TUnza_3.4 Oceans and Coasts

8/14/2019 TUnza_3.4 Oceans and Coasts

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for young people by young people about young people

The UNEP Magazine for Youth

Oceans & CoastsDeep mysteries

Heating upPollution

alert

Swimming withsharks Meet EllenMacArthur

Ocean power


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W hy on Earth do we call our planetEarth? Planet Sea would be amuch better name, for it is thewater and the benefits that it has brought

that really distinguishes it from the dry, barren lumps that populate the rest of thesolar system. Seventy-two per cent of theEarths surface is covered by the oceans. Alllife, including our own ancestors, came fromthe sea, and no land species could survivewithout the rain we get from it. And theoceans continue to regulate the climate of our lonely planet, sustaining it as an isolated oasis in the vast black desert of space.

Yet humanity has always exploited the life-giving oceans, treating them as anapparently inexhaustible source of food and a seemingly limitless dump for our wastes.For generation after generation we havemanaged to get away with it; the immensityof the oceans has been able to tolerate theabuse. But now, as our generation beginsto assume responsibility for the health of this misnamed planet, the boundaries have

been reached, or crossed. Most of theworlds fisheries are at or beyond their limits. And pollution especially from thecarbon dioxide that is the main cause of global warming now threatens the entirelife of the oceans.

The problem seems to be the verythoughtless, self-centred attitude that led usto name the planet after the relatively small

part of it on which we live. For it is thismindset that has led to the despoiling of theoceans, and indeed of all the worlds lifesupport systems. As a generation, we aregoing to have to grapple with it if we are tosave our seas, and with them the planetitself. It is no easy task, but if we falter wecan always look inside ourselves to find areminder of how much we owe the oceans.For, as the great Rachel Carson one of thefounders of the environmental movement

pointed out, our very blood carries almostexactly the same composition of salts as theseawater from which our ancestors came.

Each of us carries in our veinsa salty stream in which the ele-ments sodium, potassium and

calcium are combined in almost

the same proportions as in sea-

water. This is our inheritance

from the day, untold millions

of years ago, when a remote

ancestor, having progressed from

the one-celled to the many-celled

stage, first developed a circula-tory system in which the fluid was

merely the water of the sea. Rachel Carson

A. Pignone/UNEP/Topham

UNEP/Topham

E d i t o r i a l

Oceans & Coasts 3


4/24TUNZA Vol 3 No 4

Spare a thought for the people of theCarteret Islands, a scattering of atollsoff Papua New Guinea in the SouthPacific. They are losing their homelandto the ocean.

For the last 20 years they have beendesperately trying, in vain, to stop the seathat surrounds them washing their islandsoff the map. They have built walls to tryto keep the water out, but every yearthe waves have washed over their land,sweeping away homes, destroying cropsand making their drinking water salty. Nowthe ocean threatens to drown them outaltogether. And within two years they willall have gone to the nearby, mountainousisland of Bougainville.

The 2,000 people of the islands are thefirst trickle in what will become a floodof people around the world. For as globalwarming takes hold and raises tempera-tures, sea levels are rising worldwide.

So far this has mainly been caused by thevast bulk of the ocean expanding as itwarms as railway tracks do on a hotday. But increasingly, water from meltingglaciers and ice caps is acceleratingthe process.

Scientists best guess is that sea levelswill rise 30 to 40 centimetres this century,but it could be a metre. It doesnt soundlike much, but it would be enough to makemany nations like Maldives and Tuvalu uninhabitable, and to inundate vast areasof low-lying countries like Bangladesh,making millions of people homeless.

And if the polar ice caps melt as globalwarming continues, the rise will be stillmore catastrophic. The melting of theGreenland ice sheet would raise sealevels by nearly 7 metres, the loss ofthe West Antarctic one by another 5metres. That would swamp coastal citiesand lowlands worldwide, changing theworlds maps for ever, and causing un-imaginable devastation.

Already, global warming is causingcatastrophic crashes in sea and birdlife. In the summer of 2005, the tinyplankton that form the base of the foodchain of the Pacific off the northwestAmerican coast failed to appear, causingpopulations of fish and seabirds to fall to

record lows.

Much the same has happened around thenorthern coast of Britain over recent years,as warmer waters have driven planktonhundreds of kilometres further north.

Some scientists fear that these are signsthat climate change is beginning to damagethe health of the oceans irreparably. Newresearch at the University of Amsterdamsuggests that, as warming continues,plankton will be disrupted and destroyedworldwide.

Meanwhile, as the worlds seas getwarmer, coral reefs the richest habitatsof the oceans are increasingly becomingbleached and dying.

RISING TIDES

FAILING HEALTH

Coral suffering from moderate bleaching canrecover if temperatures return to normal beforetoo long, enabling the algae on which the coraldepends to recolonize its tissues.

Photo: P. Kobeh/Still Pictures

If temperatures remain high, fatal bleachingoccurs. The algae that the coral needs to survive

die off, and the coral itself dies. Mat-forming algaethen begin to grow over the dead skeleton ofthe coral.

Photo: Secret Sea Visions/Still Pictures

The coastal nation of Bangladesh is particularlyvulnerable to rising sea levels.

Photo: J. Descloitres/MODIS RRT/NASA GSFC

B. Hatcher/A. Naseer/Dalhousie Univ.


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Hurricanes feed off warm seas, and asglobal warming has increased, boththeir size and number have grown. 2005was the worst Atlantic season sincerecords began more than 150 years ago. Itstarted earlier, ended later and had morehurricanes and storms than ever, includ-ing three of the six fiercest ever to hit theUnited States. One, Katrina, flooded NewOrleans, causing immense damage.

Scientists disagree on how much globalwarming is responsible. Recent studiessuggest it has made hurricanes moreintense, but it is unclear whether it hasalso made them more frequent. There isgreater agreement that, as it continues, itwill make the situation even worse.

Changes in the ocean currents couldmake some parts of the world verymuch colder, even as the planet heats up.

The Gulf Stream, which carries warm wateracross the Atlantic from the Caribbean,contributes as much heat to WesternEurope in winter as the sun. Without it, oneof the worlds most heavily populated areaswould have the same climate as frozenLabrador in Canada. Western Europeansocieties and economies could not survive.

This ocean system is driven by salty Arcticwater sinking deep into the ocean, whereit forms a vast current that flows south, tobe replaced by the warmer surface watersflowing north. But increasing freshwaterfrom melting northern ice is preventing thesalty water from sinking, and so the currentis faltering. Scientists reported in late 2005that it had weakened by about 30 per cent.

And, as if all this were not enough,carbon dioxide the main cause ofglobal warming is threatening to alter thechemistry of the oceans in ways unpre-cedented in the last 20 million years.

The oceans have absorbed half of all thegas so far emitted by humanity, and willgo on doing so. This process forms dilutecarbonic acid, which hinders the ability ofcorals, crustaceans, molluscs and certainplankton to form their hard structures orshells. As the acidity continues to rise, it isfeared, coral reefs, shellfish and planktonwill die off, with huge knock-on effects onthe life of the oceans.

GULF STREAM

STORM WARNING

POISON GAS

Heating UP

A NASA image of Greenlands ice sheet shows thatit is thinning around the coasts (blue areas). Thiscould be partly due to increased melting, but isbelieved to be a result of glaciers carrying the icemore rapidly to the sea.

Photo: NASA GSFC SVS

Roads and railways in Labrador, Canada, areengineered to withstand extreme and prolongedlow temperatures. Western European networkswould quickly collapse under such conditions.

Photo: M. Lamarre/Still Pictures

The eye of the storm: Hurricane Elena picturedfrom above. The storm forced almost a millionpeople to evacuate coastal areas between Tampa,Florida and New Orleans, Louisiana. Winds wererecorded up to 195 kilometres per hour.

Photo: NASA/Still Pictures

This fishing village in Honduras was destroyed byHurricane Mitch in 1998. The Central Americanregion is particularly prone to fierce storms.

Photo: N. Dickinson/Still Pictures

A view of the Florida Keys from outer spaceexposes the architectural structures formed bythe calcium deposits of corals.

Photo: NASA GSFC SVS/LANDSAT

Adding carbon dioxide to the oceans is like car-bonating water to make a fizzy drink or soda.

Photo: B. Mims/UNEP/Topham



The worlds seas, on average, are fully 4,000 metres deep (thedeepest spot, as far as we know, is the Pacifics Mariana Trench,some 11,000 metres down). Everything beneath 200 metres isclassified as the deep sea, and remains largely a mystery. So far we have explored just 10 square kilometres of the planets 300million square kilometres of ocean floor.

The little we have found is intriguing. For a start the seabed,like land, has plains and trenches, mountain ranges, volcanoesand canyons. Temperatures run to extremes: while most of thedeep sea is icy cold, a few places are boiling hot. At thesehydrothermal vents, scorching, poisonous water spews out of cracks in the sea floor. But despite the heat and toxic sulphides,

many creatures including giant tubeworms, clams and microorganisms live around them.

The main obstacle to learning more about the deep sea isthe difficulty of getting there, explains Ron Douglas of the University of Cambridge and City University London.Humans can barely dive down a mere 30 to 40 metres without

specialized assistance. Pressure increases1 atmosphere for every 10 metres. And itis pitch dark: sunlight only penetrates1,000 metres down.

Using nets is one possible solution, butgetting one down 4,000 metres requires aline up to 14 kilometres long. It takes up to12 hours to lower and raise and is diff icultto control, and so risks damaging species

samples. And the net is only about as bigas a football goal, tiny compared to theimmensity of the oceans.

Submersible craft provide an alter-native, but there are only about a dozensuitable for the deep sea throughout theworld, and sending one down even 2,000metres is extremely expensive. Indeed

people have only once reached the deepest part of the sea, when Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh plunged to the bottom of theMariana Trench in 1960: the walls of their craft, Trieste , were 127 millimetres thick to withstand the huge pressure of 1.4tonnes per square centimetre.

Submersibles are very noisy and have bright lights in a quiet, dark place, and thisscares specimens away, says Douglas.Anything that has any sense will get out of the way, leaving scientists with only thestupid, blind and old to look at!

Yet, despite all these difficulties, re-searchers are continually finding new life in

the deep sea. The animals down there areendlessly fascinating, says Douglas. Theyhave adapted to the incredible pressure, aswell as the extremes in temperature and theabsence of light: few survive when theyare brought to the surface.

The density of creatures in the deep seais low, so species have adapted to that too.Most fish have sharp teeth, big mouthsand stretchy stomachs to increase their chances of catching and digesting any prey

that ventures by. And some types of male anglerfish have developed a unique way of ensuring that they take any chance to reproduce:they attach themselves to a females back permanently.

In that dark world, Douglas explains, creatures communicatethrough light produced by specialized organs on the body called

photophores. These are also used to lure mates or prey and toscare away predators.

But this is just a glimpse. As Douglas points out, it is difficultenough to grasp an idea of all the creatures down there let alonedetermine each ones function within its ecosystem. He is surethat the life of the deep ocean is at least as diverse as on the land

probably very much more so and is just as likely to provide

valuable products, such as life-saving medicines.The bid to put a man on the moon began at about the same

time as Piccard and Walsh reached the Mariana Trench. Sincethen, 12 humans have walked on it: none has been back to the seafloor. Douglas concludes, The ocean frontier will likely be asexciting to future generations as space travel was to those before.

UPPER: A midwater hatchet fish Argyropelecus aculeatus , whose silvery flattened body is aneffective camouflaging mechanism in the deep.LOWER: The midwater dragonfish, Malacosteus

niger , whose light organs emit red light mostother deep-sea inhabitants cannot see, giving ita private wavelength.

UPPER: The lizardfish, Bathysaurus ferox , whichlives on the ocean floor at depths of up to 4,000

metres, caught while eating.LOWER: The deep-water pearleye,

Scopelarchus analis , whose yellow eyes formupward pointing telescopes to make best use

of the dim remaining sunlight.

S h a u n

C o

l l i n

R o n

D o u g

l a s

T a m m y

F r a n

k

INCREDIBLE AS IT MAY SEEM, we know little about 99 per centof the inhabitable space on Earth. For measured by volume,rather than just surface area that is what the seas and oceansrepresent. And we know virtually nothing about their depths.

J u s t

i n M a r s

h a l l

Deep mysteries


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S harks have had a bad press, and theydont deserve it. Their image is ofvicious, human-hating killers. But infact, explains marine expert Jean-MichelCousteau, fewer people are killed by sharksthan by bee stings. There are about 100shark attacks a year resulting in around12 human deaths. In contrast, humans areresponsible for killing more than 100 millionsharks each year 11,000 every hour ofevery day.

Their numbers are rapidly declining becausethey are caught for their fins especially forsharks fin soup and because overfishingdepletes their prey. They are particularlyvulnerable since they take many yearsto mature and give birth to few young at atime. But people have been less keen onconserving them than cuddlier creatures such as pandas. Perhaps they are put offby sharks predatory natures, but it is this

that makes them particularly important inmaintaining the balance of life in the oceans.

Jean-Michel Cousteau son of JacquesCousteau, the world-renowned ocean ex-plorer best known for popularizing marinebiology is trying to change this. He hasrecently been at the heart of two high-profiledocumentary projects about sharks onefor film and the other for television. He says:We hope to reach millions of people, who

will see the real beauty, not the fabricatedbeast. Sharks have far more to fear fromus than we do from them. And, unless wecurb the killing of these creatures, we willirrevocably lose one of our planets mostmagnificent species.

The film an IMAX documentary titled Sharks3-D , produced in collaboration with UNEPand 3D Entertainment is now showingaround the world. Cousteau hosts this close

encounter with the lions and tigers of theoceans. Spectacular footage of the worldsmost endangered sharks shows them to bebeautiful, wild and fascinating creatures thathave roamed the seas for 400 million years.

For television, Cousteau has dedicatedone of his six-hour documentary series

Jean-Michel Cousteaus Ocean Adventures to them. The series is a family affair:Cousteaus son Fabien and daughter Cline

are members of the diving team.

Fabien Cousteau has also developed ashark-shaped submarine named Troy designed to let a diver swim with great whitesharks and observe them in their naturalhabitat. He aims to change public per-ception of great whites and to contributeto shark research, and has another docu-mentary, Mind of a Demon , due to bebroadcast in 2006.

Swimming with sharks

3D Entertainment Ltd

Corbis



T U N Z AQHow important are the oceans tothe health of planet Earth?

AHumanitys survival depends on the

health of the oceans. More than halfthe worlds population lives near themand they provide food and livelihoodsto countless millions. They drive ourclimate and weather, and absorb largeamounts of our waste, including half ofman-made carbon dioxide.

QWhy do we need to conserve waterwhen there is so much in the ocean?

AWe can only safely drink distilled ordesalinated ocean water and ourcrops and livestock need freshwater too but the time and resources needed todesalinate oceans would cost verymuch more than pumping freshwaterout of the ground or using surfacewater such as streams and rivers.

QAre offshore wind parks harmful tooceans and marine life?

ASuch wind parks offer a cleansource of energy and pose a lowrisk to the marine environment. Theriskiest time is during construction anddecommissioning but even these takenot more than six months. Judging fromexisting parks, there is no evidence tosuggest that they have a detrimentalimpact on marine life.

QWhat can people who live inland doto help keep oceans clean?AWe must recognize the life-sustaining role of oceans, even ifwe live thousands of kilometres inland.The United Nations has set aside8 June as World Ocean Day a day toorganize activities to raise awarenessabout this. You may wish to get involvedin clean-ups, painting competitions,round-table discussions anything todemonstrate the importance of oceansto our lives and the devastating impactsof pollution on the marine environment.

QHow do oceans contribute toeconomic growth? How do wemake sure that this growth issustainable?

AReal economic growth is the abilityto produce goods and services that

improve the well-being of people andthe planet. We use the oceans forsustenance, energy and mineralresources, transport and recreation.The sustainability of these life-enhancing activities depends on thecare we take to protect and conservethe seas and coastal areas.

QIs it possible to predict upcomingtsunamis and alert coastalcommunities?

AYes: we already have some sensorson the seabed and the oceansurface to detect earthquakes;however, their organization andcoordination needs to be improved. TheUnited Nations is working closely withits agencies and with governments tocreate a global early-warning systemdesigned to detect tsunamis and informcommunities at risk.

QIs it realistic to think of oceansas the solution to our futureenergy needs?

AWe must ask ourselves what wewill do when there is no longer

enough oil, gas and coal. We know wecan extract energy from the oceans, butwe should be careful not to damagetheir health and ecosystems. With moreresearch and development, our oceanscould become a reliable, affordable andenvironmentally sound energy serviceand resource.

Do you have any QUESTIONS on environmental issues that you would like the experts at UNEP to ANSWER?Please send them to uneppub @unep.org , and we will try to answer them in future issues.

answers yourQUESTIONS

Hank Foto/UNEP/Topham


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One billion people around the world depend on fish for their main source of protein.But the harvest of the ocean oncethought to be boundless is declining because itis being overexploited.

The seas are the last major part of the planet where modern man still behaves as ahunter-gatherer but pays far less attention toconserving stocks of prey for the future thansupposedly primitive hunting communities inthe worlds forests and deserts.

There are two and a half times as manyfishing boats plying the worlds seas and oceansas would be needed to catch the amount thatthey could harvest without depleting stocks. And governments subsidize them by a massive $15

billion a year, up to a quarter of the total value of the fish caught, to keep them in business.

So it is not surprising that three quarters of the worlds fisheries are in crisis either already

overexploited or pushing their limits; only a tiny4 per cent are underf ished. As each area has beenfished out, the fleets have moved on to others,depleting them in turn.

As a result despite all the boats, subsidiesand efforts of fishers the amount of fish caughtworldwide peaked at the turn of the millenniumand has since been declining. As populationgrowth has continued, the catch per person at14 kilograms is at its lowest level for 40 years.

Catches of many popular fish such as cod,flounder and hake have been cut in half, even

though the amount of effort put in to hunt them down has tripled. Over the last half century thenumber of large predatory fish in the oceans like tuna, marlin, swordfish and sharks hasdropped by a staggering 90 per cent. And over the same period the average size of a blue shark has plummeted from 52 to 22 kilograms.

Yet huge amounts of the global catch are wasted. Every year the worlds fishing fleets throwout some 20 million tonnes of fish and shellfish as unwanted by-catch. About one in every12 fish landed are returned, dead or dying, to the waters because selling them is not profitableenough, or because the f ishers have caught them in excess of conservation quotas.

Other wildlife is also killed as a by-product of fishing. Some 300,000 small whales, dolphinsand porpoises are fatally entangled in fishing nets each year, and over 250,000 endangered loggerhead and leatherback turtles are caught on longlines set for fish like tuna and swordfish.The lines also threaten some 19 species of albatross with extinction.

At last there is some effort to promote better fishing. An independent agency, the Marine

Stewardship Council (MSC), certifies sustainable fisheries so that consumers can choose to buyethically; so far it has endorsed 12 fisheries as sustainably managed, and 263 verified productsare on sale in 24 countries. And there is increasing interest in setting up protected areas whereno fish can be caught, so as to allow stocks to recover.

Saving fisheries

W.B. Folsom/NMFS/NOAA

J. Canete/UNEP/Topham

A. Pais/NOAA

V. Viyatvicha/UNEP/Topham

S . B .

L a c a y o

/ U N E P / T o p

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Protect to prosperOceans and seas dominate our blue planet, but they are safeguarded much less thanthe land. Though they cover 72 per cent of the Earths surface, less than 1 per centof their area is set aside in protected areas, compared with 12.5 per cent of the

relatively small amount of dry land. And two fifths of this 1 per cent lies in just two huge sites,the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral ReefEcosystem Reserve.

The vast majority of the worlds 4,000 marine protected areas (MPAs) lie close to the coastwhere they are relatively easy to police, and countries are also in a position to manage theirown exclusive economic zones, which run 200 nautical miles out to sea. But nearly two thirdsof the oceans lie beyond these, unman-aged and unprotected.

Protection is needed to foster biodiversity including such critical ecosystems as coralreefs, and endangered species like turtlesor monk seals and to help maintain theoceans productivity. When properly man-aged, protected areas or no-take zonescan work well. To take one example, partsof the Georges Bank, off the United Stateseast coast, were closed to fishing afteroverexploitation had devastated stocks.Within five years these had recovered, andfish began to spill over to surrounding fish-ing areas, dramatically increasing catches.

South Africa has just created four newMPAs to protect a sub-tidal coral reef,shark species under threat, an annualmigration of millions of sardines along itscoast, and some endangered seabirds.And last year Ireland announced MPAs andfishing restrictions to protect cold-watercorals home to 1,300 species of inverte-brates and fish off its west coast.

But some MPAs exist only in name, andpolicing is always difficult. Surveillance byguards, air and sea patrols and local com-munities is now being tightened, andsatellite tracking systems will help. Evenso, there is a further need for mechanismsto strengthen international protection.

H.S. Hystek/UNEP/Topham

A. Heimann/UNEP/Topham

A. Drake/UNEP/Topham

Millan/UNEP/Topham


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Less than 0.1 per cent of the energy of waves and tides, research suggests, could supply more than five times the worldscurrent demand for electricity. Structuresto capture it are already installed on theshoreline where the waves break, and inestuaries where tides ebb and flow. In2006, wave power devices will be placed up to 5 kilometres offshore.

Australia, China, France, India, Japan,Portugal, the Scandinavian countries and the United States are all developing oceanpower technologies. The engineering is

difficult as the machines though rela-tively inexpensive to operate and maintain must withstand storms and corrosion

from salt. Wave devices must also be ableto exploit both strong and weak waves.

Research and development for ways to

harness the oceans power may be costly.But as demands grow both for moreelectricity and for lower emissions of carbon dioxide the main cause of globalwarming, emitted by burning fossil fuels the attractions of clean energy from theseas are growing.

Barrier powerThe most advanced way to exploit thetides is by building barriers acrossestuaries. In this technology, pioneered in the 1960s, tides push water throughthe barriers, turning turbines to generateelectricity. The largest is at La Rance,northern France. But barrages have beencriticized for disturbing habitats. China isnow working on an artificial lagoonscheme at the mouth of the Yalu river,harnessing the energy of the tides as thewater pours out of the lagoon.

Waves and tides

Semi-submerged sea-snakes are dueto start generating electricity off north-ern Portugal in 2006. It will be the firstever commercial wave farm in theworlds oceans.

The snakes strictly speakingPelamis P-750 generators are madeup of four jointed sections, each 3.5metres in circumference and aboutthe length of a railway carriage. Aswaves move them, high-pressure oilis pumped through hydraulic motors,and these in turn drive electricitygenerators. The power is then carried tothe shore by an underwater cable.

The first phase of the project, withthree such generators, will produce

about the same amount of electricityas a modern wind turbine enough tomeet 1,500 households average needs,saving 6,000 tonnes of carbon dioxideemissions a year. If the $9-millionscheme 5 kilometres off the historiccity of Pvoa de Vari goes well, 30more sea-snakes are expected to beinstalled; these would generate enoughelectricity for more than 13,000 homesfrom around 70 hectares of sea.

Electric snakes

The Limpet

Ocean Power

Waves enter a sloping chamberbuilt along a shore, whichraises the water level inside.

The turbine rotates both as the water enters thechamber and as it falls back into the ocean. Theturbines movement drives a generator, whichcreates electricity.

The increased water level compresses air insidethe chamber, forcing a turbine to spin.

As 2006 began, the world had onlyone commercial wave-power generatingstation, on the Scottish island of Islay.The Limpet 500 (Land Installed MarinePowered Energy Transformer) produces

power for Britains national grid. Theoperator, Wavegen, and the developersof the technology researchers fromQueens University, Belfast believe therecould be enough recoverable wave power

around the United Kingdom to meet allthe countrys growing domestic electricitydemands, and more. The same team isnow developing wave power for theFaroe Islands.

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An artists impression of the sea-snakes.

The power of the oceans has alwaysdaunted humanity whetherthrough the sweep of its tides andcurrents, or the crash of its waves onthe shore. Now we may be beginningto exploit it to run our homes andbusinesses. It is not easy, partly

because the very power that makes itso attractive also makes it hard todesign and construct strong enoughdevices. But, wave and tidal powerhave staggering worldwide potential and produce clean energy, which doesnot cause pollution or accelerate

climate change. Of course we alreadyget oil and gas from under the seabed,from the Caspian to the South ChinaSea and the Caribbean, from theArctic to the Bight of Benin. But thesereserves are finite, and new sources of energy will be needed.


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Rigs have drilled in waters more than2,000 metres deep and 300 kilometres fromthe shore. Submersibles are floated intoshallow waters, then ballasted so they siton the seabed. Jackups used in watersup to 100 metres deep are towed out to

sea where their legs are lowered and theirhull jacked up out of the water. Drill ships anchored or kept in place by computer-controlled propellers prospect for oil ordrill in waters up to 1,500 metres deep.But semi-submersibles are the most

common of all; their superstructures standon columns rising from hulls or pontoonsballasted below the water surface, provi-ding excellent stability even in rough seasas much as 300 metres deep.

Oil platforms are industrial towns

suspended above the sea, complete withall the equipment and supplies needed bytheir workers, from drill operators todivers, engineers to cooks. Each platformtypically extracts oil and gas from anumber of reservoirs at the same time.

The tall derrick hauls the drillstring in andout of the hole, cooled by fluid calleddrilling mud. Water is pumped into thereservoir at high pressure to force upthe crude oil, a mixture of natural gas,water and oil. These are separated and

the water removed, along with particles.This wastewater can be used in the drillingmuds or to help extract more crude oil oris returned to the ocean after testing forcontaminants. The oil and gas are pumpedashore or loaded onto ships.

Undersea riches

Working rigs

It may have been just 90 metres off theCalifornian coast, but when it started pro-duction in 1897 it was the worlds first off-shore oil well. Now around 30 per cent of

our oil supplies come from offshore wells,as does about half our natural gas. Theyare exploited from some 8,000 platformsscattered around the worlds oceans.

It is much more expensive to extractoil and gas offshore than on land. But asdemand grows and reserves dwindle,

prices increase ensuring that exploit-ation at sea remains attractive.

There have been surprisingly few mas-sive spills considering the size of the

industry. But it still poses threats to sealife, at least nearby. Wastes from drilling pollute the seabed and damage life, deli-cate habitats can be disturbed and there areconcerns over disposing of the platforms,and the toxic substances they contain, after the oil fields they tap are exhausted.

When the wells run dry they may find a new planet-saving use. Technologies are

being developed to capture emissions of carbon dioxide from power plants and

the like, and pipe it into oil and gas wellsdeep under the seabed. This gives adouble benefit as it can help to flush outthe last oil and gas reserves: the United States is already disposing of some 32million tonnes of carbon dioxide in thisway every year.

mechanical crane

separation of crude oil(oil, gas and water)

high-pressure waterto the oil reservoir

drill

high-pressure waterpumped into reservoir

crude oil extractedfrom reservoir

gas and oil tobe sent inland

helipad

living andoperationsquarters

wastewater

gas-generated turbinecreating energy foruse on the rig

watergasoildrilling pipecrude oil

Oceans & Coasts 13

derrick


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Seagrasses the forgotten ocean ecosystem

Not only are they important breeding grounds for fish...

They are a valuable renewable resource providing income for local communities

after reaching it through drain outletsand sewers.

In all, 80 per cent of sea pollutioncomes from the land. The greatest loadcomes from untreated, or lightly treated,effluent from sewers, burdened both byhuman waste with harmful bacteria andviruses and pollution from industry andintensive agriculture.

Human sewage, agricultural fertilizersand other nutrients stimulate greatblooms of algae. Sometimes thesecontaminate shellfish with dangerouspoisons, and they always suck oxygenout of the water, often suffocating fish and

T hink about pollution of the sea,and big spectacular oil spills springto mind. But in fact they are aminuscule part of the problem, res-ponsible for only 5 per cent of the oil thatgets into the sea, itself just a smallcontribution to overall marine pollution.

Normal ship operations such asdischarges of oily ballast water from fueltanks pose much more of a problem.But, in fact, by far the biggest culpritsare cars and other land vehicles: theirused engine oil and oily water runningoff roads provides much the largestpercentage of oil pollution in the ocean,

Source: Hellenic Marine Environment Protection Association (HELMEPA)

Sticking around Throw a plastic bottle into the sea, or leave it on the beach after a picnic, and it will still be around in the middle of this millennium. Even apaper bus ticket will take weeks to disintegrate. Rubbish does break down at sea, but as the table shows it can take a surprisingly longtime to do so.

Black-footed albatross fledglings amidstbroken glass and other beach detritus.

Photo: M. Rauzon/UNEP/Topham

Time taken for objects to dissolve at sea

Paper bus ticket 2-4 weeks Cotton cloth 1-5 months Rope 3-14 months Woollen cloth 1 year

Painted wood 13 years Tin can 100 years Aluminium can 200-500 years Plastic bottle 450 years

Suffocating the Sea

But ensure the products are harvested sustainablywww.inspirationsfromcinnamon.comwww.rainkissed.com www.karintyrefors.com

4 TUNZA Vol 3 No 4


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other marine life. This contributes to thegrowth of dead zones in the seas andoceans. UNEP has identified 146 of them(see map): their numbers have doubledevery decade since the 1960s. Two ofthe biggest at around 70,000 squarekilometres are in the Gulf of Mexicoand the Baltic Sea. Meanwhile, chemicalslike polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)accumulate in fish.

Some 95 per cent of the worlds fishcatch comes from the coastal waterswhere we dump our waste. In all, pollutedcoastal waters cost the world economy$12.8 billion a year in death and disease.

M ore than half the worlds entirecoastline has been put under severe pressure by development. Coastalcities have expanded rapidly. Industries haveflocked to the shore, especially those con-nected to the sea, such as oil exploration,or those needing to be near ports. And tourism which makes huge demands onland, building materials, water and waste-disposal facilities puts pressure on naturalcoastal habitats, destroying, to take just oneexample, turtle nesting sites.

Coastal and ocean resources can be

managed sustainably, but it is difficult because responsibility for them has beenfragmented and many different interestsare involved. Yet recently an increasingnumber of small-scale tourist developmentshave been built on ecological and sus-tainable principles.

Take Mozambiques Guludo eco-lodge,which meets tourists needs while providingcommunity projects that reduce poverty and

promote biological and cultural diversity.Set in the Quirimbas National Park rich in

beautiful beaches, coastal forests, corals,mangroves and seagrasses it sets out todevelop local capabilities and use localmaterials, and to make the minimum impacton the environment and local ways of life.Visitors stay in bandas , spacious tented hutswith roofs thatched with makuti palm, builtwith minimal energy, and with thought as

to how the buildings and materials caneventually be reused or recycled.

Then theres the Mata de Sesimbraecotourism project in Portugal, the worldsfirst large-scale integrated sustainable-

building programme, set in an area whereurban development is causing coastal

erosion, habitat fragmentation and other problems. WWF and BioRegionals OnePlanet Living initiative will combine a4,800-hectare nature reserve and native

pine and oak forest restoration project with a500-hectare tourism development of up to25,000 beds. Its developers, Pelicano, wonlocal and national backing, in competitionwith conventional mass-tourism schemes.

The $1.2-billion project is set to be aglobal flagship in sustainable developmentand tourism. It will use sustainable buildingmaterials and has ambitious targets for

increasing energy and water efficiency and for reducing waste and carbon dioxideemissions. Visitors will pay a green tax tofund restoration, which will include re-instating ecological corridors and recoveringwetlands and other important riverine and coastal habitats.

Coast-effective

All around the worlds coastlines, effluentpours continuously into the sea.

Photo: D. Tapia Munoz/UNEP/Topham

Source: UNEP/GEO Year Book 2003

Pollution alert: coastal zones starved of oxygen

A small dead crab in sediments from adead zone in the Gulf of Mexico.

Photo: OAR/NURP/NOAA; Lousiana Univ. Marine Consortium

Mata de Sesimbra, Portugal.BioRegional WWF-Canon/P.J. Stephenson

Quirimbas National Park, Mozambique.

Dead or hypoxic zones, caused by the bloom and subsequent decomposition of algae, can be persistent (all year round),episodic (happening once a year or less),

periodic (once a year or more), or annual and associated with the seasons. The hypoxic zone off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico, for example, occurs during thesummer months.

Oxygen depletion Annual

Episodic

Periodic

Persistent

Oceans & Coasts 15


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T wenty-seven students scientists, engineers, social scientists, economists and management experts from nine countries gathered in Manila in October 2005 for theinaugural Eco-Minds Asia-Pacific Forum. They were challenged by the four-day programme to come up with creative and practical uses of science and technology to tacklereal-world problems in sustainable development, while emphasizing a multidisciplinary,international approach. They also had to predict the social impacts of the solutions they

proposed, and to test their viability: the programme encourages consideration of socio-economic and cultural factors at all stages of development, alongside its primary focus on

scientific and technical innovation.

Eco-Minds the UNEP-Bayer partnerships latest effort toincrease the environmental awareness of youth worldwide is an important forum for scientific capacity building,

said Dr Oels, Board Member of Bayer AG, in his openingaddress. It provides the participants with a fantasticopportunity to exchange ideas from their wide range of academic disciplines, get guidance from experts, visitrelevant ecological sites and work on solutions for real-world problems of sustainability.

Lectures were given by leading experts in science and technology, environment and business including

Professor Jeffrey Sachs, Director of the United NationsMillennium Project. These offered food for thought, helping

delegates to refine their ideas about dev-elopment and the environment. Said Leyla Acaroglu, fromAustralia, The lectures allowed us to develop a deeper understanding of the often conflicting views, motivationsand agendas that arise when attempting to find positivesolutions adhering to sustainable development.

The group broke into teams of three each representingdifferent countries and areas of expertise to work on acase study developed by Ateneo de Manila University.They were asked to help advise Tierra Verde, a hypo-thetical area in the Philippines, on a project to develop itsresources while providing livelihoods for local residents: mineralwater bottling, pineapple canning and shrimp farming were among the

proposed industries. Each team chose a proposal to present to Tierra Verdes localgovernment represented by a panel of judges on environmental protection, sustainabilityand social impact.

Tan Jack Young, an architectural technology graduate from theSingapore Polytechnic and a member of the winning team

said, The case study was very well thought out, with everyminute detail included. I initially found the environmental

management aspects quite challenging. But our teammembers complemented each other well, with each beingable to cover the respective areas of socio-economy,technology and environment.

The third main component of the programme provided a breath of fresh air. Delegates were given jungle survivaltraining in the pristine forests of Subic. It was an amazing

experience that really proved that there are natural and simple ways of creating the things you need to survive, said

Leyla Acaroglu.

This was the first of a series of biennial forums that will continue to give students

opportunities to synthesize ideas and broaden their knowledge of sustainable development.Eco-Minds is an amazing approach to getting us to realize that sustainable developmentrequires a multidisciplinary approach, said Philippines delegate Gerard G. Dumancas. It isan holistic programme where each field is given equal importance.

Elisabeth Guilbaud-Cox, from UNEP, said, This Forum will help increase the momentum for creating a world in which the wishes of the founders of the United Nations are truly fulf illed.

Finding solutions

Philippines President GloriaMacapagal-Arroyo opens the inaugural Eco-Minds Asia-

Pacific Forum.

A ustralian surfer Layne Beachley,winner of six consecutive worldsurfing titles, originally set up her Aimfor the Stars Foundation to help girlsaged 12 to 18 pursue their athleticgoals. However, she was so impressedby the efforts of three passionateyoung Australian environmentalists thatshe created the Beachley Environ-mental Award to honour them in the2006 round of grants.

In July 2005, grant winners Sarahand Kate Charters and MillicentBurggraf joined the 600 delegates fromaround the world at UNEPs inauguralChildrens World Summit for theEnvironment, which took place in Aichiprefecture, Japan. Inspired by theSummit, the three returned home andpresented the Summit petition whichchallenges world leaders to pay greaterattention to environmental issues andcommits the children to environ-mentally friendly actions to MayorDarren Ray of Port Phillip, their hometown, and to Victorias Minister forEnvironment and Deputy Premier, JohnThwaites. They even persuaded theMayor to sponsor their idea of makingthe local shopping centre plastic-bag free.

The girls plan to use the grant to attendthe 2006 Childrens World Summit forthe Environment, to take place inMalaysia, and to continue working onbehalf of the environment.

W i n n i n g w a y s

Delegates learn jungle survival skills.

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The diminutive record-breaking young yachtswoman,Ellen MacArthur, has much in common withalbatrosses, the worlds biggest birds. Both are

renowned for their fearlessness, and both travel hugedistances around the globe on the winds.

Ellen broke the world record last year for sailing single-handedly around the world on her custom-made trimaranB&Q/Castorama . At just under 1.6 metres tall, she caughtpublic imagination worldwide as she battled mountainousseas, mechanical troubles, injury and exhaustion. Her triumphwas the culmination of a lifelong love of the ocean.

Out at sea, she encountered many albatrosses. The survivalof 19 species of the birds is threatened by longline fishing

the practice of dragging lines of bait behind boats, on whichthe birds get hooked and drown.

Hailed on her return in February 2005 as Britains greatestsailor, she demonstrated her concern for wildlife by takingtime to participate in a survey of wandering albatrosses onAlbatross Island a wildlife sanctuary in South Georgia alongside researchers working with the Royal Society for theProtection of Birds and BirdLife International.

She told TUNZA that she wanted to draw attention to theirplight, as well as learn more about them. The current trend willlead to their extinction, so we need to give these birds the bestchance we can.

TUNZA caught up with her between her time on the island andher departure in March 2006 to establish new crewed speedrecords in Asian waters, when she hopes to be joined by youngChinese sailors.

Q: What first drew you to the sea and sailing? A: I joined my aunt on a sailing trip when I was very young, andafter a few days on board, I was totally hooked. My passion grewfrom there. I loved every element of being on the water; it feltlike total freedom and endless opportunity. I also enjoyed theresponsibility involved in sailing, and the preparation and care ittook to look after the boat on shore.

I have a huge respect for the ocean: in this professionyou need to understand what a complex and unpredictableenvironment it can be.

Q: Have you noticed changes to the marine environment onyour voyages?

A: I did notice on my last around-the-world trip that the icebergswere far further north then they had been, and the water

temperature was also marginally higher. This occurred over a four-year period, which suggests that there has been some effect dueto climate change.

Q: Through the Ellen MacArthur Trust, you promote the ideathat everyone has a goal. Do you feel that this applies toyoung people, and to the environment?

A: The Trust was set up to allow children with cancer andleukemia to experience a totally new world out on the water. Thetransformation in some of the children who have joined us onthe trips has been amazing and inspiring.

I think it is definitely im-portant for young peopleto have something to worktowards. It certainly helpsif you aim to achieve yourdreams whether its sailingor helping the environment and be the best you can!

Total freedom, endless opportunity

Team Ellen

B. Stchelbaut/DPPI/Offshore Challenges

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It all depends on me!...concluded the 45 envoys at the

most recent Bayer Young EnvironmentalEnvoy (BYEE) conference on envi-ronmental protection and sustainabledevelopment. The annual conference sponsored by the UNEP and Bayer Group partnership, and taking place inmid-November 2005 at the companysheadquarters in Leverkusen, Germany supports young people in their com-mitment to the environment.

The envoys aged 15 to 26, and from

14 countries in Africa, Asia, EasternEurope and Latin America werechosen from 800 applicants, after sub-mitting environmental projects and essays and undergoing interviews todetermine their knowledge, communi-cation skills and leadership qualities.Bayer gave them a week-long study tour at their global headquarters.

Dr Udo Oels, a Bayer AG Board Member, told them of the importantrole of sustainable development inenvironmental protection. The mainreason for your field trip to Germanyis to find out how politics, industryand private households interact inenvironmental protection and sustain-able development, he said.

The envoys toured Bayers facilitiesto see cutting-edge technology and learn how environmental concerns canbe translated into practical applicationsin, for example, crop production,

agricultural science, and the control and monitoring of air and water quality.

They heard experts in biochemistry

and attended workshops on Bayerschemical and pharmaceutical work. And they learned about UNEP from CeciliaKibare, Communication and PublicInformation officer, who described howits Tunza programme motivates childrenand young people to address environ-mental issues.

Yazmin Lucero Cobos Becerra, fromColombia, said she had most enjoyed visiting Bayers wastewater and solid-

waste treatment facilities, saying shehad learned a lot about methodsand technology to help her in her work at home.

The envoy programme began in1995 in Thailand and has expanded toinclude more countries ever since. Thisconference was the first to includeAfrica, represented by two youngKenyans, Yvonne Beatrice MasilingiMaingey and George Muchina Nguri.Its amazing for us Africans to be here,said Yvonne. Its a big responsibility

but really exciting.Priyank Gupta, from India, added:

This was a fantastic opportunity tomeet other like-minded young peoplefrom around the world and an oppor-

tunity to learn from the Bayer Groupscontribution to sustainable developmentand global challenges.

The participants also discussed environmental issues and their indi-

vidual projects, the best part for Oliver Goh, from Singapore, because it pro-vided us with a platform to present our

ideas and generate more solutions todifferent questions.

Envoys were also able to build networks. Rahima Indria said one of her goals was to meet fellow Indonesians inother cities and on other islands so asto work together on common projectsand aims.

But it wasnt just work. Envoyswere taken on tours of nearby historicsites including Cologne Cathedral,

a World Heritage Site, and the Rhineriver another chance to get to knoweach other.

I have made lots of good friends. Wecan all learn from each other, com-municate and discuss similar issueswith enthusiasm, said Ding Chen,from China.

Added Lester Louis L. Lpez, fromthe Philippines, I hope many more

people experience BYEE, because itis empowering and encouraging and much more.

Michael Schade, Head of CorporatePolicy and Media Relations at Bayer,said he is always impressed by theenvoys because they take their work seriously. The little changes they bring

about, he commented, add up to bigdifferences.Said Rosidah Hardiani, of Indonesia:

We came together because we want tomake the Earth better.

Big responsibility

'This programme is a very interestinginitiative; it can help improve the life of our countries.' Tatiane Guimares, Brazil

'On returning home, I am committedto passing on my experience toother young people in mycommunity.' Priyank Gupta, India

'Bayer has the power to spreadideas about sustainabledevelopment.' Aleksandra

Tomkiewicz, Poland

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When Columbus reached the CaymanIslands his boats had to row throughdensely packed turtles in the shallowwaters. Even in the 20th century,sharks were once regular company onalmost every dive in the Caribbean,yet many reef divers today thrill tocatch just the briefest glimpse of afleeing shark. And everywhere, young-sters laugh as old men describe thesize of the fish they used to catch.

Every generation establishes a senseof what is normal based on what theyremember having seen, and we tend toset our goals for conservation in muchthe same way. We think we must workto keep things as they are or, at most,hope to see a few slightly biggercreatures and a few more corals.

But we are much too low in ourexpectations, and thankfully there arestill some places that remind us to raiseour sights. On the Silver Banks northof the Dominican Republic, its stillpossible to sit in a boat surroundedby humpback whales. Divers can befollowed about by enormous jewfishand continuously buzzed by sharks insoutheast Cuba. There are beachesin Central America where over 10,000turtles still come up to breed eachyear. Snappers gather to spawn off thecoast of Belize in such numbers thatwhale sharks the worlds largest fish come in schools to feed on the eggs inthe plankton.

This is the environment we should beaiming towards restoring everywhere.

R a

i s i n g s

i g h t s

Its a really wonderful thing to participateon behalf of Africans. For me, this is anextraordinary opportunity to tap intoenvironmental work. George MuchinaNguri, Kenya

Environmentalprotection is always

an investment inthe future.

Dr Udo Oels, Bayer AG Board Member

www.bayeryoungenvoy.com/

Bayer

Bayer

Bayer

Bayer

Bayer

Bayer

E. Cooper

E. Cooper

E. Cooper

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Teoh Chin Hock/UNEP/Topham

Oceans & Coasts 19


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Things I have seen and donewhen diving have taken my breath

away from swimming with reef sharks andexploring shipwrecks, to being awe-inspired time

and again by the beauty and vastness of a coral reef.

The sea has always aroused my curiosity. I first entered theunderwater world at the age of 10, scuba diving in the Red Sea with my

family. When I got home I filled my classmates' heads with stories ofmy adventures in the magical world that lay just beneath the surfaceof the water.

In diving I found my secret garden, my secret place. Walking to the seawearing a wetsuit and with a heavy tank on my back, I felt like anexplorer, struggling against the odds. Once under the water, I was

weightless, as if walking on the moon, euphoric. A decade and

many dives later, the childlike fantasies that filled my headhave evolved, but the euphoria and the feeling of stepping

into another world have not. A couple of years ago, inMexico, I came across a kindred

spirit: the damselfish. Colourful andabout the length of my little finger, this

diminutive species will defend its territory withgreat ferocity. As I hovered there, watching it

'farming' its patch of algae, it suddenly faced mehead on, seemed to narrow its little eyes at me andcharged, defiantly trying to scare me away, to showme who was boss. Something about its deter-mination took me back to when I was a little girl,

thinking that if I puffed out my chest and stareda person in the eye I could win any battle.

Being able to reach outinto a mysterious and natural

world is exhilarating, with itsadrenaline rushes and touching quirks.

The oceans are so full of life, with animmense diversity of species evolved overmillions of years. As long as we respect ourplace as the oceans' guests, diving provides away to explore them that is simply not

possible from the world above.Get the necessary training.

Take local advice and remember that thesea is much stronger than you are.

Tell someone where you are going.

Go diving with a friend, never alone.

Treat the sea and all its inhabitants withrespect. (Don't chase anything!)

Avoid touching anything, including the coral;it's an animal, not a rock!

Leave everything as you found it.

Enjoy it!

If you don't have the opportunity to scubadive but find yourself near the sea,

snorkelling and free diving offer a cheaperwindow on the underwater world.

Meetingmy minuscule

match

Essential tips:

Kate de Mattos

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M entioning corals conjuresup the warm, shallow, tur-quoise waters of the tropics.

But some species inhabit dark, cold,nutrient-rich waters in virtuallyevery ocean on Earth. But asthese cold-water corals aremore remote than their warm-water cousins, and usuallylive in relatively inaccessibleareas like the edges of thecontinental shelf and water sometimes hundreds of metresdeep, it is only recently that scientistshave been able to examine them moreclosely.

These corals form habitats just as largeand complex as the more familiar warm-water corals, includingreefs and forest-like gardens inotherwise rather featurelessand murky surroundings. Inthe darker, colder waters,they cannot rely on algae for their nutrients, but live onorganic matter floating by on

the currents. It is the absence of algae in their tissues that makes thesecoral communities less colourful than thereefs of warmer environments; never-theless they provide habitats for thousands of other species, includingcommercial fish.

Indeed, commercial fishingposes the greatest threat to

them. Take the commonpractice of bottom-trawling,

when a fishing boat dragsalong the seabed a net held open by metal trawl doors tocatch bottom-dwellers such asflatfish and crustaceans. The doors,which can weigh several tonnes, smashinto corals and stir up sediment, oftendestroying or severely disrupting the reef ecosystem.

Exploring for and producing oil and gas,laying cables and pipelines and thedumping of wastes also pose threats. And because the corals some up to 8,000years old are slow growing and fragile,it may take centuries for these treasuretroves of biodiversity and economicworth to recover.

S altwater aquariums,with their vivid clownfish nestled

among anemones, shrimpshiding under corals and other

glimpses of the underwater world, areinspirational. But 99 per cent of thesecreatures are harvested from the wild,from coral reefs in such countries asIndonesia and the Philippines.

Conservationists say that irres- ponsible collection methods

including cyanide fishing,tapping on habitats to scare

fish into the open, and breaking off chunks of reef to remove key species harm

delicate environments alreadyunder pressure from such stresses

as climate change.

Poor handling means that fish die intransit to the United States, Europe and other places where aquarium keepingis popular. But those that survive fetch

high prices, so collectors catch as

many as they can to allow for these losses, often resorting toenvironmentally unfriendly practices.

Farming fish could be asolution. Some popular species

including anemone clownfishand certain corals breed successfully

in tanks, but the spawning cycles of most are too vulnerable for success. And unless it is done in local communities,

farming can deprive small-scale collectorsof their livelihoods.

Supporters of the trade arguethat, with education and training, communities, ex- porters, importers, retailersand hobbyists could bothensure a living for local people

and promote the conservationof coral reefs. The Marine

Aquarium Council (MAC) whichhas developed sustainable trade standards

trains and certifies collectors, whole-salers and retailers. This gives collectorssustainable livelihoods and assures

buyers that they are helping to conservecoral reefs.

Home fromhome

The othercorals

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Is it a unicorn or a corpse? The narwhalwhale ( Monodon monoceros ) of the Arctic which can grow up to5.2 metres long and weighup to 1.8 tonnes has beencalled both. Its name comesfrom the Old Norse wordsfor corpse whale, thoughopinions differ as to why.Some say its because ofthe mottled appearance ofits skin; others insist that itsbecause the creature often

swims belly-up. Its more romantic appel-lation comes from its most distinguishing

feature, the males usuallysingle ivory tusk, which cangrow to as much as 3metres in length, earning itthe name unicorn of thesea. Indeed the narwhalmay have been the originfor the mythological animalitself.

6. Southern Ocean: Emperor Penguins

M arch of the Penguins has caughtthe imagination of the world, makingthe film one of the most unexpected boxoffice hits ever. Its heroesand heroines, the emperorpenguins, are the only ani-mals to spend the winterin the coldest place on theplanet. The largest penguin

species standing almost1.3 metres they are insu-lated by a dense network of11 feathers on every squarecentimetre of their bodies.

But even this cannot keep out temperaturesthat can plunge to minus 60 degreescentigrade. So in a unique cooperative

effort they clump togetherin huge, huddled masses,taking turns to move to theinside to warm up, andthen moving out to theedge again to give others

their chance.

7. North Atlantic:the Sargasso Sea

When Christopher Columbus bumpedinto masses of vegetation on his wayto the New World, he thought he was aboutto hit land. But he was still in the middle ofthe Atlantic. He was in the oval-shapedSargasso Sea 1,100 kilometres wide and3,200 kilometres long between the Azoresand the Caribbean which gets its namefrom the seaweed, Sargassum , that floats

in huge quantities on the calm, deep bluewaters. Sailors used to think their ships,slowing down in the quiet waters, wereactually being held by the seaweed givingthe sea a reputation as a nautical menace.The seaweed is home to many marinespecies, and the sea is the breedingground for both the American eel and theEuropean eel.

7 Seas

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F. Bruemmer/Still Pictures

F. Lochon/UNEP/Topham

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23/24Oceans & Coasts 23

5. Indian Ocean: the Coelacanth

They thought that the coelacanth hadbeen extinct for millions of years, butit turned up in the catches of local

fishermen. Museum curatorMarjorie Courtenay-Latimerspotted the unusual-lookingfish when inspecting cat-ches near the mouth ofthe Chalumna River, South

Africa, for interesting speci-mens. Up to then, the fish whose ancestors are be-lieved to have first appearedon Earth 350 to 400 million

years ago, and which is often describedas a living dinosaur had only been knownthrough fossils. More of the fish were later

found near the ComorosIslands, and it turned outthat their people knew thefish well, but thought of itas second-rate, as it isdoesnt taste very good.

3. North Pacific:the Mariana Trench

C limbing to the highest point on Earth isa doddle, compared to descending toits deepest one. Many people now scaleMount Everest each year but only two Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh haveplunged down to the bottom of the 11-kilometre-deep Mariana Trench near Guamin the North Pacific, and that was nearly halfa century ago (see page 6). Yet it contains

potential treasures. In the mid-1990s, forexample, Japanese scientists using aremote-control submarine probe dis-covered a bacterium, Moritella yayanosii .The bacterium, which contains the medicallyuseful proteins DHA and EPA, previouslyfound only in fish oils, has potential fortreating cancer and hypertension.

2. Black Sea: the Great Flood

Many traditions tell of a great flood earlyin the history of civilization. Recentresearch suggests that it mayactually have happened, form-ing the present shape of theBlack Sea. Geologists havefound evidence that waterflooded from the Mediterra-nean through the Bosphoros at 200 times the rate of theflows over the Niagara Falls around 5600 BC. Marinearchaeologists have found

what appear to be ancient shorelines andman-made structures, dating from about

the same time, under 100metres of water off theseas coasts. The theory isdisputed, but some believethat this could solve anold mystery: what trig-gered the massive spreadof proto-Indo-Europeanpeople throughout Europeand Asia?

4. South Pacific: Kelp Forests

Everyone knows what coral reefs looklike, but kelp forests the next mostspectacular habitats in the ocean aremuch less well known. Thriving in cold,nutrient-rich waters around the world withthe giant seaweed growing as tall as 30metres from seabed to surface the denseforests house great biodiversity, providingfood and shelter for creatures from the lowlysponge to giant crabs and octopi. Manyare under threat. One of the words biggestgiant kelp species ( Macrocystis pyrifera ), inthe waters around Tasmania, has beendeclining under the impact of rising watertemperatures, an increase in sea urchinsand pollution.

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our future oceans...

if we dont fish sustainablyE. Cooper

TUnza_3.4 Oceans and Coasts

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