often presented Indianequivalents for Persian words they never did so for Turkic Wordentries, though in rare instances we find such equivalents in entries ofTurkic words assimilated into Farsi that bore no indication that thewere 'Turki'. Among the considerable number of words included i~the farhengs that mention the Turkic origin of some objects (or describethe objects brought by the Turks) or have Turkic equivalents were, as weshall see, several musical terms such as sabazghuv, surghin, surndi, and soon (see section below). The number ofTurki word entries increased Overtime, not only due to the general increase in dictionary entries but alsoto a growing interest in preserving Turki. 55

In early farhangs the definitions were usually extremely brief, oftenconsisting of a single word.56 But the descriptions of their pronuncia-tion and the diacritics that showed how to read a word are of great value

54 For example, 'Fallii: yoghurt or sour cream made from milk: in Turki theycall it qaymagh'. Majmu'ar aljurs, cited in Baevskii (2007), p. 65.

55 In fact, Turki-Farsi diccionaries were compiled from the seventeenth cen-tury onwards, such as after Fazl-a1lah Khan Barlas's Farhang-i zabdn-i turki,Khwaja Arnir's Tiilifi al-amir (Rampur Raza Library, autograph Ms. 2501, 31fols.), the Risdla-i lughat-i turei by Mirza Qatil (Khuda Bakhsh Oriental PublicLibrary, Patna [India], No. Acc. 1934, 18 fols.); see D. Karomar, 'Turkish Man-uscript Dictionaries in India', in Nazr-e Khudd Bakhsh, Patna: Khuda BakhshFellows, 2001, pp. 115-26 (in Urdu).

56 For example, 'Ay [<.5']: moon Imahtab]' (Zajdnr;uyd, 1997, seventh bakhsh,vol. 2, p. 145); or 'Ay [<.5i]:moon [mah]' (Sharafoama [2006], vol. 1, p. 120);or 'Bitik [...5U;]: [hand-writing, deed]' (Zafonr;uyd [1997], vol. 2, seventh bakhsh,p.89).


kin" the phonetic changes that took place, though this' is an areain {rac h:rdly been investigated yet. One occasionally finds a curious{hathas 'on ofTurkic terms in India, for example ikdish. Scholars like. rpretatlIn{e kii and Kapranov have read this word as ydkdish.57 But thanks toBae

vds

'ptive method of pronunciation in the Sbarafnama and Addtthe escn . .. u we know that it should be read as ikdish. Moreover, while Inaljil~ ~ia ikdish refers to a horse bred from Arab and Turkic stock, inCen

trh erm ikdish expanded to refer to a person of mixed Hindu and

India t e t dtage Here we can see how the definition of a term changeTurk paren . , . . ,

. h I dian context and was Indianized':In ten

Ikdish [.;.>SI]: so named a mixed child, chat is, from two kinds Uim] whichmergedinto Turki,

, 7

(Zafongttya, 1997, vol. 2, fifth bakhsh, p. 98)

Ikdish: with vowel sound 'i' on first and third letters, that is a Tur~ whose- C h mother is Hindu or a horse which is from one Side Turkish and-~~m b

h Arab' [there follow verses from Nizarni's Khusraw Shirin and yfromor er _ . .Mas'udSa'd Salman] ... Ikdisb [ekdish, .y~]: the same as lledish.

(Sharafodma, 2006, vol. 1, p. 66)

Ikdish [~'l: that is a Turk who is Indian from the mother's side andTurkfrom the father's side and that is a horse... ._

(Addt aljuzalii, Or. 265, f. 6b)

In this example, phonetic variants are added to the entry word, bu~ inother cases even dialectal synonyms are represented, as in the following

case:

A- h h [= rouchwood]: a tool [made] from steel, which struck ontas zana [ . L.h] Ch -

flintwill starr a fire, and in Turki it is called Chaqmakh c -; aqmaq[~~] and also Chaqmaq [~] ...

(Sharafoama, 2006, vol. 1, p. 105)

. d ' tiry of synonymic lexis orEvery dictionary containe a certain quan 1

h· h ld b '1 found within the alpha-synonymic combinations, w IC cou e easi y _ dIs as with bughra, the worbericallyorganized dictionary. n some case,

57 Seev.A. Kapranov, Tadzhiksko-Persidskaia leksikografiia .v Indii.xv:;hI-XIX. I di . he sixteenth to mnereent centu-vv. (Tajik-Persianlexicography 111 n ia 111 C

ries),Dushanbe: 'Donish', 1987.

148 AFTER TIMUR lEFT

was mentioned in both the Persian and 11 ki . .11 k· " b ur sections, SlUce .

ur I ongln ut assimilated into Farsi: It Was of

~ughra: ~ith za~ma,. it is a famous dish and it is also calledpurak.Al-Turki Bughra [I..>"-IJ:with zamma the f I 'AI ' name 0 a ru er of Kh

so a crane which flies ahead of the others. A type of di h waralIn.camel. IS ,and alsoa Illale

(Sharajnama, 2006, vo] 1. ,p. 132)

h If Indo~Persian lexicographers were following tradition in tht ey explained and expounded on Persian terms rh th e Wayz·£- - - d C''h .c: , e au ors of haJ"Cmguyaan 0. arafndma invented their Own way I: t e11 ki d h s ror represe .

ur c wor s, wit extremely brief definitions. ntlng

Another important point in the context of the topic of thothat the Sharafodma-Ji Munvart also co . . fi . ISessayis

. J ntains in ormation abou 11 .gra~mar In a separate chapter on 'letters, meanings and [ ram r .urkirules (Bdb-i buruf, al-ma'dnt wa a[-qawd'id) This i .g . rnancal]

aks b . 15 ISvery slgnlfican dspe oth o~ the l~xicographer's pride and care in displaying his ~oan~dge ofTurki In this Persian text, and also of the perceived' wi·Information would have for his prospective readers: lUterest thiS

Section in [letter] mim: ' ... and Turks als dd i thhi h . 0 a It to e end of a d

w IC IS to augment for themselves, for example: ufThil = h~or ,my son... o: a son, u:g. 11m =

Section in [letter] ya: ... and when Turks [wish to showJ rh .berw hi e connection

een one ~ Ing to another [theyJ append [this letter] to the end ofword], like: bash [bashJ = head, bdshi [bashiJ = his/her head [ a

Section in [lerters] L with R: when Turks want to mak~'ilie pI I fword they add 'lar' to the end of a word, for example' at _ ho ur~la° ahorses. .. . - rse, at r =

.Section in [letters] Ch with ya: when at the end of a Turki word ou add': the creator of that thing is intended, as in: yay (yaJ = bow yavch~ r.')dchii= owmaker... ' J t, J

[L ~~ctio~ in [letters] L with Gh: when in the words of Turks you add 'ligh'u:g. at t e end of a word, it belongs to someone or something, as ill"at =

horse, atftgh [atfugh] = with [on] a h e .orse ...Section in S with Z: when Turks add' ., th d f

absent like: - _: . SIZ to e en 0 word, this wordis, . I e ..yarmaq [yarmaq] = Wire,ydrmaqsiz = without wire ...

Section In N with G· wh th dd [ h11 ki d th .'. en ey a t ese two lerters] at the end of

ur wor s, en this thing is bein I' k d h141- I . g In e to anor er that is present, like:

q - s ave, servant; qulmg = your slave, your servant ...


Sectionin Q with Hand G with H: whenever [these letters] are added

h end ofTurki words, they mean [the definite object], as in ton [tonJ =~te ~

nt tonqah and tongah = the garment.aarrne ,oIhe author also specifies at the end which variety ofTurki he refers

. 'In (his chapter several grammatical rules of the Turki language were[0. d with an explanation ofTurki words according to the speech ofquote u '59Qanqa t.

Ihsr Turki was given such an important place as one of the major

I ua"es is unsurprising, given the fact that most of the Sultanatean" e

10s and elites were in fact Turks. Yet its presence has often beenru erne"lected due to the prominence of Persian. The range ofT urki wordsinIndo-Persian dictionaries of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries isindeedvast. Dictionaries included words of different tribes and coveredallareas oflife, suggesting that they were meant to help in understand-in" terms occurring in literary texts, as well as providing useful terms[0; merchants, travellers, local inhabitants, and newcomers. UnlikePersianwords, Turkic words were not commented upon with poeticalexamples (except those words which had been assimilated into Persianat an early stage), and unlike Hindavi, they were not used as support toexplain a lemma. The structural difference between Turki and Hindaviin relation to Persian in the dictionaries is that Turki appears as alanguage which needed to be commented or translated into Persian,whereas Hindavi worked as an aid to understanding both Persian andrareTurkic words.

In rhe context of a volume on fifteenth-century literary culture innorth India, what is of particular interest is the extent of multilingual-ism in relation to terms connected with different domains of culture(including music, clothing, and food), science (particularly astronomyand botany), as well as geographical and ethnographic knowledge. Indo-Persian dictionaries can be fruitful sources in this enquiry and give aconcrete sense of the kind of knowledge that was proffered, required,and transmitted. In the rest of this essay I shall, therefore, explore thesedifferentareas, noting in particular the increase in Indian words and theirdistribution across the various domains. I will conclude with a section

58 Sharafnama (2006), vol. 1, pp. 14-19.59 Sharafnama (2006), vol. 1, p. 19.

-150 AFTER TlMUR LEFT

o~ musical terms, since this was an area in which we find a .high number ofTurki and Hindavi terms This evid partlcularhfi . IS eVI ence su .

rst, a number ofTurki professional musi . d . ggests that. rcians an mUSical en .active, or actively remembered, in this period; second rh rh resWerted~cated Turki elites were particularly interested in indi:~t; P~rsian.actively drew connections between Turki and Indi . al i USICandd an mUSIc tnStran concepts. This confirms the understanding of thi . d ument\hi . c ISpeno of .

istonans, ror whom dictionaries can provide particul 1 mUSICd '1 d id ar y concret

etai e eVI ence. But let us turn first to Hindavi words. e and

HINDAVI IN INDO-PERSIAN DICTIONARIES

Within Persian dictionaries, Hindavi words occurred pred .s . h omtnantlyynonyms m t e explanation of lemmata, though occasionall the as

appeared as lemmata themselves, following the usual "fpolo yof ~alsonames, toponyms, and culturally specific terms. Though ~ p opeofIndic (H" di H" davi) . t e presence.m I, in aVI equivalents is peculiar to lughat and f: h .composed in India, it is perfectly in line with the pre-I di ardangsof Persi lexi I h n Ian tra itron

man eXlcograp ly t at included 10calianO'uages and di I .f 1 di . 0 ia ects In thtext 0 t re IctlOnary entries. Hindavi was often simply added rh elanguage equivalenrs.P'' to 0 er

Robab-i Turki [- porcupi ]. ith - ·ft -' .h - me . WI uau-t arst, It ISa name of a crawl thas very sh:up and long quills like a grown spindle on its back. When

e:d at

follow: It, It scatters its quills. The quills leap out from its back and in'u~the dog like arrows. Arabs call it qatJad, Indians [ahl-i Hind] sih [seh],and inthe language of the Deccan they call it sarsag.

(Addt al-foiald, Or. 1262, f 38b).61

Lexicographers occasionally gave two or more Indi . alh . Ian equlv ems,s owmg an awareness of the existence of several languages within north

60 E di .f B ~en icnonanes written in India gave examples of the Persian dialectso 11 ara, Shiraz, Nishapur: Farghana, Transoxiana, Gilan Azerbaijan andso on. For example 'Dadar [- d. d, ].' th I ' ,b. her' _' - 0 ar . in e anguaCTeof Transoxiana it isaror er [Dartur al-arfa-ii~' 'Dada . th I o. . ' r: 111 e anguage ofTransoxiana it is a brother.

In Khorasan It IS[pronounced] withfatha on' Jot d I. _, . aa an some peop e pronounceIt as unidar'. Adat alJuzald, Or. 1262 f 24b

61 ' .]" )..:A porcup111e;a hedgehog (= sihi, q.v.),. Platts (1997), p. 715.


. that different words were used by specific caste and religiousIndia, orgroups:

angUr: the grapes of the desert called lahsurah. Some [say] that sagSag -r is the plant which in Arabic is called 'anab al-tha'alab and in Hin-:~ kanu [,,;\S] and kanwayi [.:sly$]. Some say that in Hindavi it is called

lithi [.#JiJ, while others call it amlatoarah [•.)y..I].P (Zafdngt:tya, 1997, vol. 2, second bakhsh, p. 31)

Basak: a chaplet of flowers that [some] Indians call sehra and other Indians

call mallr [J"'" J. (Addtal-fttiald, Or. 1262, f. 17a)

The presence of Indian equivalents shows not only that that theauthors of these dictionaries knew the local languages, but that theyconsideredthe Indian vernaculars part of their linguistic system of knowl-edge.Persian dictionaries aimed at and took pride in giving a completedefinition for each word, and Hindavi was necessary within this scheme.At the same time, this multilingualism of principle made the diction-ariesalso pragmatically useful and equally comprehensible for Indian,

Persian,and Turkish readers.In the early dictionaries we do not find Turkic and lndic equiva-

lents in the same entry, evidence of the relative prominence accordedto Persian as the language of power and administration, but there aremany examples of Arabic and lndic equivalents in the same entry.Manuscripts copied by different scribes through the ages and in differ-ent locations present differences not only in terms of the lemmata anddefinitions, but also in the number of lndic equivalents. For example,the two copies of Adtit aL-fuiald preserved in the British Library givea different number of lndic equivalents.62 One explanation could bethat one copy was made for Indian readers and the other for Iranian or

Central Asian readers.Comparative research on dictionary entries shows thar over time

lndic equivalents gradually increased in number. For example, the total

62 Thereare more in Or. 1262 than in Or. 265. For example, 'Dasmah: a kindofgrain' (Addt al-foiald, Or. 265, f. 25b) and 'Dasmab: a kind of grain calledshakhil,Indians call it arhat' (Addt al-foiald, Or. 1262, f. 34b).


number of Indic equivalents in the Zafongu.ya is ninety-two,63 wherthe later Ghiyds al-lughdt (1887) includes about one thousand. M

oreoeasVerin the Zafongu.ya half of these Iridic equivalents refer to medicines and

medicinal plants, which give us a clue to the dictionary's specific focUsand to the interest in Indian medicine in the Persian world.

Occasionally, the compiler did not give the meaning of a commonword in Persian, but only the Indic equivalent, as in this example:

Bad bizan: in Hindavi it is called pakah [pankah]

(Zafongziya, 1997, second bakhsh, vol, 2, p. 8)

Several definitions remark upon the fact that a word was borrowedfrom Hindavi into Persian, as in the case of the term bilak:

Bilak: with Persian ya, it is an arrow [darr] for hunring and this is an Indianword that was used in Persian. It is also pronounced asfllak. 64

(Sharafodma, 2006, vol. 1, p. 176)

The thematic range of Indic words in Indo-Persian dictionaries ofthe fourteenth and fifteenth centuries includes, as already mentioned,names of people, groups, and places; culturally specific items and kin.ship terms, words related to time, astronomy, medicine, botany, andagriculture; terms for implements and crafts, arms, toys, clothing; and,as we shall see, music. The categories are roughly the same as those of thedictionaries themselves, but with a noticeable focus on everyday termsand items, on the Indian branches of scientific knowledge ('ilm) matIndo-Persian elites were most interested in-astronomy, botany, gemol-ogy, gardens, warfare, and music-as well as on items of internationaltrade (clothes, spices, precious stones).65 Let us now consider a fewexamples from each category.

63 To be exact, 133 in the copy of the Khuda Bakhsh Library. See Ahmad(1990, 1997); ninety-two in the second to sixth bakhshs; the third (Pahlavi andDari) and seventh (Turki) bakhshs do not have any Indic equivalents at all.

64 According ro the Madar al-afoiil, 'it is a kind of arrow for hunring'; 'Filekis a Badal<.hshanianarrow' (Lughat-i furs); Platts defines it thus: 'Asmall martockor hoe, a spade; belok, s.f The iron point of an arrow' (1997), p. 210.

65 For a discussion of the kinds of knowledge that Indo-Persian elires neededro know, and their interest in the Indian equivalents, see Emma]. Flatt, 'CourtlyCulture in the Indo-Persian Srares of the Medieval Deccan, 1450-1600', PhOthesis, SOAS, University of London, 2009; for music, see Katherine Butler


. luded historical characters that appeared in his tori-ames me th f

Proper n C ple that Ram is not glossed as e name 0 aks Note ror exam , 'R 'calwor " hou h the definition 'gentle and obedient suggests ams

d or king, r gaO"haracter:

c th I " d Persian yd is the name of the ruler- [~]. wi vowe a an , .Jaypal <"',' h ho had three hundred elephants and thirty thou-

tdsb -h) of La ore w . _ all' h id(pa a h I k tl d m that Indians [Hmduvan] c smg nah men' t e roya et e ru . dsand ors.e , , -. interestingly no Persian gloss is given] was escablishe~ 'lion's roar, I, I M h d[J . h d he was captured alive naked by order of Su tan a rnubyhim. In teen

Sabukrigin. (Sharafoama, 2006, vol. 1, p. 330)

. with Persian kaf it is a name of the Rai of Gujarat wh~ firstJaysmg. b Rdi and ruler (padshah) in the country (mulk) of India.claimedro e an (Addt aljuia/ti, Or. 262, f 2:b)

Ram: gende, obedient [compliant], a common name which is found in the

land (vilayat) of India. (Adat al-fuiala, Or. 1262, f 37a)

To on ms of cities, regions, rivers, and mountains also tended to. be. '1 P Ych found in historical texts and relevant to Indo-Persiansuru ar to ose II

elite readers:

I d' - , . . the name of anS- - h [-w.. ~]. with Persian tsiu and de aye mtm , It ISomnat. e J • f G . S Iidol-temple (bllt-khana) that was in the land (zamin) 0 uJarat. _ u tanMahmud Sabuktigin destroyed it. [followed by a verse from the Bustfa~3"5'])

(Sharafnama, Add. 7678,. a

d ' ., al th II known name of the riverSind [.li..]: with vowel soun l... so ewe - d b[whichis] the borderline between Hindusran and Khorasan [followe yaversefrom the Shdhnama].

(Sharafoama, Add. 7678, f. 137b)

Bihar [.J~]: a (Buddhist) idol-temple in Turkestan; a city in India; [bahar'spring']a season.

(DastUr al-afoiil, in Baevskii, 2007, P: 80)

Schofield,'The Mughal rasika', forthcoming in Tellings and Texts: Music, Story-. h Asi F 0 .. and K Schofield (eds).Tellingand Performance tn Sout. tac r. rsim .

154 AFTER T1MUR lEFT

Khaybar. the name of a fortification (hisar) which the Arnir al-Mu'm' .f\li Karim Allah Vajh [= MuhammadJ conquered [in 629J, and SOm Inm

e Saythat it is a fOrtification in Gujarat, which Indians call junagar and Ka-.rnar,

(Adat al-jUiafd, Or. 1262, f. 24b)Danir [Daner?J: the name of a city from the land of Hindustan.

(Sharajnama, 2006, vol, 1, p. 434)

Comparatively, few terms relating to Indian religions and Worshipappear, and only among synonyms:

Kharzahrah: a small tree, whose flowers Hindus/Indiaf.J.s worship (but PtlrtlSli

kunand), and Indians call it kinu [#J. If a horse or a donkey eats it theydie,and it is called kiz.

(Adat al-jUiafd, Or. 1262, f. 30b)66

Tarsa: a sect of fire-worshippers; the Arabs call them nasran] and Indianscall them muni [? LY>J

(Adat al-jUiafd, Or. 1262, f. 22b)

A more substantial set of Indian words appears as synonyms fornames of precious stones and for astronomical terms, including months,planets, zodiac signs, where the text also becomes more explicatorj:

Almas: a gem, in Hindavi they call it hira.

(Zafongitya, 1997, fifth bakhsh, vol. 2, p. 98)67

ZdvUsh: the name of a star, a star/planet in the sixth heaven, which Arabscall Mushtari and Indians call Biraspat [~yJ.

(Adat al-jUiafd, Or. 1262, t. 39a)

Ab: '" also the period when Sun is in the house of Leo [the fifth solar monthof the Iranian calendarJ, which the people of Rum called 'the month ofAb(Abmah)' and consider one month. Winds blow without profit. Indians callit Bhddon.

(Sharajnama, 2006, vol. 1, p. 30)

Azar. This is the period when the Sun dwells in the house of Pisces, whichthe people of Rum consider as one month and call it 'the month of Azar;Indians call it Chait.

(Sharajnama, 2006, vel. 1, p. 47)

66 Also in Ada: al-foi;afd, Or. 265; the Sharajnama calls it kanir [.);!-is].67 The other copy of the Addt al-jUiafd (Or. 265, f 6b) and Sharafodma

do not give the Indic equivalent.

WORLD OF PERSIAN 155TURKI AND HINDAVI IN THE

Indic terms that appear in the dictionaries. de~s withAnother set of di . al plants with plants and gra1l1s 111gen-bstances, me IC1l1, b d

medicinalsu n ones-or with partS of the 0 y:en very commo . . .

eral-ev

. . hi h in Arabic is called rijl al-jarrad and III Hindavib -d- a medlcllle w ICZlIrun a .

kachur.68 (Zafongitya, 1997, first bakhsh)

d hich in India is called kasis [~]. .7-;0: [vitriol]a rug w ifi' I rfi- sil. fol 117a in Baevskii, 2007, p. 107)"-"'0' 1ft . -"Ift mana a -a aZI ,. ,(Bahr a - am 1

. f dicine (darn) of which there are rwo. hJatha the name 0 a me ! C d f,Bahman: Wit .: d hi h is used for expelling wind, rats an or. d -red and white-an w IC .kin s . he call it iskandah [.~I].potency.In India t y (Sharafndma, 2006, vol. 1, p. 198)

. . : with delayed 'sin', a plant in the regions of~hina whichAstarang [= ginseng] I . f d in some books on medicine that III. h irnaze of men ... tIS oun .groWSIn tel ." irnndn [?0~]. The lakhimndn plant was seen twiceIndia they ~lllt lafkhh. b k It does not have the quality [?] that everyoneh piler 0 t IS 00 . Iby t e com f tho r nr is in the image of a man. t growsh di it out dies. The root 0 ISP a ..W 0 !gs . ih and in valleys at the feet of mountains.in the provlllce of Bi ar (Sharafntima, 2006, vol. 1, p. 76)

d ood used by dyers for colouring clothes red. In Hindavi theyBaqam: a re w call' , _ . 69[b k ,] d also It arttna.

callit bagam a am. ,an (Zafongityd, 1997, fifth bakhsh, vol. 2, p. 102)

th . hana i zin and with kasra, that is,Hand: with Jatf;a, well-known, at IS, ~ , I. h d-. h d hair red, Indians cal It me n I.hind with that tincture t ey ye h ,I'.., _ Add 7678 f 155a)

(5 araJ"ama, . , .

f 0' ain which Indians call mung.Banumdsh: with zamma, the name 0 a "r(Sharafnama, 2006, vol. 1, p. 168)

I d i A bi talh and in Hindavi kela.Maza: well-known fruit, cal e In ra IC h' B kii 2007 pp 96-7)(Zafonpiyd, first balms ,In aevs I,' , .

[ h . h] a walnut which Indians callt at IS, c ,Chdrmaghz: with Persian 'jim'akhriit.

(Addtaljuiald, Or. 1262)

. - 3299 'The plant or root sedoary, Cur-68 Also in Miftaf; al-Juzala, Or. .

cumaserumbet'. Platts (1997), p. 819. .)' Places (1997), p. 100.69 'bakkam, s.m. Sappan or red wood (= bagam, q.v..

156 AFTER TJMUR LEFT

/spinakh: with kasra on Persian 'be' [that is, p], a vegetable which in Ind.they call Pdlak. Il

(Sharafodma, 2006, vol. 1 ,,p. 'OJBaqlat al-himqd: a purslane also named baqlat al-miydr, baqlat-i Zuhara

H· d i rh call' J: .In

In aVI ey It lOng.

(ZajdngUyd, 1997, fourch bakhsh, vol. 2, p. 65,

Pdshna: with Persian 'be', the back of the foot, which in Hindavi is calJedbi

(Adat aljuiala, Or. 1262 f 13,. a)

Dahan muldzhah: with Persian 'zd' [that is, zh], a dangling [bie of] fleshinthe mauch. In Hindavi it is namedgdkala [= gullet].

(Miftdb aL-fuiala, Or. 3299)Note that in the case of parts of the body only the pronunciation and

the Hindavi equivalent are given, possibly an indication that theseWereexplanations aimed at Hindavi-speaking Indian readers.

The other categories under which numerous Hind<rvi terms appearare animals, implements, including cooking implements and food.

stuff (the latter in line with the special interest demonstrated in theNi'matndma, written in MalwaYo Material and items of clothing, byCOntrast,are few. Animals include:

Panj pdyah: a crab, which in Hindi is called kekra.71

(Za{dngUyd, 1997, second bakhsh, vol, 2, p. 14)

Dulphin: a water animal which has no eyes and a thin neck. It lives in dark,salt water. It has big teeth. In Hindavi they call it bulu.

(ZajdngUyd, 1997, fifch bakhsh, vol. 2, p. 108)

Shabtdb: a little Worm like a spark of shining fire. Also called shab chirdghak,'arnsak, and kaghinah. In Inclia they call it jugni.

(Sharajndma, Add. 7678, f 262aJ

Chughd: with Persian 'jim', a bird of bad Omen which brings OUt news at nightand becomes blind during daytime. Indians call it uLlu. Some call it bum.

(Addtal-fuiala, Or. 1262, f 26b)

70 See Norah Ticley (trans.), The Ni'marnama Manuscript of the Sultans 0/Mandu: The Sultans Book of DeLights, London: Roueledge, 2005.

71 See also Addt al-fuiala (Or. 1262, f I8b): 'Pan) pdyak: both "be" are Persian,an animal that lives in the water, but if it falls Onto the ground it can also walk

with its Own legs. Arabs call it saratdn, Persians ghaltdnagand Inclians call it kikra.'

ORLD OF PERSIANTURKI AND HINDAVI IN THE W 157

nem of snakes. Inclians call it neual.Rasu:a reptile and an e y (Adat al-fuiala, Or. 1262, f. 37b)

. and a sheep that children. wild ewe, some call it mountain ewe,Ghuram. a kride. Indians call it if a. (Miftd/; al-fui:ald, Or. 3299)

f th barber which inhabitants ofIndia name bhdndi.Tali: an implement a e , (Adat alfoiala, Or. 1262, f. 23b)

. ith] f khummdr, a gardener whom Indians- . the vazn [rhyming WI aAkkar. Il1

name k6eri. (Sharafodma, 2006, vol. I, p. 55)

n the first letter and zamma on the third, an iron toolAnbur: with fot/;a a h h h . n In Arabic they call it kaLtib and. h hi h blacksmiths clute teat tro .WI[ W rc --72

in India they call it sanddsi. (Sharafoama, 2006, vol. 1, p. 56)

I· / - . g yarn and silk. Ind . plement [= reel) for rol Il1g wrappll1IVzlaba:a woo en 1m _ .

Hindavi they call it parett. (Mifoil; al-fuiala, Or. 3299)

. hi h has a lot of holes. Sweetsellers clarifyArdan: a thing like a skimmer w I~ _ 73

sugar and ghee with it. Inclians call It puta. (Adat al-fuiala, Or. 265, f. 4a)

d of which is tied up in one place and the otherVi2nang:a rope, one en f to make them dry; also called

here else laid on bunches a wet grapessomew ,

avang. Indians call it bilkini. (Miftd/; al-fuiala, Or. 3299, f. 294a)

d b Iy which Indians callP . 'be' flour from roaste ar ePisht: with kasra on ersian e ,

sdttU. (Adat al-fui:ala, Or. 1262, f. I7a)

- A air of ineers or nippers, small tongs,72 Cf 'H. saddsi, H. sandsa s.f.... p S PI'S' JOn' one of the cools- , I (1997) P 683 ee a so tnaan: ,forceps (see sanm) . P atts ,.. d. II' .ha-!y

i(= anvil).

hi the i In tans ea It ntof blacksmiths with which they It ie Iron.

Sharaf71ama,Add.7678, f.252b. S al 'e'h ibah: with Persian "be",. - 1ft· la 0 1262 ee so u .73 Puvta Il1 Adat a - zata, r. . b d. I dia they call it belan',

. h hi h makes rea, Il1 na wooden tool wit w ic one 'D h h vessel with which one

I 359 And uws a : aSharafodma (2006), voi. I, p. . ~ da l-fitiala Or.1262, f.36a.milks, and in Hindavi it is called duhm . A t a ,


Chuvkhd: with Persian 'jim', a woollen robe and a kind of dress of Christiathat is shorr, In India it is worn by yogis. Indians call it kanthd.74 OS

(Addt af-foiald, Or. 265, f. 2la)

Shdrah [o.JL!.]: thin red cloth which is wrapped around a candle so that theair cannot blow it out. Also special cloth worn by the inhabitants of India[verse from the Shdhndma follows].

(Sharafodma, Add. 7678, f. 276a)

Bdddmah: a kind of inferior silk which the inhabitants of India callputa.(Adat alfuiald, Or. 1262, f. 13a)

Persian dictionaries were really polyglot dictionaries that includedbeside Hindavi, Arabic, Turkic, Syrian, Greek, and Latin and sometim~even Pashto equivalents (all in Arabic transcription).75 As such, they werethe result both of the aspiration of Indo-Persian lexicographers to explainprecisely the meanings of words and expressions, and of the complexlinguistic and ethno-social situation in Sultanate India, where individualsand groups of different backgrounds had come together and shared socialpractices. Note, for example, the high number of synonyms for polygamy:

Anbdgh: with fatIJa, when fWO women are married to one man. Eachwoman becomes anbdgh to the other; also called sandnj, banj, uasni. Indianscall it sogan [USY"].

iSharafnama, 2006, vol.l , p. 68)76

The main feature of the written Persian dictionaries written in Indiais that all of them, as a rule, contained Hindavi words. Hindavi wordsoccurred predominantly as synonyms-occasionally more than one-inthe explanation of lemmata, though occasionally they also appearedas lemmata themselves, alongside the usual typology of proper names,toponyms, and culturally specific terms mentioned above. Comparativeresearch on dictionary entries shows that Indic equivalents graduallyincreased in number over time, and that occasionally the compiler began

74 'So kanthd, s.f (m.?) A patched cloth or garment, a covering of rags andpatches (such as is worn by jOgis ana faqirs; syn. gudri); a beggar's wallet andband'. Platts (1997), p. 85l.

75 For example, 'Khuuire (0)"';']: in the Afghan language, the word for food'.Adat af-foiald, Or. 1262.

76 Madar af-aJaiil gives both sogan [USY"] and saut [uY"], Adat afjuializ(Or. 1262) saukan.

TURKI AND HINDAVI IN THE WORLD OF PERSIAN159

th . the meaning of theIndic equivalent rather an give

to only cite .the estin a definitely bilingual readership. ~ we. have

din perSian, sugg gf I di ds in Indo-Persian dictlonanes ofwor . range 0 n c wor .

the thematlC th .. cluded words related to time,seen, th d fifteen centunes inthe fourteen d~' botany and agriculture, terms for implements

me IClne,' .astronorny, I thing and, as we shall see, music.

d·c..s arrns, toys, co,

an crall,

KNOWLEDGEULTlLlNGUAL MUSICALM f h India as well as the presence of-r al context 0 nortThe rnuln tngu . al of musicians, entertainers, and patrons

d fesslOn groups .social an pro l' .. and lexical distinctiveness and repertoire

d th· own mgulstiC . t:who ha elf .. th f rhangs. For music historians, in tact,

c d refleCtlon mea .allof styles 10un al bl and often unique source, especi y

itute a most v ua e . thfarhangs co~so. com anied by visual depictions, as in ewhen-descnptlons are ~c f thP ly copy of Miftd~ al-fuiald. In the

.. L'b manuscnpt 0 e on fi dBnnsh I r~ry. rticular and of entertainment in general, we n afield of rnuSICin pa l' 'I th ords we find many precise terms

d ul tlingua Ism. no er w , .. cheightene m ti I d f C ntral Asian/Turkic ongm, ror

. al . ments an gentes 0 efor music instru . lik 'ddles and enigmas, and for groups

.. f al entertamment I en. alvanetles a or . . man with Arabic and Indian equiv entsof professional muslclanhs- Y Iy the lexicographers' pride in detail-

77Th' 1 ality sows not on dgiven. ISpur b I ical terms but also a tendency rowar sing even obscur~ or a so ete ~~~I berwee~ Central Asian and Indiansetting up equivalents, especi y

musical instrum~nts and :r~~ their way into farhangs, as in the caseLiterary musICal nam . . f th I 'an (partly Turanian) world,

f mUSICians 0 e raniof the most ~ous .. b d d the beautiful heavenly musicianKhusraw Parvezs musIcian Bar a an

Zuhra (= Venus):f ician ofKhusraw [Parvez]who

Barbad [33]: delayed 'ra, it is the n~e °lle~::sTawani; it is also the first let-sanga rhymed song and that song ISca b Salman]?8rerof the alphabet of the Persian language; [follo:e~ by a20veOr6sev:l 1 p. 142)

(SharaJ"ama, ,.,

, _ f' lers who walk the tightrope'. Adat77 For example, Rasan baz: a clan 0 Jugg ~ J = IF.' 1= Or 265

all h b-d Aaat a - uZtlLa, . ,al-JuZil/d, Or. 1262, f.37b; 'Indians C t em iant .

f.27b. th n1 rv) was the musician of the Sassanid78B b dM . (si thororseven cenrurjat a arvazi SIX . all fifteenth-century

kingKhusrawII Parvez (590-628), and his name appears III

1


Zdwar: ... withfotba on the third letter, the planet in the third heaven whois ascribed to the fifth region, its home is the house (bury) of TaurUs ich

Gemini. She is called a musician of the heavens and she is also called Bid:dand Nahid. Astrologers call [the planer] Sa'd /lfush. In Arabic she is callhiZuhra and so it is written in the Sharafodma. ed

(Addt al-.foi;ald, Or. 1262, f. 39aJ79

But dictionaries also paid attention to contemporary tenus formusicians:

Paikub: a dancing girl whom Indians call pdtarlpdtur.

(Addtal-juiaktor. 1262, f. lla)

Indo-Persian lexicographers detailed a few names of ancient tunes,BO

and also ofTurki ones, especially in the seventh bakhsh of the Zafiinguydthat was dedicated to Turki terms, where generic Turki terms for Song,singing, and so on, are given:

t-. a song.

(Zajdngityd, 1997, seventh bakhsh, vol, 2, p. 146)81

dictionaries, together with melodies thar were supposedly invenred by him:

for example, 'Shddravdn: Ratweave blanker which is hung Over a doorway; a

wardrobe; name of a melody', DastUr al-ajdiif. 'Khusrawdni: a kind of rhymed

songs that Barbad, the musician of King Khusraw, sang'; Sharafodma (2006),vol. I, p. 415, and Sharafodma, Add. 7678; and 'Rdh-i Khusrdwdni: a rhyth_

mic song invented by Barbad, rhe musician of Parvez, and which he calledKhusrawdni'; Sharafodma (2006), vol. I, p. 497. See also Zafongityd (1997),second bakhsh, vol. 2, p. 6; the term occurs also in Miftdb al-jltialti, Adtiral-juiald (Or. 1262 and Or. 265) See also N.N. Negmarov (ed.), Borbad: HisEpoch and Cultural Traditions, Dushanbe: 'Donish', 1989 (in Tajik); and A.Radjabov, Az tarikhi afkori musiqii Tojik (asrboi XII-XV), Dushanbe: 'Danish',1989 (in Tajik).

79 'Zuhra (~Venus): ... and wirh zamma, ir is also the planet which is a musi-cian of rhe Heavens, [verse]'; Sharafodma (2006), vol. I, p. 530.

80 'Ardyish-i Khurshid: the name of a melody and tune'; Sharafodma (2006),vol, I, p. 41; 'Bad-i Nawroz: well known and also rhe name of a melody andrune'; Addt al-juiald, Or. 1262;_Sharafodma, vol. I, p. 158.

81 Also declined as 'iran: he/she is singing a song', and 'irlddi: he/she hadsung a song'; Zajdngityd, seventh bakhsh (1997), vol. 2, pp. 151, 153. For a

derailed comparison of rhis rerrn in various T ufkic languages, see E.N. Nadzhip,fstoriko-sraVnitelnyi slouar tiurkskikh iazykov 14v., na materiafe 'Khosrau Shirin'


ttn: a voice (dVdz):t;_ - - 1997 seventh bakhsh, vol. 2, p. 151)u, . (ZaJanguya"

. th M,;i+dh al-fuia/d, Indian musical terms aretries of e l./". . thiIn some en . di . of the language of origin-In IS case. h t any In canon. wit ou ,

u)Ven I di 'dhun?" ·bly the n ICpass I

ith zamma on 'ddt, a tune.Dunil: WI ,= 0 3299)

(Miftdb al-foiaui, r. . .

c . al terms in Indo-Persian dictionaries (overfi . ions ror music . IMosr de run f musical instruments. Many of them are very simp e300 in roral) are 0

h For example: .. d sort. . lik .1an . _ I IId IIbuq which IS I e a cowtai .karndi rhat IS, a buq, a so ca e sma, I 39)

Ctivdum: a, (Zajdngiiyd, 1997, second bakhsh, vo . 2, p.

h f a musical instrument that is also calledSitar: with kasra, rename 0

sitdraand sehtdr.(Sharafodma, Add. 7678, £ 239b)

. h rovided descriptions, sometimes veryOccasionally, leX1c~grla p ers ?al. strument with information about

d f partlcu ar music Ill, hderaile ones, 0 a ts They also often described t e. earance structure, par .its function, app , de of and how it was played:material the instrument was ma .

. - barrae-i rubdb: a wooden rool that is [placed] on the bellyKhar-i-rabdb and ~ J Iik it One pulls the srrings over it [followedof the rabdb and [instruments 1 e 1 •

by a verse by Sipahani]. (Sharafodma, vol. 1, p. 377)

. f the Rumis [that is, Byzantine/Greeks], [also]Arghamin: an instrumenr 0 h R bdb Barbae Chang, Tanbur;me family of musical instruments suc as a, ,

also pronounced Argbun. . . 1997 vol. 2, p. 139)82(Zafongr.iyd, sixth bakhsh: Rurni and Yunani, ,

.. ,+ Ti k· Languages of the 15thKutbn [The Historical Comparative Dictionary oJ ur. IC d h.Century, based on Kutba's Khosrau and ShirinJ: MI ?Osco:n:ksGia~.~eu~y~:;~~~ ;:~~. I I 41718·andmyownartlce nur (jitt-ry, 1979, vo. ,pp. -, k .• " . I T in Manuscriots

XI XIX k '[About Tur tc mustca terms 'r:minah v isrochnikah - ve ov,. ... lar 2000(1): 66-70.a/11th-19th Centurier], published in O'zbekzstonda I;tzmozy Fan, d. d

,t;- - _. n the special bakhsh de icare ro82 This word is given in the Zayanguya I . I. d

d I 0- were assimilated into raruan anGreek words. Greek culture an angua"e


Several terms relating to musical instruments are very rare andbe found anywhere apart from Turkic dictionaries written in Ind' ~nOt

'. lalntheighteenrh and nmeteenth centuries.83 Even in contemporary Kho epoets writing in Turki like 'Ali Shir Nava'i used popular Persian r<!San,lenrs f h . . equll';..enrs ror t ose instrumenrs rather than the ones grven below:

Aylaq/Ablaq: kamancha [a string/violin-like instrument).84

(Zajdnf7'llya, seventh bakhsh, 1997 vol 2 40' , " p. I 8)

Ouparim/Oubarim: chang, a [stringed) musical instrument.8S

(Zafonguya, seventh bakhsh, 1997, vol, 2, p. 151)

Chughrah: a musical instrument that is called chdrtdrah,

(Zafongiiyd, seventh bakhsh, 1997, vol. 2, p, 161)

Indian culture in two waves: first with the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom c ', ovenng

the Central Asian regions of Bactria and Sogdiana from 250 to-125 BCE d, an

the Indo-Greek expansion into northern India from 180 BCE to 10 CE, Thesecond wave came after the Arab conquest through the Arabic languageandoften in Arabic form. With the term 'Rum' lexicographej-, indicated the Be yzan,tine Empire, and the category 'Rumi' included words borrowed from \VIes

' WI (ernlanguages. In his introduction to the Farhang-i zajdngiiyd, Baevskii noted:

It is very interestinghow the selectionof wordswasdone, a selectionthat includes,rangeof termsand symbolsrelatedwith Christianirywhichwere in greatestcommonusein Persianliterature (proseand poetry).One can supposethat the matetialfortheauthor of thisdictionarycameto a considerableextent fromworksof the famouspoeKhaqani (I120-99), in whose poetry one frequenclyencounters motifsand term,related to Christianiry.'Badr ai-Din Ibrahim, Farhang-i zafonguia ua dzhakhanpuia(Slouar' govoriaschii i mir izuchaiushchii). Faesimile rukopisi, izdanie teksta, vvttitnil,spisok tolkuiemykh slou,prilozhenia S1 Baevskogo, 5.1.Baevskii(ed.),Moscow:Nauka,1974, pp. 59-60 (my translationfrom Russian).

83 In particular, the Turkic dictionary Ttilifi al-Amir by Khwaja Amir(approximately eighteenth century).

84 The same definition is given in Mu'ayyid al-fuiald. Ttilifi al-Amir byKhwaja Arnir and the Risdla-i lughat-i Turki by Mirza Qatil both have amlaq.

85 The same in Muayyid; Sharafodma has Obarim; Ttilifi al-Amir andRisdla-i lughat-i Turei have Obarim = chang (= harp). See my article '0 tiurkskihmuzykalnyh terrninah' (2000): 68. Nadzhip's article cites a similar word withthe same meaning' 0rim-harp, lyre', with the remark that this word is notfound in historical sources, dictionaries, or modern languages. E. Nadzhip,'Tiurkskii iazyk deliiskogo sultanata XIV veka', The Journal of Souiet Turcolagj.3 (1982): 74,


'Ii ki musical instruments given in Zafanguya, instead, wereower ur cI then as they are now:

aspopu ar . 86

SI',mo ii: a windpipe.(Zajdngiiyd, seventh bakhsh, 1997, vol. 2, p. 164)

" ithfotha and kasra, a Turkic flute (windpipe) that is also calledSilrghm. w. 87, d surni [verse follows].

SlimilYan (Sharafodma, Add. 7678, f. 252a)

h h - a which in 'Ali Shir Nava'i's Turki poetry is oftenThe c ag an , ., ... d b a qanun, and in some modern dictionaries IS referred

companle y C di II:ac h b ed and drummed instrument, seems to rerer to irrer-[Q as bot a ow .... f h h

' ts in Indo-Persian dictionaries, Most 0 t em s ow twoent mStfumen ith a bow f df i merits one stringed and played with a bow as pIcturekinds 0 msuu, '.. h Mi/tah al-fuiala), and the other like a cymbal.10 tel .

h' h· ith Persian J"im' a kind of instrument \lrhich musicians playChag. ana . w ,with bow [while they sing a song-Or. 265].

(Addt al-fitial.d, Or. i262)

di to the Mliftah al-fuialii., the chaghanah was like a small'Accor mg. . hb b led with a bow while the Sbarafnama compared It to t era a , p ay , . . thdi andal88 Interestingly already at this time some au ors wereIn tan surmanaai. , .. ith

' to compare Persian and Turkic musical Instruments WIattemptmgtheir nearest Indian equivalents:

Kamay. a buq that in Hindavi is called bher,89

, (Zafongiiyd, 1997, second bakhsh, vol. 2, p. 38)

86 The term is also found in Muayyid as sitrghu; in Sharafoamd as sirgh~;ki . doi hi h ts made from reed.inMifoi& al-fuiald as 'sabazghav: a Tur c wm pipe. w lC I, . man

Sibizghu is a shepherd's reed, which, with slight vanations, IS popular ,; .yTurkiccountries under different names: in Bashkir as kuray, chibizga, st I~g,b~;I~

• , ' TI" ik nd in Dagestan as zt zzgz,Karachaevo-Cherkessiya as sibizga; among xurm s ain Uzbekistanas sibizih; in Kazakhstan as sibizgi, and so on. ..,

d . h fi tha and kasra on "sin .87 'Sarghin: a Turkic flute, also pronounce Wit a.Miftdh al-fuiala, 0r.3299.

88 Sharafoama (2006), vol. 1, p. 358. d di d miscella-89 ' th fifth bakhsh e icate toThe reverseequivalence appears me, 'B - k _

. ic) d l\J' ami origin: uq: arnay,neouswordsof Arabic, Nabatean (i.e., Aramaic anthatis,bhd; Zafdnguyd, fifth bakhsh (1997), vol. 2, p. 102.

164 AFTER TlMUR LEFT '

Often the same Indian equivalent was given for several instrurnents,

bher, for example, was given as equivalent not only for the bUq and th'kamay, but also for the naqur-in other words, for all kinds of windpipes.~

This trend towards setting up equivalence between Persian, Arabic.and Turki terms and Hindavi ones extended to other kinds of ent '

er·tainmenc" This was, of course, within the very nature of multilingUalPersian dictionaries that encompassed different cultural and historicalzones. But it may also indicate a coming together of musical styles in thecosmopolitan and mixed musical culture of Sultanate north India thatmusic historians have already remarked upon.

CONCLUSIONS

What is the evidence about the readership of these dictionaries? Apartfrom the lexicographers themselves, internal clues suggest a readership ofpoets and literate elites who needed and wanted to read Persian works,which themselves contained' and assimilated words from many Ian.guages. At the same time, the attention towards everyday useful wordsand objects, and to specific vocabulary related to food, plants, arms,music, astronomy, and so on, in Arabic, Turki, and Hindavi suggestsalinguistically heterogenous court and literate society that was interestedin both trade and in a wide range of worldly pursuits, and that waskeenly aware of the Central Asian world. What about the physical cluesof the dictionaries as objects? Unlike the monumental dictionaries ofthe Mughal period,92 some of the Sultanate dictionaries, while carefully

90 'Ndqur: a big flute that in Hindavi is called bher', ZafongUyd, sixth bakhsh:Roman and Greek (1997), vol, 2, p. 143.

91 'Chistan: with Persian "jim", a riddle. Arabs call it ekrah (?] and Indi-ans pabeli', Addt aljuiald, Or. 1262.'Churpak: with zamma, a speech (sukhan)which one says against another, and something asked out of exaggeration matin Arabic is called laghz and abdah and Indians call paheli (verse by Zahir]'.Sharajndma (2006), vol, 1, P: 350; Add. 7678. See also 'Bardak: with fotba,a story, and an exaggerated question that is also named churpak, cbistan, andgirdak. In Arabic it is called laghz and in Hindi paheli', Sharafodma (2006),voL 1, P: 173. See also Madar al-afiizil.

92 See, for example, D. Guizzo, 1tre classici della lessicografia persiana dlpocamoghul: Farhang-i gahiingiri; Burkdn-i qiiti, Farhang-i rasidi, Venice: Cafoscarina,2002.Um fugiatquam est velitassinia nihil molores susam fa


. es illustrated (like the monumental Mifta&d sometIm . . . .

all'uraphed an k or small-sized, indicating a practical use.e I" r= et- . cI f.ti;tt!ti), were fill d everal different functions: they were aids ror

aT 'ful e s .., kn I dDicrionanes d culture, manuals for widening ones owe ge

I' rature an c hPersian ue al erhaps useful books ror mere ants.

. d so P . . I I difI-lindav1,an Persi dictionaries written in Su tanate n iao th early erSlan .. . . .

While e d C h large multilingual dictionaries written inrh roun lor t e .

prepared e g, d he Turki section of the Zafongitya and the repert01~etheMughal peno .' t h her early farhangs became the basis for Turkic

'I ata1l1r e ot . d ithofTurki emm. . I dia in later centuries, which containe nei er

, wntten 111 n ki di .dicrionanes -r: ki b t 'Indian Turki', Thus, Tur I icnonar-

Western Iur IC u . . I dEastern nor . h . h th and nineteenth cenrunes me u e. I dia 111 t e elg teenies wrinen 111 n cd' Western or Eastern Turkic languages. Other

h not roun in fi all I diwords( at are ssh . ed above acquired new, speci c y n Ian,llk 'kdrs mentIon, d di ,.

words, I:I .' also changed for many words, an acnn-, h pronunCiatIOn a all

meantngs;t e h me closer to Indian phonology. ver , weks show that t ey ca

calmar f . ilatidual rocess 0 assirn anon. . .canspeak of a gra . ~ al di ' s thus show us several disrincr. lnlingu lCtiOnane , ,

Indo-PerSian rnu F' . h show a keen and conrinuing aware-d processes. ust, t ey . d

Phenomena an al ul '1' alism both in India an more. d or m ti mO'u ,nessof both wnrten an °d on and within Persian

erally in the Persianate world they rew up -P , (and Arable).gen , alences between ersian

S d they set up equrvitself. econ '. I f material culture ro astronomy.Turki, and Hindavi at all leve s, iden to rely upon Hindavi as theThird, they reveal an increased ren enc:, h tho was the language

. h sug"esnng t at IS °language for explananons, t us hO d fi al they preserved Turkic

c '1' ith Fourt an n,readers were rami iar WI ' h als a gradual tendency

alb ., ay t at revelinguistic consciousness, eit 111 aWl ., .

b f a soecifi 'I d'anTur<lrowards(he creltion 0 a specl c n I .

Turki and Hindavi in the World of Persian: 14th and 15th century Persian dictionaries

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