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~ e f
AND
~ f J G Y
E L S E V I E R Journal of Photochemistryand PhotobiologyB: Biology36 (1996) 87-93
Tum our photosensit izers approaches to enhance the selec t iv i ty and
efficiency of photodynam ic therapy
G i u l i o J o r i
Department o f Biology, University of Pa dova, via Trieste 75. 35121 P adova. Italy
Abs t r ac t
While Photofrin, the photosensitizer currently in clinical use for photndynaraic therapy (P DT ) of tumours, has been show n to be both
efficacious and safe in the treatm ent of a variety of huma n ~:ancers, ts chem ical heterogeneity and low absorbance in the phototherape utically
useful wavelt:ngth range (600-850 nm) make the developlrtent of new pho tosensitizers with improve d characteristics desirable. A suitable
manipulation of the molecular structure of porphyrins offers several interesting possibilities for controlling the optical and photophysical
properties of the photosensitizer, as well as its bindistribution between tumour and pe ri tu ~ ra l tissues or at the subtissular and subcellular
level. The achievem ent of these goals m ay also be facilitated by the association of the photoseasitizer w ith selected delivery systems, opening
the way to a qualitative and quantitative improvement of PD T.
Keywords: Tumourphotosensitizers;Photofrin
1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
The r ecen t r egu la to ry app rova l o f Pho to f r in as a tumour -
pho to sens i t i z ing agen t fo r the pho todynam ic therapy (PD T)
o f lung , oesophagea l and b ladder cancer opens new cha l -
lenges to bo th c l in ic ians and bas ic inves t iga to r s s ince t ime
now seems r ipe fo r a qua l i t a t ive improvemen t o f the tech -
n ique a long d i f f e r en t gu ide l ines , such as : ( a ) def in i t ion o f
PD T p ro toco ls w h ich y ie ld op t imal r esu l t s w i th sp ec i f ic turn-
ou r types ( e .g . tu rnou ts a t d i f f e r en t ana tomica l s i t es , o r hav -
ing d i f f e r en t th ickness , h i s to log ica l f ea tu res , deg ree o f
vascu la r iza t ion , e tc . ) and assessme n t o f the po ten t ia l o f PDT
to com pete w i th ex is t ing therap ies fo r the same tumour s ; ( b )
e n h a n c e m e n t o f t h e e f f i c a c y o f P D T ( e . g . i n c r e as e d s e l e ct i v -
i ty o f tumour ta rge t ing p oss ib ly th rough con juga t ion o f the
pho to sens i t i ze r to tumour - spec i f ic de l ivery sy s tems ; in t r a -
opera to r ia l app l ica t ion o f PDT fo r the s te r i l i za t ion o f the
tumour bed a f te r su rg ica l r esec t ion ) ; and ( c ) expans ion o f
the scope o f PD T to t r ea t cond i t ions o ther t it an m al ignanc ies ,
inc lud ing a theromas , r es tenos is o f a r te r ies a f te r ang iop las ty ,
pso r ias i s and sex ua l ly t r an smi t ted d i seases , v i r a l o r microb ia l
in f ec t ions and b loo d bank ing [ 1 ] .
Mo s t p r e - c l in ica l and c l in ica l s tud tes have been per fo rme d
so f a r w i th Pho to f r in I I , a chem ica l ly p r epared der iva t ive o f
haematopo rphy r in , and an impress ive body o f in fo rmat ion
has been co l le c ted on the in v i t r o / in v ivo behav iou r o f th i s
d rug [2 - 4 ] in sp i te o f it s in tr in s ic l imi ta t ions , such as the
la rge deg ree o f chemica l he te rogene i ty and the low mo lar
1011-1344/96/$15.00 1996 Else vierScienceS.A. All ngMs reserved
P i l S I O I I - 1344 (96 )0735 2 -6
ex t inc t ion coef f ic ien t in the r ed spec t r a l r eg ion [5 ] . T hese
da ta were u sed as a bas i s to deve lop and tes t a l a rge number
o f second genera t ion tum our - loca l ize r s and -pho to sens i t i ze r s ,
f rom wh ich a hand fu l o f pho to therapeu t ic agen ts has been
se lec ted ~ ,d p r esen t ly a r e in phase I / I I c l in ica l t r i a l s ( see
Tab le 1 ) . Un l ike Pho to f r in , a l l newly proposed PDT agen ts
a r e charac te r ized by a h igh deg ree o f chemica l pu r i ty and a
h i g h m o l a r e x t i n c ti o n c o e f f i c i e n t a t t h e a b s o r p t i o n m a x i m u m
in the r ed spec t r a l r eg ion , wh ich i s l a rger by one o r two o ther s
o f magn i tude than tha t typ ica l o f Pho to f r in a t 630 nm. Th is
a r t ic le r ev iew s the com mo n f ea tu res and spec i f ic p roper t ies
o f such pho to sens i t i ze r s in an a t temp t to d r aw som e conc lu -
s ions of genera l in terest .
2 . G e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f a p h o t o d y n a m l c t u m o u r
s e n s i t i z e r
Some proper t ies wh ich have been iden t i f ied as typ ica l o f
an e f f ic ien t pho todynamic tu rnou t sens i t i ze r a r e l i s ted in
Tab le 2 . Such proper t ies can be opera t iona l ly subd iv ided in to
pbys ico -cbem ica l , pho tophys ica l , pharm aco log ica l and pho -
to therapeu t ic . I t i s obv ious f rom Ta b le 2 tha t the success o f
a PD T t r ea tmen t r equ i r es an op t im al in te rp lay am ong a num-
ber o f severa l d i f f e r en t pa ramete r s and none o f the p r esen t ly
ava i lab le tumour pho to sens i t i ze r s mee ts a l l r equ i r emen ts to
a sa t i s f ac tory ex ten t . How ever , po rphy r in s and th e i r ana logs
(ch lo r in s , ph tha locyan ines , naph tha locvan ines , po rphyce-
nes ) a r e endowed w i th two f av 'mrab le tea tu res :
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~8 G. Jor i /Jo urn al o f Photochemis try and Photobio logy B: Bio logy 36 (1996) 87- 93
"' able I
"l'amourphotosensitizerspresently used in clinical rials for PDT of tumoars
'1 oto~ nsitiz er Remarks Absorption maximum Molar Reference
in the red absorptivity ~
n m ) M -
Is cm-~)
Phot. )frin contains main lycovalentHp oligomers,plu s 630 3 200 ~' [41
Hp, Pp and HVD
Benz~,,~orphyrinderivativ e requires lipid-baseddelivery ystems 690 43 000 [6]
Mono.~spartyl-chlorine6 fast clearanc e rom umo ur/skin 675 47 000 17]
m-Tetrahydroxypbenyl-chlorin to be administered n alkaline solutionsor 35 000 [ 8]
water/DMSO mixtures
$n ( IV -etioparpurin requires lipid-baseddelivery ystems 660 28 000 [9 ]
Zn( il)-phthalocya nine requires lipid-baseddelive ry ystems 675 243 000 {10]
Hp = haematoporphyrin; Pp = pm toporphyrin; HVD = hydroxyethyl-vinyl-deatemporphyrin
a Da ta for n,,onomericcompounds, with he exceptionof Photofrin
t, App roximatevaluedue to inhomogeneityof the preparalion and scarse reproducibilityof monomer.oligomer quilibria
1 . The po ;s ib i l i ty to m od i fy the chem ica l s t ruc tu re a t d i f -
f e r en t loc i and w i th var ious leve ls o f complex i ty , inc lud ing
the s ize ~ f the ma crocyc le and the ex tens ion o f the a romat ic
e lec t ron c loud , the coo rd ina t ion o f meta l ions w i th the fou r
central n i trogen ,~toms, and the nature of the per ipheral sub-
s t i tuen ts and /o r , ax ia l i igands ( see F ig . 1 ) . Th is a l lows a
r emarkab le f lex ib i l i ty in the des ign o f the pho to sens i t i z ing
agen t , so tha t d if fe r< .;nt l eve ls o f hyd ro - / l ip o -ph i l ic i ty , t en -
dency to unde rgo agg rega t ion , sub t i s su la r o r subce l lu la r d i s -
t r ibu tion , spec t ro scop k ' and pho toph ys ica l p roper t ies can be
impar ted to the pho to se l : s i t i ze r mo lecu le [ I 1 ] .
Thus , the in se r t ion o f two p o la r subs ti tuen ts ( e .g . ca rbox -
y la te , su lphona te o r hyd roxy l g roup s ) on two ad jacen t r ings
o f t h e m a c r o c y c l e a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t p r e s e n c e o f a h y d r o -
p h o b i c m a t r i x o n t h e o p p o s i t ~ s i d e o f t h e m o l e c u l e ( t w o
unsubs t i tu ted r ings ) makes the pho to sens i t i ze r an amph i -
ph i l ic spe c ies ; in th i s way , the po rphy r in a ch ieves a su f fic ien t
wate r - so lub i l i ty , to a l low i t s sy s temic in jec t ion in v ivo , wh i le
i t r e ta in s a h igh tendency to c ro ss the l ip id bar r ie r o f the
c y t o p l a s m i c m e m b r a n e o f t u m o u r c e l l s a n d l o c a l i z e a t e n d o-
ce l lu la r s i t es [ 12 ] . I n par t icu la r , a p r e le r en t ia l t a rge t ing o f
ly sosom es has been propose d to occu r [ 13 ] fo r amph iph i l ie
d isu lphona ted ph tha iocyan ines . Even in the case o f deep ly
hyd roph ob ic p o rphy r ino id s , such as those ha 'Ang one o r no
po la r subs t i tuen ts , sy s tem ic in jec t ion in to the b loods t r eam i s
poss ib le , p rov ided the pho to sens i t i ze r s a r e p r e - il , co rpo ra ted
in to su itab le de l ivery sy s tems (Ta b le 3 ) .
A t the sam e t ime , the p r esence o f e lec t r ica l ly charged func-
t iona l g roups p ro t rud ing f rom the p y r ro le r ings o r bulk) " ax ia l
i igands perp end icu la r to the p lane o f the po rphy r in mo le~.ule
genera tes e lec t ro s ta t ic r epu ls ion and s te r ic h ind rance , the reby
preven t ing the fo rm at ion o f agg rega tes [ 17 ] wh ich w ou ld
d ras t ica l ly inh ib i t the pho to sens i t i z ing ac t iv i ty [18 ,19 ] .
A c t u a l l y , a l t ho u g h t h e o l i g o m e r i c c o m p o n e n t s o f P h o t o fr i n
are known to g ive the main con t r ibu t ion to the tumour - loca i -
iz ing proper t ies , i t is now genera l ly accep ted tha t on ly mon-
omer ic po rphy r ino id s ac t as e f f ic ien t pho to sens i t i ze r s o f
b io log ica l sy s tem s , espe c ia l ly in d i f fu s ion -con t ro l led pho to -
processes [20 ] .
Typica l ly , in neu t ra l aqueo us so lu t ions a t 10 p ,M conc en -
t r a t ions , on ly abou t 50% o f d ica rboxy l ic haematopo rphy r in
and deu te ropo rphy r in ex is t in a monomer ic s ta te , compared
wi th 100% m onom er iza t ion fo r the oc tad icarboxy l ic u ropo r -
p h y r in [ 1 7 ] . S i m i l a rl y , A l ( I I I ) - p h t h a l o c y a n i n e s s h o w a
much smal le r t endency to agg rega te than the co r r espond ing
Z n ( I I ) - d e r i v a t i v e s o w i n g t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n a d d i t i o n a l
o r thogona l l igand ( e .g . ch lo r ine) fo r the AI ion [21 ] . An
ana logous inh ib i t ion o f agg rega t ion was ob ta ined by fu s ion
o f ou t -o f -p lane cyc l ic hyd rocarbon s t ruc tu res w i th the i so in -
do le r ings , o f ph tha locyan ine , such as in Zn ( I I ) - te t r ab enz o -
d ibar r e leno -oc tabu toxy -ph tha locyan ine [ 22 ] .
2 . The pr esence o f ab so rp t ion bands in the 600 -850 nm
wavelen g th reg ion , co r r esponds w i th ma x im al l igh t pene t r a -
t ion in to mam mal ian t i s sues [23 ] . F o r ligh t ly p igm en ted
tumour s the t r an smiss ion o f inc iden t l igh t inc reases up to
a b o u t 7 0 0 n m , w h i l e i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n e x t e n s i v e p i g m e n -
t a ti o n ( s u c h a s i n m e l a n o t ic m e l a n o m a ) o n l y a t w a v e l e n g th s
longer than 780 nm i s some t i s su la r t r an sparency i s observed
[ 23 ] : a s a consequen ce , p igm en ted me lanom a i s in sens i t ive
to PDT wi th Pho to f r in and undergoes an impor tan t pho to -
damage on ly in the p r esence o f naph tha locyan ines wh ich
d i s p l a y a n in t e n se a b s o rb a n c e ( E a b o u t 5 0 0 0 0 0 M - ~ c m - ~ )
a t 780 nm, thereby e f f ic ien t ly compet ing wi th melan in fo r
l igh t ab so rp t ion [24 ] .
In genera l , the u se o f pho to sens i t i ze rs w i th a h igh ex t inc-
t ion coef f ic ien t o f f e r s the p oss ib i l i ty to in jec t sm al le r d rug
doses , wh ich g ives fu r ther advan tages over Pho to f r in and
o ther haematopo rphy r in - r e la ted po rphy r in s wh ich exh ib i t a
w e a k a b s o r b a nc e a b o v e 6 0 0 n m ( T a b l e 1 ) . A n i n g e n i ou s
man ipu la t ion o f the chemica l s t ruc tu re o f the pho to sens i t i ze r
o f ten a l lows one to enhance the mo lar ab so rp t iv i ty , as wel l
as to sh i ft the abso rp t ion bands in o rder to ob ta in an op t im al
match ing to the op t ica l charac te r i s ti cs o f any g iven tumour .
Typica l examp les a r e summ ar ized in Tab le 4 . C lear ly , the
a , ld i t ion o f one o r two benzene mo ie t ies to each py r ro le o r
the in se r tion o f add it iona l doub le bonds in to the 18 z - e lec t ro n
c loud o f the po rphy r in m acroc yc le r esu l ts in a r ed sh i f t o f the
a b s o ~ t i o n m a x i m u m a n d h y p e r c h ro m i c i t y . A " f i n e t u n i n g "
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G. Jori /Journal of Phowchemistry and Photobiology B: Biology 36 1996) 87-93
Table 2
Main features of an efficient photodynamic agent for tun,ours
Property Related structural and biological features
Physico-chemical
High chemical purity
Large mo lar extinction coefficient in the red
Low tendency to aggregation in an aqueous m ilieu
Photophysical
Long triplet lifetime
High yield of nO2 generation an d/or electron transfer to substrate molecules
Pharmacological
Efficient and selective targeting of the tumou r tissue
Fast clearance from serum and healthy tissues
Low system ic toxicity
Phototherapeutic
Efficient and preferential killing of m alignant cells
Lack o f side effects
Lack of mutagenic potential
Purification may be especially laborious in the p resence of two or more
peripheral substituents and/or chiral centers
Extensive conjug ation of 'x electrons alon g the n~.acrocycle
Presence of electrically charged perip heral substituents or bulky axial
ligands to the central metal ion
Extensive monomerization ( favoured by distribution in apolar regioos of
membranous systems )
Easy accessibility by m olecular oxygen or close p roximity to substrates with
suitable redox potential
Hydmphobic or amphiphilic properties; association with suitable delivery
systems
High affinity for serum proteios responsible for transport of dyes from
peripheral tissues to liver
Lethal dost: (LD-50) higher than ca. 300 mg k g- t body weight
Large concentration difference between tumourlpentumoural tissues and/o r
fast healing of any p butodemag~l healthy tissue
Minimal accumulation in skin to avoid cutaneous p hotosensitivity
No photoeffect on D NA
o f t h e a b s o r p t i o n p r o p e r t i e s c a n b e a l s o a c h i e v e d : t h u s , p a r t i al
h y d r o g e n a t i o n o f o n e o r t w o p y r r o l e r i n g s c o n v e r ts p o r p h i n e s
t o c h l o r i n s a n d , r e s p e c t i v e l y , b a c t e r i o c h i o r i n s w i t h a s i m u l -
t a n e o u s b a t h o c .h r o m i c s h i f t o f 5 0 - 1 5 0 n m [ 2 6 ] ; h o w e v e r , t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f e i g h t a l k o x y s u b s t i t u e n t s i n t h e / 3 p o s i t i o n o f
t h e p h e n y l r i n g o f t h e p h t h a l o c y a n i n e i s o i n d o l e s , a s w e l l a s
t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e ce n t r a l G e ( I V ) i o n by P d ( l I ) , a l l o w s
o n e t o s h i f t t h e a b s o r p t i o n b a n d t o s e le c t e d w a v e l e n g t h s i n
t h e 7 0 0 - 8 0 0 n m i n t e r va l [ 2 7 ] .
I n a n y c a s e , n o a p p r e c i a b l e c y t o t o x i c i t y i s s h o w n b y t h e
p h o t o s e n s i t i z e r o r l i g h t a l o n e , a t l e a s t a t t h e p h o t o t h e r a p e u b
i c a l l y a c t i v e d r u g d o s e s a n d f l u e n c e r a t e s : o n l y t h e c o m b i -
n a t i o n o f t h e t w o a g e n t s c a u s e s t u m o u r d a m a g e [ 2 , 2 5 ] .
A c t u a l l y , L D - 5 0 v a l u e s f o r m o s t p o r p h y r i n o i d s r a n g e
b e t w e e n 2 0 0 - 5 0 0 m g k g - t b o d y w e i g h t a s c o m p a r e d w i t h
i n j e c te d d o s e s l o w e r t h a n 5 , an d s o m e t i m e s I m g k g - t w h i c h
a r e r e c o m m e n d e d i n c u r r e n t P D T p r o t o c o ls . M o r e o v e r , n o
f u n c t i o n a l o r m o r p h o l o g i c a l a l t e ra t i o n s h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n
p o r p h y r i n - l o a d e d t i ss u e s [ 2 8 ] ; o n e p o s s i b le e x c e p t i o n i s
r e p r e s e n t e d b y m e s o - t e t r a ( 4 - s u l p h o n a t o p h e n y l ) p o r p h i n e
( T P P S 4 ) , f o r w h i c h k i d n e y a n d n e u r a l t o x i c i t y h a s b e e n
c l a i m e d [ 2 9 ] . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , i r r a d i a t i o n o f t i s s u e s w i t h
l i g h t w a v e l e n g t h s l o n g e r t h a n 6 0 0 n m c a u s e s n o d e t e c ta b l e
e f f e c t s , p r o v i d e d t h e f l u e n c e r a t e i s k e p t b e l o w a b o u t
1 5 0 m W c m - 2 i n o r d e r t o a v o i d h e a t d e p o s it i o n i n t h e t i s su e
a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t o n s e t o f t h e r m a l d a m a g e .
I n t h e n e x t p a r a g r a p h s t h e p h a r m a c o k i n c t i c a n d p h o t o -
b i o l o g i c al p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h c o n t r o l t h e e f fi c a cy o f t h e P D T
t r e a t m e n t w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d .
3 , S e l e ct i v it y o f P D T a c t i o n o n t h e t u m o u r t i s s u e
T h e e s s e n t ia l g o a l o f P D T i s to i n d u c e a n e f f i c i en t p h o t o -
s e n s i ti z e d n e c r o s i s o f t h e t u m o u r m a s s w h i l e m i n i m i z i n g t h e
d a m a g e o f t h e p e r i t u m o u r a l t i s s ue s .
A f i rs t c r i t e r i o n t o a s s e s s t h e p o t e n t i a l s e l e c t i v i t y o f P D T
t r e a t m e n t i s t h e r a ti o b e t w e e n t h e p h o t o s e n s i t i z e r c o n c e n t ra -
t i o n i n t h e t u r n o u t a n d t h e t i s s u e f r o m w h i c h t h e t u r n o u t
o r i g i n a t e s o r i n t o w h i c h t h e t u m o u r g r o w s . T h i s r a t i o i s h a r d l y
p r e d i c t ab l e s i n c e t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f p o r p h y r i n u p t a k e a n d
c l e a r a n c e b y t u r n o u t s a r e p o o r l y u n d e r s t o o d a n d i t i s l i k e l y
t h a t t h e o v e r a l l p r o c e s s i s t h e r e s u l t a n t o f v a r i o u s p r o p e r t i e s
t y p i c a l o f m o s t n e o p l a s t i c t i s s u e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e l e a k y v a s -
c u l a t u r e , h i g h c e l l p r o l i f e r a t i o n r a t e , l o w e r p H v a l u e , a n d
i n e f f i c i e n t l y m p h a t i c d r a i n a g e [ 4 ] . F o r P h o t o f r i n , re p o r t e d
r a t io s v a ry f r o m 1 - 1 . 5 ( s k i n t u r n o u t s ) t o a b o v e 1 0 ( b r a i n
t u m o u r s , a s o n e w o u l d e x p e c t o w i n g t o t h e i n a b il i t y o f p o r -
p h y r i n d e r i v a t i v e s t o c r o s s t h e i n t a c t b l o o d - b r a i n b a r r i e r )
[ 5 , 1 4 ] . I n g e n e r a l , t h e s e l e c t i v i t y o f m m o u r t a r g e t i n g i s
e n h a n c e d u p o n i n c r e a s i n g t h e d e g r e e o f h y d r o p h o b i c i t y o f
t h e p h o t o s e n s i t iz e r o r b y i m p a r t i n g a m p h i p h i l i c p r o p e r t i e s t o
i t s m o l e c u l e [ 1 2 ] . I n o r d e r t o i n d u c e a m o r e s p e c i f i c l o c a l i -
z a t i o n o f t h e i n j e c t e d p h o t o s e n s i t i z e r i n t h e t u r n o u t t i s s u e ,
o n e c a n t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e i n t r i n s ic f e a t u r e s o f t h e m a l i g -
n a n t c e ll s ( T a b l e 5 ) . W h i l e t h e p o t en t i a l o f t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s
h a s n o t b e e n f u ll y e x p l o it e d , e n c o u r a g i n g r e s u l ts h a v e b e e n
o b t a i n e d i n s e v e r a l c e ll a n d a n i m a l s t u d i e s [ 1 6 , 3 0 ] , s o t h a t
f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a l o n g t h e s e d i r e c t i o n s a r e c e r t a i n l y w a r -
r a n t e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r, t h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s [ 1 4 - 1 6 ] t h a t t h e
a s s o c i at i o n o f th e p o r p h y r i n o i d c o m p o u n d s w i t h m o n o c l o n a l
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90 G. Jori /Jo urn al o f Photochemistry and Photokio logy B: Biology 36 (1996) 87- 93
Porphycene
Naphthalocyanine
I-2
M = m etal ion
R : p eripheral substttuent
L : axial hgand
Fig . I . a ) Basic chemica l s t ructure o f porphyd ns and re la ted compounds
wi th enhanced ahsorbance a t wave lengths longer than 600 nm. b) Scheme
of the ~hemical structure o f a me~allo-phthalocyanine ndicating possible
peripheral substituents (R ) and axial ligands (L) to the metal ion.
Table 3
a n t i b o d i es o r L D L m a r k e d l y r e d u c e s t h e s k i n l e v el s c f p h o -
t o s e n si t iz e r , t h u s p r e v e n t i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f g e n e r a l i z e d
c u t a n e o u s p h o t o s e n s i ti v i ty , w h i c h o f t e n r e p r e s e n t s a n u n d e -
s i r ed s i de e f f ec t o f P D T [ 3 ] .
H o w e v e r , e v e n f o r r e l a ti v e ly I o w - t u m o u r / h e a l t h y t i ss u e
r a t io s o f p h o t o s e n s i t iz e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h e s e l e c ti v i t y o f P D T
a c t i o n c a n s t i l l b e a c h i e v e d p r o v i d e d t h e p e r i t u m o u r a l c o m -
p a r t m e n t s a r e l e s s r e s p o n s i v e t o r e d l i g h t - i r r a d i a t i o n o r h e a l
m o r e r a p i d l y f r o m p h o t o d a m a g e a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t u m o u r
t i s s u e s [ 3 1 ] . A g a i n , n o g e n e r a l p r e d i c t i o n i s p o s s i b l e a t t h e
p r e s e n t s t a g e o f o u r r e s e a r c h i n t h i s f i e l d , s i n c e t h e p h o t o -
c h e m i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f a t i s s u e i s s t r i c t l y d e p e n d e n t o n i t s
b i o c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d p h y s i o l o g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s [ 3 2 ] ;
f o r e x a m p l e , s i n c e p h o t o d y n a m i c a c t i o n o c c u r s v i a p h o t o o x -
i d a t i v e s t e p s , th e l o c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a n t i o x i d a n t s p l a y s a
m a j o r r o l e [ 3 , 1 4 ] . I t m u s t b e a l s o e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e m a i n
c e l l u l a r c o n s t i t u e n t s , s u c h a s p r o t e i n s , s a t u r a t e d o r u n s a t u -
r a t e d l i p i d s , n u c l e i c a c i d s a n d c a r b o h y d r a t e s d i s p l a y a v e r y
d i f f e r e n t s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o p h o t o s e n s i t i z e d o x i d a t i o n [ 3 2 ] . A
v e r y i n t e r e s t in g s t a r t in t h i s d i re c t i o n w a s p e r f o r m e d b y B o w n
a n d c o w o r k e r s w h o u n d e r t o o k a s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y o n t h e
r e s p o n s i v e n e s s o f n o r m a l t i s s u e s , s u c h a s l i v e r , p a n c r e a s o r
c o l o n , to P D T [ 3 1 , 3 3 ] .
4 E f fi ci en c y o f t h e p h o t o t h e r a p e u t i c tr e a t m e n t
S e v e r al a u t h o r s i n d e p e n d e n t l y r e p o r t e d [ 3 5 , 3 6 ] t h a t t h e
e x t e n t o f P D T - i n d u c e d t u m o u r n e c r o s i s i s r e l a t ed t o t h e c o n -
c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e p h o t o s e n s i t i z e r i n t h e n e o p l a s t i c t i s s u e . O n l y
f o r re l a ti v e l y h i g h i n t r a t u m o u r a l a c c u m u l a t i o n o f t h e p h o t o -
s e n s i t i z e r, m a y a d e c r e a s e i n t h e e f f ic i e n c y o f t u m o u r p b o -
t o r e s p o n s e o c c u r d u e t o t h e l i g h t - f i l t e r i n g a c t i o n e x e r t e d b y
t h e d y e m o l e c u l e s p r e s e n t i n t h e s u p e r f i c i a l l a y e r s o f t h e
t i s s u e . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , i t h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a t h y d r o -
p h o b i c p o r p h y r i n d e r i v a t i v e s a r e a c c u m u l a t e d i n l a r g e r
a m o u n t s a n d r e t a i n e d f o r lo n g e r p e r i o d s o f t i m e b y a v a r i et y
o f e x p e r i m e n t a l t u r n o u t s [ 4 , 2 5 ] . A n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n
t o t hi s e n h a n c e d u p t a k e c o u l d b e g i v e n b y t h e a s s o c ia t i o n o f
s u c h p h o t o s e n s i t i z e r s w i t h l i p i d - t y p e d e l i v e r y s y s t e m s
Delivery systems used for the in vivo administration of tumour photosensitizers (see ref. 14-16 for a more detailed discussion)
Delivery system Photosensitizer Observed hehaviour of the photosensitizer
Liposomes made by
DPPC Hp, ZnPc, SnET2
DMPC ZnPc, SnET2
POPC, OOPC ZnPc
Cremophor EL emulsion SnET2, ZnPc
LDL Hp, ZnPc, BPD
Albumin Photofrin
Epidermal growth factor (EG F) Hp
Antibodies Hp. chlorin e6, BPD
Highly preferential delivery to lipopmteins in the serum
Delivery to both lipopmteins and albumin
Selective release to lipop roteins
Preferential delivery to serum LDL as compared to liposome-delivered dyes
Fast redistribution among all members of the lipoprotein family: targeting of malignant cells
in the turnout tissue
Exchange with lipoproteins in serum: large amou nts recovered in the vascular stroma
Efficient binding to EG F cell receptor
Highly selective targeting of turnout cells (most enco uraging results in cell cultures )
Abbreviations: DPPC , dipalmitoyl-phosphatidylcholine, DM PC, dimiristoyl-phosphatidylcholine; POPC, monopalmitoyl-monooleyl-pbosphatidylcholine;
OOi"S. dioleyl-pho sphatidylserine, LDL, low-density lipoproteins; Hp, haematop orphyrin:ZnPc. Zn(ll)-phthalocyanine; SnET2. Sn(IV)-etiopurporin; BPD.
benzoporphyrin derivative.
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G. Jori / Journa o f Phowchemistry and Photobiology B: Biology 36 (1996) 87-9 3 91
Table 4
Modulation of the absorption propetliesof porp byrinoid compounds hrough a manipulation of the ir chemicalstructu~ (data for nmnomericdyes). See Ref.
[25] for further details.
Photosensitizerclass Absorption maximum n the red Extinctioncofficivm
nm)
(M - I cm - t )
Hematoporhyrin ( 18 or) 630 2 800
26 r - porphyrin 780 0 000
34 r - porphyrin 760 370 000
AI( ll)-phthalocyanine 675 228 000
Si( IV -naphthalocyanine 773 557 000
THP-porphine 646 4 000
THP-chiorin 650 22 000
THP-bactefiechlorin 735 910 00
Ge ( IV -phthalocyanine 678 205 000
Ge 1V -octabutoxyp hthalocyanine 761 233 0Q0
Pd (11) octabutoxyp hthalocyanine 732 51 000
828 279 000
THP = meso-tetra-hydroxy-phenyl
(Tab les 1 and 3 ) an d /o r the i r p r e f e r en tia l tr an spo rt in the
b loods t r eam by l ipopro te in s (T ab le 5 ) . How ever , th i s ru le
has som e im por tan t excep t ion , s ince a f ew pho to sens i t ize r s ,
such as mono-asp ar ty l - ch lo r in e6 [7 ] and TPPS4 [2 9 ] , w h ich
are endowed wi th a good wate r - so lub i l i ty , a r e exce l len t
tumo ur loca l ize r s .
T h e e f f i ci e n c y o f t u m o u r t r e a t m e n t b y P D T i s a l s o h e a v i ly
in f luenced by the sub t i s su la r and subce l lu la r d i s t r ibu t ion o f
the pho to sens i t i ze r . Th is pa ram ete r i s aga in dependen t on the
chem ica l s t ruc tu re o f the dye [37 ] . Pho to f r in , p robab ly
because o f i t s he te rogeneous compos i t ion , i s pa r t i t ioned
amo ng severa l d i f f e r en t compar tmen ts o f the tumour . As a
consequence , upon pho toexc i ta t ion , th i s po rphy r in induces
the mod i f ica t ion o f var ious s i t es , inc lud ing the b lood vesse l s ,
mal igna n t ce l l s and non -vascu la r s t roma [ 3 ] . I n many cases ,
vascu la r dam age appear s 1o pr edom ina te [ 13 ] .
An ex tens ion o f these me chan is t ic s tud ies to po rphy r ino id s
wi th d i f f e r en t phys ic o -chem ica l p roper t ies s t rong ly sugges t s
[38 ] tha t a lbumin -car r ied dyes a r e main ly depos i ted in the
ex t r ace l lu la r mat r ix , hence they cause an ea r ly impa i rmen t o f
b lood c i r cu la t ion . More hyd rop hob ic dyes , wh ich a r e la rge ly
t r anspo r ted by l ipopro te in s , a r e r e leased in s ide tumour ce l l s
(Tab le 5 ) , wh ich s t rong ly f avou r s a d i r ec t ea r ly pho toda-
ma ge o f such ce l l s [ 3 ,25 ] . R ecen t ly , the ro le o f macrop hages
in the overa l l pho toprocess has been r e - eva lua ted [ 39 ] ; mac-
rophages can e f f ic ien t ly accum ula te h igh ly agg rega ted mate -
Table 5
r ia l , a s i t i s p r esen t in Pho to f r in , as wel l as l ipo some- o r
C remophor -de l ivered po rphy r ino id s .
In any case , i t appear s tha t m os t po rphy r in - type pho to sen -
s i t ize r s loca l ize in the ce l l m emb ranes [ 14 ,25 ] ; the re fo re ,
pho to induced ce l l dea th i s u sua l ly a consequence o f
m e m b r a n e d a m a g e : m i t o c h o nd r i a, r o u g h e n d o p l a s m i c r e t i c -
a l u m , l y s o s o m e s a n d p l a s m a m e m b r a n e h a v e b e e n i n v o k e d
as p r imary ta rge ts o f the pho toprocess [ 2 ,3 ,39 ] , the i r r e la t ive
impor tance p robab ly depend ing on the d i s t r ibu t ion o f the
spec i f ic pho to sens i ti ze r . I t i s a l so poss ib le tha t the lo ss o f ce l l
su rv iva l r e f lec ts a co -opera t ive e f f ec t a r i s ing f rom th e s imu l -
taneous imp ai rmen t o f m u l t ip le s i t es , r a ther than be ing de te r -
mined by the i r r ever s ib le mod i f ica t ion o f o ne c r i t i ca l t a rge t .
T o o b t a in m o r e p r e c i s e i n f o r m a t io n o n t h i s t o p i c i t m a y b e
impor tan t to u se pho to sens i t i ze r s wh ich a r c o r ien ta ted toward
a spec i f ic ce l l si t e . Th is ap proach i s exemp l i f ied in r ecen t
a r t ic les showing the p oss ib i l i ty to ob ta in spec i f ic t a rge t ing o f
ly sosom es by assoc ia t ion o f the po rphy f in w i th a ly sosomo -
t rop ic agen t [40 ] o r to se lec t ive ly labe l the ou te r o r inner
m i t o c h o n d r i a l m e m b r a n e b y a n a p p r o p r i a t e c h o i c e o f t h e
l i p o s o m e c a r r i e r [ 4 1 ] .
5 . C o n c l u s i o n s
In sp i te o f pe r s i s t ing uncer ta in t ies abou t de ta i led mecha-
n isms lead ing to po rphy r in -pho to sens i t i zed ce l l and t i s sue
Approaches o enhance h e selectivityof tumoor argeting by porphyrin-typephotosensitizer
App roa ch Rationale Specific example
Incorporationof photosensitizer nto serum LDL Several ypes of neoplastic cellsexpress a large HI), ZnP c [ 14]
number of LDL receiaors
Covalentbinding of photosensitizers o m onoclonalantibod ies Antib odies re directedagainst antigens specifically Hp, chlorin e6 [ 15,16]
present at the surface of tumonrcells
Use of cationicphotosensitizers Mitechoodriaof tumonr ceils have an unu sua lly Triphenylmethaneerivatives [ 34]
high affinity or cationiccompounds
Hp = haem atoporphyrin;ZnPc= Zn (ll ) -phthalocyanine
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G. Jori /Jo ur nal o f Photochemistry a nd Photobiology B: B iology 36 (I 996) 87-93
necrosis, it is well ascertained that nuclear damage is a late
event and ha s a minor influence on the photoprocess. This
would rule out any risk of a mutagenic effect of PDT, whic h
is especially i mportant i f the phototherapeutic treatment is to
be repeated at relatively short time intervals or is used in
combination with other therapeutic modalities. At the same
time, the steadily accumulating information on the factors
which modulate the pharmacokinetic behaviour and the cell/
tissue distribution of photosensitizers, as well as the effi-
ciency of tumour photosensitization makes it feasible to
explore two potentially innovative developments of the
technique:
i) The use of a combination of photosensitizers with dif-
ferent intracellular and intratissular localization patterns
which act in a synergistic m anne r to improve the efficacy of
PDT. In particular, it is import ant to assess the possibility to
stimulate ap optosis of at least som e types of neoplastic cells
by PDT treatment, as it is suggested by recent findings [42] .
it) The definition of a variety of integrated PDT systems
(photosensitizer, delivery system, irradiation modalities)
which are tailored to the treatment of neoplastic cells with
specific properties, such as the mitotic index, metastatic
potential, invasiveness of the extracellular matrix, degree of
pigmentati on, etc. As ment ioned earlier, there are now several
possibilities for introducing predetermined physico-chemi-
cal, biological, photobiol ogical and optical properties into the
photosensitizer molecule by chemical synthesis.
Acknowledgements
This work received financial support from EU in the frame-
work of the program Hu ma n Mobility Capital , contract
No. ERB CHRXC T930178 (PDT Network).
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