Trip to hungary

Assignment

Of

MIS

On

a trip to any international place

(Hungary)

Submitted to Submitted by

Miss Depika Arora Sachin Kumar Bassi

Lecturer P.C.T.E MBA 2 A

94972238225

The following are the average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for Budapest: min. max.F C F C

Jan 25 -4 34 1Feb 28 -2 39 4Mar 36 2 50 10Apr 25 -4 63 17May 52 11 72 22Jun 59 15 79 26Jul 61 16 82 28Aug 61 16 81 27Sep 54 12 73 23Oct 45 7 61 16Nov 37 3 46 8Dec 30 -1 39 4

This graph shows the average temperatures in Budapest throughout the year.

Hungary is a state in central Europe. Its history under this name dates to the early Middle Ages,

when the Pannonian Basin was colonized by the Magyars, a seminomadic people from what is

now central-northern Russia. For history of the area before this period, see Pannonian basin

before Hungary.

Early history

Main articles: Pannonian basin before the Hungarians and Hungarian prehistory

Prince Árpád crossing the Carpathians. A detail of the Arrival of the Hungarians, Árpád Feszty's

and his assistants' vast (1800 m²) cycloramic canvas, painted to celebrate the 1000th anniversary

of the Magyar conquest of Hungary, now displayed at the Ópusztaszer National Historical

Memorial Park in Hungary.

From 9 BC. to the end of the 4th century Pannonia, the Western part of the basin was a part of

the Roman Empire. In the final stages of the expansion of the Roman empire, for a short while

the Carpathian Basin fell into the sphere of the Mediterranean, Greco-Roman civilization - town

centers, paved roads, and written sources were all part of the advances to which the Migration of

Peoples put an end.

After the Western Roman Empire collapsed under the stress of the migration of Germanic tribes

and Carpian pressure, the Migration Period has continued bringing many invaders to Europe.

Among the first to arrive were the Huns, who built up a powerful empire under Attila in 435 CE.

Attila the Hun in the past centuries was regarded as an ancestral ruler of the Hungarians, but this

is considered to be erroneous today. It is believed that the origin of the name "Hungary" does not

come from the Central Asian nomadic invaders called the Huns, but rather originated from 7th

century, when Magyar tribes were part of a Bulgar alliance called On-Ogour, which in Bulgar

Turkic meant "(the) Ten Arrows". After Hunnish rule faded, the Germanic Ostrogoths then the

Lombards came to Pannonia, and the Gepids had a presence in the eastern part of the Carpathian

Basin for about 100 years. In the 560s the Avars founded the Avar Khaganate, a state which

maintained supremacy in the region for more than two centuries and had the military power to

launch attacks against all its neighbours. The Avar Khagnate was weakened by constant wars

and outside pressure and the Franks under Charlemagne managed to defeat the Avars ending

their 250-year rule. Neither the Franks nor others were able to create a lasting state in the region

until the freshly unified Hungarians led by Árpád settled in the Carpathian Basin starting in 896.

Much of early Hungarian history is recorded in the following Hungarian chronicles, retelling the

early legends and history of the Huns, Magyars and the Kingdom of Hungary:

Anonymi Gesta Hungarorum (Anonymous "Deeds of the Hungarians") by Magister P.

(around 1200)

Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum or Gesta Hungarorum (II) ("Deeds of the Huns and

Hungarians" or just "Deeds of the Hungarians") by Simon of Kéza (late 13th century)

Chronicon Pictum ("Illuminated Chronicle") (late 14th century)

Chronicle of the Hungarians by Johannes de Thurocz (1480s)

Middle Ages (895–1526)

Hungarian raids in the 10th century. Most European nations were praying for mercy: "Sagittis

hungarorum libera nos Domine" - "Lord save us from the arrows of Hungarians".

Main articles: Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages and Ottoman–Hungarian Wars

First Hungarian coin. It was coined by Duke Géza circa the end of 970s.

The Magyars settled in Hungary prior to 896. Árpád was the Magyar leader whom sources name

as the single leader who unified the Magyar tribes via the Covenant of Blood (Hungarian:

Vérszerződés) forged one nation, thereafter known as the Hungarian nation and led the new

nation to the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century. From 895 to 902 the whole area of the

Carpathian Basin was conquered by the Hungarians. After that an early Hungarian state

(Principality of Hungary, founded in 896) was formed in this territory, the military power of the

nation allowed the Hungarians to conduct successful fierce campaigns and raids as far as today's

Spain. A later defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 signaled an end to raids on western

territories (Byzantine raids continued until 970), and links between the tribes weakened. The

ruling prince (fejedelem) Géza of the Árpád dynasty, who was the ruler of only some of the

united territory, but the nominal overlord of all seven Magyar tribes, intended to integrate

Hungary into Christian Western Europe, rebuilding the state according to the Western political

and social model. He established a dynasty by naming his son Vajk (the later King Stephen I of

Hungary) as his successor. This was contrary to the then-dominant tradition of the succession of

the eldest surviving member of the ruling family. (See:agnatic seniority) By ancestral right

prince Koppány, -as the oldest member of the dynasty- should have claimed the throne, but Géza

chose his first-born son to be his successor. The fight in the chief prince's family started after

Géza's death, in 997. Duke Koppány took up arms, and many people in Transdanubia joined him.

The rebels represented the old faith and order, ancient human rights, tribal independence and

pagan belief, but Stephen won a decisive victory over his uncle Koppány, and had him executed.

King Stephen I of Hungary, patron saint of Kings (from the Chronicon Hungariae Pictum).

The Patrimonial Kingdom

Hungary in the 11th century

Hungary was recognized as a Catholic Apostolic Kingdom under Saint Stephen I.

Stephen was the son of Géza and thus a descendant of Árpád.

Stephen was crowned by the Holy Crown of Hungary in December 1000 AD in the capital,

Esztergom. The Papacy confers on him the right to have the cross carried before him, with full

administrative authority over bishoprics and churches. By 1006, Stephen had solidified his

power, eliminating all rivals who either wanted to follow the old pagan traditions or wanted an

alliance with the Eastern Christian Byzantine Empire. Then he started sweeping reforms to

convert Hungary into a western feudal state, complete with forced Christianisation.[11] Stephen

established a network of 10 episcopal and 2 archiepiscopal sees, and ordered the buildup of

monasteries churches and cathedrals. In the earliest times Hungarian language was written in a

runic-like script. The country switched to the Latin alphabet under Stephen.

Romanesque cathedral of Pécs

Gothic Church of Our Lady in Buda

From 1000 to 1844, Latin was the official language of the country. He followed the Frankish

administrative model: The whole of this land was divided into counties (megyék), each under a

royal official called an ispán count (Latin: comes)—later főispán (Latin: supremus comes). This

official represented the king’s authority, administered its population, and collected the taxes that

formed the national revenue. Each ispán maintained an armed force of freemen at his fortified

headquarters (castrum or vár).

What emerged was a strong kingdom that withstood attacks from German kings and Emperors,

and nomadic tribes following the Hungarians from the East, integrating some of the latter into

the population (along with Germans invited to Transylvania and the northern part of the

kingdom, especially after the Battle of Mohi), and conquering Croatia in 1091. According to an

alternative history based on the document Pacta Conventa, which is most likely a forgery

Hungary and Croatia created a personal union. There is no undoubtedly genuine document of the

personal union, and medieval sources mention the annexation into the Hungarian kingdom.

After the Great Schism (The East-West Schism /formally in 1054/, between Western Roman

Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christianity.) Hungary determined itself as the Easternmost

bastion of Western civilization (This statement was affirmed later by Pope Pius II who wrote that

to Emperor Friedrich III, "Hungary is the shield of Christianity and the defender of Western

civilization").

Important members of the Árpád dynasty:

Coloman the "Book-lover" (King: 1095–1116):

One of his most famous laws was half a millennium ahead of its time: De strigis vero quae non

sunt, nulla amplius quaestio fiat (As for the matter of witches, no such things exist, therefore no

further investigations or trials are to be held).

Béla III (King: 1172–1192)

He was the most powerful and wealthiest member of the dynasty, Béla disposed of annual

equivalent of 23,000 kg of pure silver. It exceeded those of the French king (estimated at some

17,000 kilograms) and was double the receipts of the English Crown. He rolled back the

Byzantine potency in Balkan region. In 1195, Bela III had expanded the Hungarian Kingdom

southward and westward to Bosnia and Dalmatia, helping to break up the Byzantine Empire, and

extending suzerainty over Serbia.

Andrew II of Hungary (King: 1205–1235)

Golden Bull of 1222.

In 1211 Andrew II of Hungary (ruled from 1205 to 1235) granted the Burzenland (in

Transylvania) to the Teutonic Knights. In 1225, Andrew II expelled the Teutonic Knights from

Transylvania, hence Teutonic Order had to transfer to the Baltic sea. In 1224, Andrew issued the

Diploma Andreanum which unified and ensured the special privileges of the Transylvanian

Saxons. It is considered the first Autonomy law in the world.

He led the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217. He set up the largest royal army in the history

of Crusades (20,000 knights and 12,000 castle-garrisons). The Golden Bull of 1222 was the first

constitution in Continental Europe. It limited the king's power. The Golden Bull — the

Hungarian equivalent of England’s Magna Carta — to which every Hungarian king thereafter

had to swear, had a twofold purpose: to reaffirm the rights of the smaller nobles of the old and

new classes of royal servants (servientes regis) against both the crown and the magnates and to

defend those of the whole nation against the crown by restricting the powers of the latter in

certain fields and legalizing refusal to obey its unlawful/unconstitutional commands (the ius

resistendi). The lesser nobles also began to present Andrew with grievances, a practice that

evolved into the institution of the parliament, or Diet. Hungary became the first country where

the parliament had supremacy over the kingship. The most important legal ideology was the

Doctrine of the Holy Crown.

Important points of the Doctrine: The sovereignty belongs to the noble nation→(the Holy

Crown). The members of the Holy Crown are the citizens of the Crown's lands. None can reach

full power. The nation is sharing a portion of the political power with the ruler. Minority cannot

rule over majority. ( against tyranny and oligarchy ) .

Mongol attacks

Main article: Mongol invasion of Europe

Mongol invasion of the Kingdom of Hungary

In 1241–1242, the kingdom received a major blow with the Mongol (Tatar) Invasion: after the

defeat of the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohi, Béla IV of Hungary fled, and a large part of

the population died in the ensuing destruction leading later to the invitation of settlers, largely

from Germany. Historians estimate that up to half of Hungary's then population of 2,000,000

were victims of the Mongol invasion. In the plains between 50 and 80% of the settlements were

destroyed. Only castles, strongly fortified cities and abbeys could withstand the assault.

During the Russian campaign, the Mongols drove some 40,000 Cumans, a nomadic tribe of

pagan Kipchaks, west of the Carpathian Mountains. There, the Cumans appealed to King Béla

IV of Hungary for protection. The Iranian Jassic people came to Hungary together with the

Cumans after they were defeated by the Mongols. Cumans constituted perhaps up to 7-8% of the

population of Hungary in the second half of the 13th century. Over the centuries they were fully

assimilated into the Hungarian population, and their language disappeared, but they preserved

their identity and their regional autonomy until 1876.

As a consequence, after the Mongols retreated, King Béla ordered the construction of hundreds

of stone castles and fortifications, to defend against a possible second Mongol invasion. The

Mongols returned to Hungary in 1286, but the new built stone-castle systems and new tactics

(using a higher proportion of heavily armed knights) stopped them. The invading Mongol force

was defeated near Pest by the royal army of Ladislaus IV of Hungary. As with later invasions, it

was repelled handily, the Mongols losing much of their invading force.

These castles proved to be very important later in the long struggle with the Ottoman Empire.

However the cost of building them indebted the Hungarian King to the major feudal landlords

again, so the royal power reclaimed by Béla IV after his father Andrew II significantly weakened

it was once again dispersed amongst lesser nobility. The countries of the Balkan region and the

territory of Russian states fell under Ottoman/Mongolian rule very rapidly, due to the lack of the

network of stone/brick castles and fortresses in these countries.

Age of elected Kings

King Charles' last battle against the oligarchy, Rozgony (1312)

King Louis the Great the strongest king in medieval Hungarian history

After the destructive period of interregnum (1301–1308), the first Angevin king, Charles I of

Hungary (reigned 1308–1342) - a descendant of the Árpád dynasty in the female line -

successfully restored royal power, and defeated oligarch rivals, the so called "little kings". His

new fiscal, customs and monetary policies proved successful during his reign.

One of the primary sources of his power was the wealth derived from the gold mines of eastern

and northern Hungary. Eventually production reached the remarkable figure of 3,000 lb.

(1350 kg) of gold annually - one third of the total production of the world as then known, and

five times as much as that of any other European state. Charles also sealed an alliance with the

Polish king Casimir. After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the renaissance

appeared.

The second Hungarian king in the Angevin line, Louis the Great (reigned 1342–1382) extended

his rule as far as the Adriatic Sea, and occupied the Kingdom of Naples several times. During his

reign lived the epic hero of Hungarian literature and warfare, the king's Champion: Nicolas

Toldi. Louis had become popular in Poland because of his campaign against the Tatars and

pagan Lithuanians. Two successful wars (1357–1358, 1378–1381) against Venice annexed

Dalmatia and Ragusa and more territories on the Adriatic Sea. Venice also had to raise the

Angevin flag in St. Mark's Square on holy days.

Some Balkan states (Vallachia, Moldova, Serbia, Bosnia) became his vassals. Louis I established

a university in Pécs in 1367 (by papal accordance). The Ottoman Turks confronted the Balkan

vassal states ever more often. In 1366 and 1377, Louis led successful campaigns against the

Ottomans (Battle of Nicapoli in 1366). From the death of Casimir III of Poland in 1370, he was

also king of Poland. He retained his strong influence in the political life of Italian Peninsula for

the rest of his life.

King Louis died without a male heir, and after years of anarchy the country was stabilized only

when Sigismund (reigned 1387–1437), a prince of the Luxembourg line, succeeded to the throne

by marrying the daughter of Louis the Great, Queen Mary. It was not for entirely selfless reasons

that one of the leagues of barons helped him to power: Sigismund had to pay for the support of

the lords by transferring a sizeable part of the royal properties. For some years, the baron's

council governed the country in the name of the Holy Crown; the king was imprisoned for a

short time. The restoration of the authority of the central administration took decades.

In 1404 Sigismund introduced the Placetum Regnum. According to this decree, Papal bulls and

messages could not be pronounced in Hungary without the consent of the king. Sigismund

summoned the Council of Constance (1414–1418) to abolish the Avignon Papacy and the Papal

Schism of the Catholic Church, which was resolved by the election of a new pope. In 1433 he

even became Holy Roman Emperor. During his long reign the Royal castle of Buda became

probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. After the death of Sigismund, his son

in law, Albert II of Germany, was titled king of hungary. Albert II, however, died in 1439. The

first Hungarian Bible translation was completed in 1439. For a half year in 1437, there was an

antifeudal and anticlerical peasant revolt in Transylvania which was strongly influenced by

Hussite ideas. (See: Budai Nagy Antal Revolt)

From a small noble family in Transylvania, John Hunyadi grew to become one of the country's

most powerful lords, thanks to his outstanding capabilities as a mercenary commander. In 1446,

the parliament elected the great general John Hunyadi governor (1446–1453), then regent (1453–

1456). He was a successful crusader against the Ottoman Turks, one of his greatest victories

being the Siege of Belgrade in 1456. Hunyadi defended the city against the onslaught of the

Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. During the siege, Pope Callixtus III ordered the bells of every

European church to be rung every day at noon, as a call for believers to pray for the defenders of

the city. However, in many countries, (like England and Spanish kingdoms), the news of the

victory arrived before the order, and the ringing of the church bells at noon was transformed into

a commemoration of the victory. The Popes didn't withdraw the order, and Catholic (and the

older Protestant) churches still ring the noon bell in the Christian world to this day.

John Hunyadi - One of the greatest generals and a later regent of Hungary

Age of early absolutism

Western conquests of Matthias Corvinus

The last strong king was the Renaissance king Matthias Corvinus (king from 1458 to 1490).

Matthias was the son of John Hunyadi. András Hess set up a printing press in Buda in 1472.

This was the first time in the medieval Hungarian kingdom that a member of the nobility,

without dynastic ancestry and relationship, mounted the royal throne. A true Renaissance prince,

a successful military leader and administrator, an outstanding linguist, a learned astrologer, and

an enlightened patron of the arts and learning. Although Matyas regularly convened the Diet and

expanded the lesser nobles' powers in the counties, he exercised absolute rule over Hungary by

means of huge secular bureaucracy. Matthias set out to build a great empire, expanding

southward and northwest, while he also implemented internal reforms. The serfs, common

people considered Matthias a just ruler because he protected them from excessive demands and

other abuses by the magnates. Like his father, Matthias desired to strengthen the Kingdom of

Hungary to the point where it became the foremost regional power and overlord, strong enough

to push back the Ottoman Empire; toward that end he deemed necessary the conquering of large

parts of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1479, under the leadership of general Pál Kinizsi, the

Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield. Army

of Hungary, almost all times destroyed the enemies when Matthias was the king. His mercenary

standing army called the Black Army of Hungary (Hungarian: Fekete Sereg) was an unusually

big army in its age, it accomplished a series of victories also capturing parts of Austria, Vienna

(1485) and parts of Bohemia. The king died without a legal successor. His library, the

Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe's greatest collection of historical chronicles, philosophic and

scientific works in the 15th century, and second only in size to the Vatican Library which mainly

contained religious material. His renaissance library is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[39]

The battle of Mohács, by Bertalan Székely.

Decline (1490–1526)

By the early 16th century, the Ottoman Empire became the second most populous state in the

world, which opened the door to creation of the largest armies of the era.

Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia, the young king, who died at the Battle of Mohács.

The magnates, who did not want another heavy-handed king, procured the accession of

Vladislaus II (King: 1490–1516), king of Bohemia (Ulászló II in Hungarian), precisely because

of his notorious weakness: he was known as King Dobže, or Dobzse (meaning “Good” or,

loosely, “OK”), from his habit of accepting with that word every paper laid before him. Under

his reign the central power began to experience severe financial difficulties, largely due to the

enlargement of feudal lands at his expense. The magnates also dismantled administration and

institute systems of the country. The country's defenses sagged as border guards and castle

garrisons went unpaid, fortresses fell into disrepair, and initiatives to increase taxes to reinforce

defenses were stifled. Hungary's international role was wasted, its political stability shaken, and

social progress was deadlocked.

In 1514, the weakened old King Vladislaus II faced a major peasant rebellion led by György

Dózsa, which was ruthlessly crushed by the nobles, led by János Szapolyai. The resulting

degradation of order paved the way for Ottoman preeminence. In 1521, the strongest Hungarian

fortress in the South, Nándorfehérvár (modern Belgrade) fell to the Turks, and in 1526, the

Hungarian army was crushed at the Battle of Mohács. The young king Louis II, and the leader of

the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori died in the battle. The early appearance of protestantism further

worsened internal relations in the anarchical country.

Through the centuries Hungary kept its old "constitution", which granted special "freedoms" or

rights to the nobility, the free royal towns such as Buda, Kassa (Košice), Pozsony (Bratislava),

and Kolozsvár (Cluj-Napoca) and groups like the Jassic people or Transylvanian Saxons.

Early modern age (1526–1700)

See also: Ottoman Hungary, Royal Hungary, and Transylvania

Hungary around 1550.

Hungary in the 17th century.

After some 150 years of war in the south of Hungary, Ottoman forces conquered parts of the

country, continuing their expansion until 1556. The Ottomans achieved their first decisive

victory over the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács in 1526.

The Siege of Eger (1552), in which 2,000 Hungarians fought with close to 200,000 Turk

warriors. The battle finished with Hungarian victory.

Subsequent decades were characterised by political chaos. A divided Hungarian nobility elected

two kings simultaneously, János Szapolyai (1526–1540, of Hungarian-German origin) and the

Austrian Ferdinand of Habsburg (1527–1540). Armed conflicts between the new rival monarchs

further weakened the country from the internal side. With the conquest of Buda in 1541 by the

Turks, Hungary was riven into three parts. The north-west (present-day Slovakia, western

Transdanubia and Burgenland, western Croatia and parts of north-eastern present-day Hungary)

remained under Habsburg rule; although initially independent, later it became a part of Habsburg

Monarchy under the informal name Royal Hungary. The Habsburg Emperors would from then

on be crowned also as Kings of Hungary. Turks were unable to conquer Northern and Western

parts of Hungary.

The eastern part of the kingdom (Partium and Transylvania) became at first an independent

principality, but gradually was brought under Turkish rule as a vassal state of the Ottoman

Empire. The remaining central area (most of present-day Hungary), including the capital of

Buda, became a province of the Ottoman Empire. Much of the land was devastated by recurrent

warfare. Most small Hungarian settlements disappeared. Rural people living in the now Ottoman

provinces could survive only in larger settlements known as Khaz towns, which were owned and

protected directly by the Sultan. The Turks were indifferent to the sect of Christianity practiced

by their Hungarian subjects.

For this reason, a majority of Hungarians living under Ottoman rule became Protestant (largely

Calvinist), as Habsburg counter-reformation efforts could not penetrate Ottoman lands. Largely

throughout this time, Pozsony (Pressburg, today: Bratislava) acted as the capital (1536–1784),

coronation town (1563–1830) and seat of the Diet of Hungary (1536–1848). Nagyszombat

(modern Trnava) acted in turn as the religious center, starting from 1541.

In 1558 the Transylvanian Diet of Turda declared free practice of both the Catholic and Lutheran

religions, but prohibited Calvinism. Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet extended this freedom,

declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expelling for

his religion". Four religions were declared as accepted (recepta) religions, while Orthodox

Christianity was "tolerated" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden).

Hungary entered the Thirty Years' War, Royal (Habsburg) Hungary joined the catholic side, until

Transylvania joined the Protestant side.

In 1686, two years after the unsuccessful siege of Buda, a renewed European campaign was

started to enter the Hungarian capital. This time, the Holy League's army was twice a large,

containing over 74,000 men, including German, Croat, Dutch, Hungarian, English, Spanish,

Czech, Italian, French, Burgundian, Danish and Swedish soldiers, along with other Europeans as

volunteers, artilleryman, and officers, the Christian forces reconquered Buda. The second Battle

of Mohács was a crushing defeat for the Turks, in the next few years, all of the former Hungarian

lands, except areas near Timişoara (Temesvár), were taken from the Turks. At the end of the

17th century, Transylvania became part of Hungary again. In the 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz these

territorial changes were officially recognized, and in 1718 the entire Kingdom of Hungary was

removed from Ottoman rule.

Concurrently, between 1604 and 1711, there was a series of anti-Austrian, and anti-Habsburg

uprisings which took place in the Habsburg state of Royal Hungary (more precisely, in present-

day Slovakia and in present day western and central Hungary), as well as anti-Catholic uprisings,

which were to be found across the Hungarian lands. Religious protesters demanded equal rights

among Christian groups. The uprisings were usually organized from Transylvania.

Ethnic aftermath of Ottoman wars

As a consequence of the constant warfare between Hungarians and Ottoman Turks, population

growth was stunted and the network of medieval settlements with their urbanized bourgeois

inhabitants perished. The 150 years of Turkish wars fundamentally changed the ethnic

composition of Hungary. As a result of demographic losses including deportations and

masscares, the number of ethnic Hungarians in existence at the end of the Turkish period was

substantially diminished.

See also: Moldavian Magnate Wars, Stephen Bathory, King of Poland, and Battle of Vienna

Modern and contemporary age (1700–1919)

Main article: History of Hungary 1700–1919

Ferenc Rákóczi.

BME, The oldest University of Technology in the World, founded in 1782

There were a series of anti-Habsburg (i.e. anti-Austrian) and anti-Catholic (requiring equal rights

and freedom for all Christian religions) uprisings between 1604 and 1711, which – with the

exception of the last one – took place in Royal Hungary. The uprisings were usually organized

from Transylvania. The last one was an uprising led by 'II. Rákóczi Ferenc', who after the

dethronement of the Habsburgs in 1707 at the Diet of Ónód took power as the "Ruling Prince" of

Hungary. The Hungarian Kuruc army lost the main battles at Battle of Trencin however there

were also success actions, for example when Ádám Balogh almost captured the Austrian

Emperor with Kuruc troops. When Austrians defeated the uprising in 1711, Rákóczi was in

Poland. He later fled to France, finally Turkey, and lived to the end of his life (1735) in nearby

Rodosto. Ladislas Ignace de Bercheny who was son of Miklós Bercsényi immigrated to France

and created the first French hussar regiment. Afterwards, to make further armed resistance

impossible, the Austrians blew up some castles (most of the castles on the border between the

now-reclaimed territories occupied earlier by the Ottomans and Royal Hungary), and allowed

peasants to use the stones from most of the others as building material (the végvárs among

them). The 18th century also saw one of the most famous Hungarian hussars named Michael

Kovats. He created the modern US cavalry in the American Revolutionary War and is

commemorated today with a statue in Charleston.

The Period of Reforms (1825–1848)

During the Napoleonic Wars and afterwards, the Hungarian Diet had not convened for decades.

In the 1820s, the Emperor was forced to convene the Diet, and thus a Reform Period began.

Nevertheless, its progress was slow, because the nobles insisted on retaining their privileges (no

taxation, exclusive voting rights, etc.). Therefore the achievements were mostly of national

character (e.g. introduction of Hungarian as one of the official languages of the country, instead

of the former Latin).

Count István Széchenyi,the most prominent statesmen of the country recognized the urgent need

of modernization and their message got through. The Hungarian Parliament was reconvened in

1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged in the Diet. The party focused on

providing for the peasantry in mostly symbolic ways because of their ability to understand the

needs of the laborers. Lajos Kossuth emerged as leader of the lower gentry in the Parliament.

Habsburg monarchs tried to preclude the industrialisation of the country. A remarkable upswing

started as the nation concentrated its forces on modernisation even though the Habsburg

monarchs obstructed all important liberal laws about the human civil and political rights and

economic reforms. Many reformers (like Lajos Kossuth, Mihály Táncsics ) were imprisoned by

the authorities.

Revolution, and War of Independence

Main article: Hungarian Revolution of 1848

Artist Mihály Zichy's rendition of Sándor Petőfi reciting the Nemzeti dal to a crowd on 15 March

1848

On 15 March 1848 mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda enabled Hungarian reformists to push

through a list of 12 demands. The Hungarian Diet took the opportunity presented by the

revolution to enact a comprehensive legislative program of dozens of civil and human rights

reforms, referred to as the April laws. Faced with revolution both at home and in Vienna,

Austrian Emperor Ferdinand I first had to accept Hungarian demands. After the Austrian

revolution was suppressed,emperor Franz Joseph replaced his epileptic uncle Ferdinand I as

Emperor. Franz Joseph refused all reforms and started to arm against Hungary. Later, under

governor and president Lajos Kossuth and the first Prime minister, Lajos Batthyány, the House

of Habsburg was dethroned and the form of government was changed to create the first Republic

of Hungary. The Habsburg Ruler and his advisors skillfully manipulated the Croatian, Serbian

and Romanian peasantry, led by priests and officers firmly loyal to the Habsburgs, and induced

them to rebel against the Hungarian government. The Hungarians were supported by the vast

majority of the Slovak, German and Rusyn nationalities and by all the Jews of the kingdom, as

well as by a large number of Polish, Austrian and Italian volunteers.[43] Many members of the

nationalities gained coveted the highest positions within the Hungarian Army, like General János

Damjanich, an ethnic Serb who became a Hungarian national hero through his command of the

3rd Hungarian Army Corps. Initially, the Hungarian forces (Honvédség) defeated Austrian

armies. In July 1849 Hungarian Parliament proclaimed and enacted foremost the ethnic and

minority rights in the world, but it was too late: To counter the successes of the Hungarian

revolutionary army, Franz Joseph asked for help from the "Gendarme of Europe," Czar Nicholas

I, whose Russian armies invaded Hungary. The huge army of the Russian Empire and the

Austrian forces proved too powerful for the Hungarian army, and General Artúr Görgey

surrendered in August 1849. Julius Freiherr von Haynau, the leader of the Austrian army, then

became governor of Hungary for a few months and, on 6 October, ordered the execution of 13

leaders of the Hungarian army as well as Prime Minister Batthyány. Lajos Kossuth escaped into

exile.

Following the war of 1848–1849, the whole country was in "passive resistance". Archduke

Albrecht von Habsburg was appointed governor of the Kingdom of Hungary, and this time was

remembered for Germanization pursued with the help of Czech officers.

Austria–Hungary (1867–1918)

Main article: Austria-Hungary

Map of the counties in Hungary around 1880

Magyars in the Kingdom of Hungary in 1890

Due to external and internal problems, reforms seemed inevitable to secure the integrity of the

Habsburg Empire. Major military defeats, like the Battle of Königgrätz (1866), forced the

Emperor to concede internal reforms. To appease Hungarian separatism, the Emperor made a

deal with Hungary, negotiated by Ferenc Deák, called the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of

1867, by which the dual Monarchy of Austria–Hungary came into existence. The two realms

were governed separately by two parliaments from two capitals, with a common monarch and

common external and military policies. Economically, the empire was a customs union. The first

prime minister of Hungary after the Compromise was Count Gyula Andrássy. The old Hungarian

Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned as King of Hungary.

In 1868, Hungarian and Croatian assembly made the Croatian–Hungarian Agreement by which

Croatia was recognized as autonomous region of Holly crown.

Austria-Hungary was geographically the second largest country in Europe after the Russian

Empire (239,977 sq. m in 1905 [44]), and the third most populous (after Russia and the German

Empire).

Cutaway Drawing of Millennium Underground in Budapest (1894–1896) which was the first

underground in Continental Europe.

World War I Memorial in Solt, Hungary.

The era witnessed an impressive economic development. The formerly backward Hungarian

economy became relatively modern and industrialized by the turn of the century, although

agriculture remained dominant. In 1873, the old capital Buda and Óbuda(Ancient Buda) were

officially merged with the third city, Pest, thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest. The

dynamic Pest grew into the country's administrative, political, economic, trade and cultural hub.

Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The GNP per capita grew

roughly 1.45% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that

of other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%). The

strong points of the industry were the electricity and electrotechnology, telecommunication, and

the transport industry: (locomotive and tram construction ship construction) The key symbols of

industrialization were (at the time) the famous Ganz concern, and Tungsram Works. Many of the

state institutions and the modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this

period.

Due to various reasons like the policy of Magyarization [45][46] and the migration of millions, the

census in 1910 (excluding Croatia), recorded the following distribution of population: Hungarian

54.5%, Romanian 16.1%, Slovak 10.7%, and German 10.4%. The largest religious denomination

was the Roman Catholic (49.3%), followed by the Calvinist (14.3%), Greek Orthodox

(12.8%) /Romanians Serbians Ruthenians), Greek Catholic (11.0%), Lutheran (7.1%), and

Jewish (5.0%) religions. In 1910, 6.37% of the population were eligible to vote in elections due

to census.[47]

World War I

Main article: Hungary in World War I

After the Assassination in Sarajevo the Hungarian prime minister, István Tisza and his cabinet

tried to avoid the breaking out and excalating of a war in Europe, but his diplomatic attempts

remained unsuccessful.

Austria–Hungary drafted 9 million (fighting forces: 7,8 million) soldiers in WW1 (4 million

from Kingdom of Hungary). In First World War Austria–Hungary was fighting on the side of

Germany, Bulgaria and Turkey. The Central Powers conquered Serbia. Romania proclaimed

war. The Central Powers conquered Southern Romania and the Romanian capital Bucharest. On

November 1916 Emperor Franz Joseph died, the new monarch Charles IV sympathized by

pacifists. With great difficulty, the Central powers stopped and repelled the attacks of the

Russian Empire. The Eastern front of the Allied (Entente) Powers completely collapsed. The A-

H Empire withdrew from defeated countries. On the Italian front, the Austro-Hungarian army

could not make more successful progress against Italy after January 1918. Despite of great

Eastern successes, Germany suffered complete defeat in the more determinant Western front. By

1918, the economic situation had deteriorated (strikes in factories were organized by leftist and

pacifist movements), and uprisings in the army had become commonplace. In the capital cities

(Vienna and Budapest), the Austrian and the Hungarian leftist liberal movements (the maverick

parties) and their leader politicians supported and strengthened the separatism of ethnic

minorities. Austria-Hungary signed general armistice in Padua on 3 November 1918. In October

1918, the personal union with Austria was dissolved.

Hungarian Democratic Republic

Main article: Hungarian Democratic Republic

In 1918, as a political result of German defeat on the Western front in World War I, the Austro-

Hungarian Monarchy collapsed. French Entente troops landed in Greece to rearm the defeated

Romania Serbia, and the newly formed Czech state. Despite of general armistice agreement, the

Balkanian French army organized new campaigns against Hungary with the help of Czech

Romanian and Serbian governments.

Tisza was murdered in Budapest by a gang of soldiers during Aster Revolution of October 1918.

On 31 October 1918 the success of the Aster Revolution in Budapest brought the leftist liberal

count Mihály Károlyi to power as Prime-Minister. Károlyi was a devotee of Entente from the

beginning of the war. On 13 November 1918 Charles IV surrendered his powers as King of

Hungary; however, he did not abdicate, a technicality that made a return to the throne possible.[48]

By a notion of Woodrow Wilson's pacifism, Károlyi ordered the full disarmament of Hungarian

Army. Hungary remained without national defense in the darkest hour of its history. Surrounding

countries started to arm. The First Republic was proclaimed on 16 November 1918 with Károlyi

being named as president. On 5 November 1918 Serbian Army with French involvement

attacked Southern parts of the country, on 8 November Czech Army attacked Northern part of

Hungary, on 2 December Romanian Army started to attack the Eastern (Transylvanian) parts of

Hungary. The Károlyi government pronounced illegal all armed associations and proposals

which wanted to defend the integrity of the country. The Károlyi government's measures failed

to stem popular discontent, especially when the Entente powers began distributing slices of

Hungary's traditional territory to Romania, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia. French and Serbian

forces occupied the southern parts of Hungary.

By February 1919 the government had lost all popular support, having failed on domestic and

military fronts. On 21 March after the Entente military representative demanded more and more

territorial concessions from Hungary, Károlyi signed all concessions and resigned.

Hungarian Soviet Republic ("Republic of the Councils")

Main articles: Hungarian Soviet Republic and Red Terror (Hungary)

1919: The Heroes Square of Budapest in red. The Communists wanted to destroy all Hungarian

historical monuments, statues and national symbols.

The Communist Party of Hungary, led by Béla Kun, allied itself with the Hungarian Social

Democratic Party came to power and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic. The

Communists also promised equality and social justice. Social Democrat Sándor Garbai was the

official Head of government, but the Soviet Republic was de facto dominated by Béla Kun, who

was in charge of foreign affairs. The Communists – "The Reds" – came to power largely thanks

to being the only group with an organized fighting force, and they promised that Hungary would

defend its territory without conscription. (possibly with the help of the Soviet Red Army).

Hence: the Red Army of Hungary was a little voluntary army (53,000 men). Most soldiers of the

Red Army were armed factory workers from Budapest. Initially, Kun's regime achieved some

military successes: the Hungarian Red Army, under the lead of the genius strategist, Colonel

Aurél Stromfeld, ousted Czech troops from the north and planned to march against the Romanian

army in the east. In terms of domestic policy, the Communist government nationalized industrial

and commercial enterprises, socialized housing, transport, banking, medicine, cultural

institutions, and all landholdings of more than 400,000 square metres. The support of the

Communists proved to be short lived in Budapest. The Communists had never been popular in

country towns and countryside. In the aftermath of a coup attempt, the government took a series

of actions called the Red Terror, murdering several hundred people(mostly scientists and

intellectuals). The Soviet Red Army was never able to aid the new Hungarian republic. Despite

the great military successes against Czechoslovakian army, the communist leaders gave back all

recaptured lands. That attitude demoralized the voluntary army. The Hungarian Red Army was

dissolved before it could successfully complete its campaigns. In the face of domestic backlash

and an advancing Romanian force, Béla Kun and most of his comrades fled to Austria, while

Budapest was occupied on 6 August. Kun and his followers took along numerous art treasures

and the gold stocks of the National Bank. All these events, and in particular the final military

defeat, led to a deep feeling of dislike among the general population against the Soviet Union

(which did not offer military assistance) and the Jews (since most members of Kun's government

were Jewish, making it easy to blame the Jews for the government's mistakes).

Counterrevolution

Main articles: White Terror (Hungary) and Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)

The new fighting force in Hungary were the Conservative Royalists counter-revolutionaries – the

"Whites". These, who had been organizing in Vienna and established a counter-government in

Szeged, assumed power, led by István Bethlen, a Transylvanian aristocrat, and Miklós Horthy,

the former commander in chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. The conservatives determinded

the Károlyi government and communists as capital treason. Starting in Western Hungary and

spreading throughout the country, a White Terror began by other half-regular and half-militarist

detachments (as the police power crashed, there were no serious national regular forces and

authorities), and many arrant Communists and other leftists were tortured and executed without

trial. Radical Whites launched pogroms against the Jews, displayed as the cause of all territorial

losses of Hungary. The most notorious commander of the Whites was Pál Prónay. The leaving

Romanian army pillaged the country: livestock, machinery and agricultural products were carried

to Romania in hundreds of freight cars. The estimated property damage of their activity was so

much that the international peace conference in 1919 did not require Hungary to pay war

redemption to Romania. On 16 November with the consent of Romanian forces, Horthy's army

marched into Budapest. His government gradually restored security, stopped terror, and set up

authorities, but thousands of sympathizers of the Károlyi and Kun regimes were imprisoned.

Radical political movements were suppressed. In March the parliament restored the Hungarian

monarchy but postponed electing a king until civil disorder had subsided. Instead, Miklos Horthy

was elected Regent and was empowered, among other things, to appoint Hungary's Prime

Minister, veto legislation, convene or dissolve the parliament, and command the armed forces.

Trianon Hungary and the Regency

The Treaty of Trianon: Hungary lost 72% of its land and sea ports in Croatia, 3,425,000 Magyars

found themselves separated from their motherland. The country lost 5 of its 10 biggest

Hungarian cities.

Hungary's signing of the Treaty of Trianon on 4 June 1920 ratified the country's borders being

redrawn. The territorial provisions of the treaty required Hungary to surrender more than two-

thirds of its pre-war lands. However, nearly one-third of the 10 million ethnic Hungarians found

themselves outside the diminished homeland. The country's ethnic composition was left almost

homogeneous, Hungarians constituting about 90% of the population, Germans made up about

6%, and Slovaks, Croats, Romanians, and Roma accounted for the remainder.[citation needed]

New international borders separated Hungary's industrial base from its sources of raw materials

and its former markets for agricultural and industrial products. Hungary lost 84% of its timber

resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its iron ore. Furthermore, post-Trianon Hungary

possessed 90% of the engineering and printing industry of the Kingdom, while only 11% of

timber and 16% iron was retained. In addition, 61% of arable land, 74% of public road, 65% of

canals, 62% of railroads, 64% of hard surface roads, 83% of pig iron output, 55% of industrial

plants, 100% of gold, silver, copper, mercury and salt mines, and most of all, 67% of credit and

banking institutions of the former Kingdom of Hungary lay within the territory of Hungary's

neighbors.

Horthy appointed Count Pál Teleki as Prime Minister in July 1920. His government issued a

numerus clausus law, limiting admission of "political insecure elements" (these were often Jews)

to universities and, in order to quiet rural discontent, took initial steps toward fulfilling a promise

of major land reform by dividing about 3,850 km2 from the largest estates into smallholdings.

Teleki's government resigned, however, after, Charles IV, unsuccessfully attempted to retake

Hungary's throne in March 1921. King Charles's return produced split parties between

conservatives who favored a Habsburg restoration and nationalist right-wing radicals who

supported election of a Hungarian king. Count István Bethlen, a non-affiliated right-wing

member of the parliament, took advantage of this rift forming a new Party of Unity under his

leadership. Horthy then appointed Bethlen prime minister. Charles IV died soon after he failed a

second time to reclaim the throne in October 1921.

Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya, Regent of Hungary

As prime minister, Bethlen dominated Hungarian politics between 1921 and 1931. He fashioned

a political machine by amending the electoral law, providing jobs in the expanding bureaucracy

to his supporters, and manipulating elections in rural areas. Bethlen restored order to the country

by giving the radical counter-revolutionaries payoffs and government jobs in exchange for

ceasing their campaign of terror against Jews and leftists. In 1921, he made a deal with the Social

Democrats and trade unions (called the Bethlen-Peyer Pact), agreeing, among other things, to

legalize their activities and free political prisoners in return for their pledge to refrain from

spreading anti-Hungarian propaganda, calling political strikes, and organising the peasantry.

Bethlen brought Hungary into the League of Nations in 1922 and out of international isolation by

signing a treaty of friendship with Italy in 1927. The revision of the Treaty of Trianon rose to the

top of Hungary's political agenda and the strategy employed by Bethlen consisted of

strengthening the economy and building relations with stronger nations. Revision of the treaty

had such a broad backing in Hungary that Bethlen used it, at least in part, to deflect criticism of

his economic, social and political policies. The Great Depression induced a drop in the standard

of living and the political mood of the country shifted further toward the right. In 1932 Horthy

appointed a new prime minister, Gyula Gömbös, that changed the course of Hungarian policy

towards closer cooperation with Germany and started an effort to magyarise the few remaining

ethnic minorities in Hungary. Gömbös signed a trade agreement with Germany that drew

Hungary's economy out of depression but made Hungary dependent on the German economy for

both raw materials and markets. Adolf Hitler appealed to Hungarian desires for territorial

revisionism, while extreme right wing organizations, like the Arrow Cross party, increasingly

embraced extreme Nazi policies, including those relating to the suppression and victimisation of

Jews. The government passed the First Jewish Law in 1938. The law established a quota system

to limit Jewish involvement in the Hungarian economy.

Imrédy's attempts to improve Hungary's diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom initially

made him very unpopular with Germany and Italy. In light of Germany's Anschluss of Austria in

March, he realized that he could not afford to alienate Germany and Italy for long. In the autumn

of 1938 his foreign policy became very much pro-German and pro-Italian.[57] Intent on amassing

a base of power in Hungarian right wing politics, Imrédy began to suppress political rivals, so the

increasingly influential Arrow Cross Party was harassed, and eventually banned by Imrédy's

administration. As Imrédy drifted further to the right, he proposed that the government be

reorganized along totalitarian lines and drafted a harsher Second Jewish Law. Parliament, under

the new government of Pál Teleki, approved the Second Jewish Law in 1939, which greatly

restricted Jewish involvement in the economy, culture and society and, significantly, defined

Jews by race instead of religion. This definition significantly and negatively altered the status of

those who had formerly converted from Judaism to Christianity.

Regions that belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary before the Treaty of Trianon (1920)

Hungary proper

Burgenland (Austria) · Carpathian Ruthenia (Ukraine) · Međimurje

(Croatia) · Prekmurje (Slovenia) · Transylvania (Romania) · Crişana /

Partium (Romania) · Maramureş (Romania) · Upper Hungary

(Slovakia) · Bačka (Serbia) · Banat (Romania, Serbia) · Baranya

(Croatia)

Croatia-Slavonia Croatia (Croatia) · Slavonia (Croatia) · Syrmia (Serbia, Croatia)

Corpus separatum Rijeka (Croatia)

World War II

Map of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1941

Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy sought to enforce peacefully the claims of Hungarians on

territories Hungary lost in 1920 with the signing of the Treaty of Trianon, and the two Vienna

Awards returned parts of Czechoslovakia and Transylvania to Hungary.

On 20 November 1940 under pressure from Germany, Pál Teleki affiliated Hungary with the

Tripartite Pact. In December 1940, he also signed an ephemeral "Treaty of Eternal Friendship"

with Yugoslavia. A few months later, after a Yugoslavian coup threatened the success of the

planned German invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa), Hitler asked the

Hungarians to support his invasion of Yugoslavia. He promised to return some former Hungarian

territories lost after World War I in exchange for cooperation. Unable to prevent Hungary's

participation in the war alongside Germany, Teleki committed suicide. The right-wing radical

László Bárdossy succeeded him as Prime Minister. Eventually Hungary annexed small parts of

present day Slovenia and Serbia.

After war broke out on the Eastern Front many Hungarian officials argued for participation in the

war so as not to encourage Hitler into favouring Romania in the event of border revisions in

Transylvania. Hungary entered the war and on 1 July 1941 at the direction of the Germans, the

Hungarian Karpat Group advanced far into southern Russia. At the Battle of Uman the

Gyorshadtest participated in the encirclement of the 6th Soviet Army and the 12th Soviet Army.

Twenty Soviet divisions were captured or destroyed.

Worried about Hungary's increasing reliance on Germany, Admiral Horthy forced Bárdossy to

resign and replaced him with Miklós Kállay, a veteran conservative of Bethlen's government.

Kállay continued Bárdossy's policy of supporting Germany against the Red Army, while he also

surreptitiously entered into negotiations with the Western Powers.

During the Battle of Stalingrad, the Hungarian Second Army suffered terrible losses. The heavy

Soviet breakthrough at the Don River sliced directly through the Hungarian units. Shortly after

the fall of Stalingrad in January 1943, the Hungarian Second Army effectively ceased to exist as

a functioning military unit.

Secret negotiations with the British and Americans continued. As per the request of the Western

Allies, there were no connection made with the Soviets. Aware of Kállay's deceit and fearing that

Hungary might conclude a separate peace, Hitler ordered Nazi troops to launch Operation

Margarethe and occupy Hungary in March 1944. Döme Sztójay, an avid supporter of the Nazis,

become the new Prime Minister with the aid of a Nazi military governor, Edmund Veesenmayer.

The infamous SS Colonel Adolf Eichmann went to Hungary to oversee the large-scale

deportations of Jews to German death camps in occupied Poland. Between 15 May and 9 July

1944 the Hungarians deported 437,402 Jews to the Auschwitz concentration camp.[58][59]

In August 1944 Horthy replaced Sztójay with the anti-Fascist General Géza Lakatos. Under the

Lakatos regime, the acting Interior Minister Béla Horváth ordered Hungarian gendarmes to

prevent any Hungarian citizens from being deported.

In September 1944, Soviet forces crossed the Hungarian border. On 15 October 1944, Horthy

announced that Hungary had signed an armistice with the Soviet Union. The Hungarian army

ignored the armistice. The Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust and, by kidnapping his son

(Miklós Horthy, Jr.), forced Horthy to abrogate the armistice, depose the Lakatos government,

and name the leader of the Arrow Cross Party, Ferenc Szálasi, as Prime Minister. Szálasi became

Prime Minister of a new fascist Government of National Unity and Horthy abdicated.

In cooperation with the Nazis, Szálasi restarted the deportations of Jews, particularly in

Budapest. Thousands more Jews were killed by Hungarian Arrow Cross members. The retreating

German army demolished the rail, road, and communications systems.

On 28 December 1944 a provisional government was formed in Hungary under acting Prime

Minister Béla Miklós. Miklós and Szálasi's rival governments each claimed legitimacy : the

Germans and pro-German Hungarians loyal to Szálasi fought on, as the territory effectively

controlled by the Arrow Cross regime shrunk gradually. The Red Army completed the

encirclement of Budapest on 29 December 1944 and the Battle of Budapest began and continued

into February 1945. Most of what remained of the Hungarian First Army was destroyed about

200 miles north of Budapest between 1 January and 16 February 1945.

On 20 January 1945, representatives of the Hungarian provisional government signed an

armistice in Moscow. Szálasi's government had fled the country by the end of March. Officially,

Soviet operations in Hungary ended on 4 April 1945 when the last German troops were expelled.

On 7 May 1945 General Alfred Jodl, the German Chief of Staff, signed the unconditional

surrender of all German forces.

Hungary's World War II casualties: Tamás Stark of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences has

provided the following assessment of losses from 1941–1945 in Hungary. Military losses were

300,000-310,000 including 110-120,000 killed in battle and 200,000 missing in action and POW

in the Soviet Union. Hungarian military losses include 110,000 men who were conscripted from

the annexed territories of Greater Hungary in Slovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia and the deaths

of 20-25,000 Jews conscripted for Army labor units. Civilian losses of about 80,000 include

45,500 killed in the 1944–1945 military campaign and in air attacks, and the genocide of Romani

people of 28,000 persons. Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 200,000. See World War II

casualties.

Transition to Communism (1944–1949)

The Soviet Army occupied Hungary from September 1944 until April 1945. The siege of

Budapest lasted almost 2 months, from December 1944 to February 1945 (the longest successful

siege of any city in the entire war, including Berlin) and the city suffered widespread destruction,

including all the Danube bridges which were blown up by the Germans in an effort to slow the

Soviet advance.

By signing the Peace Treaty of Paris, Hungary again lost all the territories that it had gained

between 1938 and 1941. Neither the Western Allies nor the Soviet Union supported any change

in Hungary's pre-1938 borders, which was the primary motive behind the Hungarian

involvement in the war. The Soviet Union itself annexed Sub-Carpathia (before 1938 the eastern

edge of Czechoslovakia), which is today part of Ukraine.

The Treaty of Peace with Hungary signed on 10 February 1947 declared that "The decisions of

the Vienna Award of November 2, 1938, are declared null and void" and Hungarian boundaries

were fixed along the former frontiers as they existed on 1 January 1938 except a minor loss of

territory on the Czechoslovakian border. Many of the communist leaders of 1919 returned from

Moscow. The first major violation of civil rights was suffered by the ethnic German minority,

half of which (240,000 people) were deported to Germany in 1946–1948, although the great

majority of them did not support Germany and were not members of any pro-Nazi movement.

There was a forced "exchange of population" between Hungary and Czechoslovakia, which

involved about 70,000 Hungarians living in Slovakia and somewhat smaller numbers of ethnic

Slovaks living in the territory of Hungary. Unlike the Germans, these people were allowed to

carry some of their property with them.

The Soviets originally planned for a piecemeal introduction of the Communist regime in

Hungary, therefore when they set up a provisional government in Debrecen on 21 December

1944, they were careful to include representatives of several moderate parties. Following the

demands of the Western Allies for a democratic election, the Soviets authorized the only

essentially free election in Eastern Europe in November 1945 in Hungary. This was also the first

election held in Hungary on the basis of universal franchise. People voted for party lists, not for

individual candidates. At the elections the Independent Smallholders' Party, a center-right

peasant party, won 57% of the vote. Despite the hopes of the Communists and the Soviets that

the distribution of the aristocratic estates among the poor peasants would increase their

popularity, the Hungarian Communist Party received only 17% of the votes. The Soviet

commander in Hungary, Marshal Voroshilov, refused to allow the Smallholders' Party to form a

government on their own. Under Voroshilov's pressure, the Smallholders organized a coalition

government including the Communists, the Social Democrats and the National Peasant Party (a

left-wing peasant party), in which the Communists held some of the key posts. On 1 February

1946 Hungary was declared a Republic, and the leader of the Smallholders, Zoltán Tildy,

became President handing over the office of Prime Minister to Ferenc Nagy. Mátyás Rákosi,

leader of the Communist Party, became deputy prime minister.

Another leading Communist, László Rajk became minister of the interior responsible for

controlling law enforcement, and in this position established the security police (ÁVH). The

Communists exercised constant pressure on the Smallholders both inside and outside the

government, nationalising industrial companies, banning religious civil organizations and

occupying key positions in local public administration. In February 1947 the police began

arresting leaders of the Smallholders Party, charging them with "conspiracy against the

Republic". Several prominent figures decided to emigrate or were forced to escape abroad,

including Prime Minister Ferenc Nagy in May 1947. Later Mátyás Rákosi boasted that he had

dealt with his partners in the government, one by one, "cutting them off like slices of salami."

At the next parliamentary election in August 1947 the Communists committed widespread

election fraud with absentee ballots (the so-called "blue slips"), but even so, they only managed

to increase their share from 17% to 24% in Parliament. The Social Democrats (by this time a

servile ally of the Communists) received 15% in contrast to their 17% in 1945. The

Smallholders' Party lost much of its popularity and ended up with 15%, but their former voters

turned towards three new center-right parties which seemed more determined to resist the

Communist onslaught: their combined share of the total votes was 35%.

Faced with their second failure at the polls, the Communists changed tactics, and, under new

orders from Moscow, decided to eschew democratic facades and speed up the Communist

takeover. In June 1948 the Social Democratic Party was forced to "merge" with the Communist

Party, creating the Hungarian Working People's Party, which was dominated by the Communists.

Anti-Communist leaders of the Social Democrats, such as Károly Peyer or Anna Kéthly, were

forced into exile or excluded from the party. Soon after, President Zoltán Tildy was also

removed from his position, and replaced by a fully cooperative Social Democrat, Árpád

Szakasits. Ultimately, all "democratic" parties were organized into a so-called People's Front in

February 1949, thereby losing even the vestiges of their autonomy. The leader of the People's

Front was Rákosi himself. Opposition parties were simply declared illegal and their leaders

arrested or forced into exile.

On 18 August 1949 the parliament passed the new constitution of Hungary (1949/XX.) modelled

after the 1936 constitution of the Soviet Union. The name of the country changed to the People's

Republic of Hungary, "the country of the workers and peasants" where "every authority is held

by the working people". Socialism was declared as the main goal of the nation. A new coat-of-

arms was adopted with Communist symbols, such the red star, hammer and sickle.

Stalinist era (1949–1956)

Mátyás Rákosi, who as a chief secretary of the Hungarian Working People's Party was de facto

the leader of Hungary, possessed practically unlimited power and demanded complete obedience

from fellow members of the Party, including his two most trusted colleagues, Ernő Gerő and

Mihály Farkas. All three of them returned to Hungary from Moscow, where they spent long

years and had close ties to high-ranking Soviet leaders there. Their main rivals in the party were

the 'Hungarian' Communists who led the illegal party during the war in Hungary, and were

considerably more popular within party ranks. Their most influential leader, László Rajk, who

was minister of foreign affairs at the time, was arrested in May 1949. He was accused of rather

surreal crimes, such as spying for Western imperialist powers and for Yugoslavia (which was

also a Communist country but in very bad relations with the Soviet Union at the time). At his

trial in September 1949 he made a forced confession to be an agent of Miklós Horthy, Leon

Trotsky, Josip Broz Tito and Western imperialism. He also admitted that he had taken part in a

murder plot against Mátyás Rákosi and Ernő Gerő. Rajk was found guilty and executed. In the

next three years, other leaders of the party deemed untrustworthy, like former Social Democrats

or other Hungarian illegal Communists such as János Kádár, were also arrested and imprisoned

on trumped-up charges.

The showcase trial of Rajk is considered the beginning of the worst period of the Rákosi

dictatorship. Mátyás Rákosi now attempted to impose totalitarian rule on Hungary. The centrally

orchestrated personality cult focused on him and Stalin soon reached unprecedented proportions.

Rákosi's images and busts were everywhere, all public speakers were required to glorify his

wisdom and leadership. In the meantime, the secret police, led through Gábor Péter by Rákosi

himself, mercilessly persecuted all 'class enemies' and 'enemies of the people'. An estimated

2,000 people were executed and over 100,000 were imprisoned. Some 44,000 ended up in

forced-labour camps, where many died due to horrible work conditions, poor food and

practically no medical care. Another 15,000 people, mostly former aristocrats, industrialists,

military generals and other upper-class people were deported from the capital and other cities to

countryside villages where they were forced to do hard agricultural labour. These policies were

opposed by some members of the Hungarian Working People's Party and around 200,000 were

expelled by Rákosi from the organization.

By 1950, the state controlled most of the economy, as all large and mid-sized industrial

companies, plants, mines, banks of all kind as well as all companies of retail and foreign trade

were nationalized without any compensation. Slavishly following Soviet economic policies,

Rákosi declared that Hungary would become a "country of iron and steel", even though Hungary

lacked iron ore completely. The forced development of heavy industry served military purposes;

it was meant to be preparation for the impending World War III against Western imperialism. A

disproportionate amount of the country's resources were spent on building whole industrial cities

and plants from scratch, while much of the country was still in ruins since the war. Traditional

strengths of Hungary, such as the food and textile industries were neglected.

Large agricultural latifundia were divided and distributed among poor peasants already in 1945.

In agriculture, the government tried to force independent peasants to enter co-operatives in which

they would become merely paid labourers, but many of them stubbornly resisted. The

government retaliated with ever higher requirements of compulsory food quotas imposed on

peasants' produce. Rich peasants, called 'kulaks' in Russians, were declared 'class enemies' and

suffered all sorts of discrimination, including imprisonment and loss of property. With them,

some of the most able farmers were removed from production. The declining agricultural output

led to a constant scarcity of food, especially meat.

Rákosi rapidly expanded the education system in Hungary. This was an attempt to replace the

educated class of the past by what Rákosi called a new "working intelligentsia". In addition to

effects such as better education for the poor, more opportunities for working class children and

increased literacy in general, this measure also included the dissemination of communist

ideology in schools and universities. Also, as part of an effort to separate the Church from the

State, practically all religious schools were taken into state ownership, and religious instruction

was denounced as retrograde propaganda and was gradually eliminated from schools.

The Hungarian churches were systematically intimidated. Cardinal József Mindszenty, who had

bravely opposed the German Nazis and the Hungarian Fascists during the Second World War,

was arrested in December 1948 and accused of treason. After five weeks under arrest (which

included torture), he confessed to the charges against him and he was sentenced to life

imprisonment. The Protestant churches were also purged and their leaders were replaced by

those willing to remain loyal to Rákosi's government.

The new Hungarian military hastily staged public, pre-arranged trials to purge "Nazi remnants

and imperialist saboteurs". Several officers were sentenced to death and executed in 1951,

including Lajos Toth, a 28 victory-scoring fighter ace of World War II Royal Hungarian Air

Force, who had voluntarily returned from US captivity to help revive Hungarian aviation. The

victims were cleared posthumously following the fall of communism.

Preparations for a show trial started in Budapest in 1953to prove that Raoul Wallenberg had not

been dragged off in 1945 to the Soviet Union but was the victim of cosmopolitan Zionists. For

the purposes of this show trial, three Jewish leaders as well as two would-be "eyewitnesses" were

arrested and interrogated by torture. The show trial was initiated in Moscow, following Stalin-s

anti-Zionist campaign. After the death of Stalin and Lavrentiy Beria, the preparations for the trial

were stopped and the arrested persons were released.

Rákosi had great difficulties managing the economy and the people of Hungary saw living

standards fall. Although his government became increasingly unpopular, he had a firm grip on

power until Joseph Stalin died on 5 March 1953 when a confused power struggle began in

Moscow. Some of the Soviet leaders perceived the unpopularity of the Hungarian regime and

ordered Rákosi to give up his position as prime minister in favour of another former Communist-

in-exile in Moscow, Imre Nagy, who was Rákosi's chief opponent in the party. Rákosi, however,

retained his position as general secretary of the Hungarian Working People's Party and over the

next three years the two men became involved in a bitter struggle for power.

As Hungary's new prime minister, Imre Nagy slightly relaxed state control over the economy and

the mass media and encouraged public discussion on political and economic reform. In order to

improve the general supply, he increase the production and distribution of consumer goods and

reduced the tax and quota burdens of the peasants. Nagy also closed forced-labour camps,

released most of the political prisoners - the Communists were allowed back into Party ranks -,

and reined in the secret police, whose hated head, Gábor Péter, was convicted and imprisoned in

1954. All these rather moderate reforms earned him widespread popularity in the country,

especially among the peasantry and the left-wing intellectuals.

Following a turn in Moscow, where Malenkov, Nagy's primary patron lost the power struggle

against Khrushchev, Mátyás Rákosi started a counterattack on Nagy. On March 9, 1955, the

Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party condemned Nagy for "rightist

deviation". Hungarian newspapers joined the attacks and Nagy was accused of being responsible

for the country's economic problems and on 18 April he was dismissed from his post by a

unanimous vote of the National Assembly. Soon after, Nagy was even excluded from the Party

and temporarily retired from politics. Rákosi once again became the unchallenged leader of

Hungary.

Rákosi's second reign, however, did not last long. His power was undermined by a speech made

by Nikita Khrushchev in February 1956, in which he denounced the policies of Joseph Stalin and

his followers in Eastern Europe, especially the attacks on Yugoslavia and the cult of personality.

On 18 July 1956 visiting Soviet leaders removed Rákosi from all his positions and he boarded a

plane bound for the Soviet Union, never to return to Hungary. But the Soviets made a major

mistake by the appointment of his close friend and ally, Ernő Gerő, as his successor, who was

equally unpopular and shared responsibility for most of Rákosi's crimes.

The fall of Rákosi was followed by a flurry of reform agitation both inside and outside the Party.

László Rajk and his fellow victims of the showcase trial of 1949 were cleared of all charges, and

on 6 October 1956, the Party authorized a reburial, which was attended by tens of thousands of

people and became a silent demonstration against the crimes of the regime. On 13 October it was

announced that Imre Nagy had been reinstated as a member of the party.

1956 Revolution

Main article: Hungarian Revolution of 1956

On 23 October 1956 a peaceful student demonstration in Budapest produced a list of 16 demands

for reform and greater political freedom. As the students attempted to broadcast these demands,

police made some arrests and tried to disperse the crowd with tear gas. When the students

attempted to free those arrested, the police opened fire on the crowd, setting off a chain of events

which led to the Hungarian Revolution.

That night, commissioned officers and soldiers joined the students on the streets of Budapest.

Stalin's statue was brought down and the protesters chanted "Russians go home", "Away with

Gerő" and "Long Live Nagy". The Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party

responded to these developments by requesting Soviet military intervention and deciding that

Imre Nagy should become head of a new government. Soviet tanks entered Budapest at 2 a.m. on

24 October.

On 25 October Soviet tanks opened fire on protesters in Parliament Square. One journalist at the

scene saw 12 dead bodies and estimated that 170 had been wounded. Shocked by these events

the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party forced Ernő Gerő to resign

from office and replaced him with János Kádár.

Imre Nagy now went on Radio Kossuth and announced he had taken over the leadership of the

Government as Chairman of the Council of Ministers." He also promised "the far-reaching

democratization of Hungarian public life, the realisation of a Hungarian road to socialism in

accord with our own national characteristics, and the realisation of our lofty national aim: the

radical improvement of the workers' living conditions."

On 28 October Nagy and a group of his supporters, including János Kádár, Géza Losonczy,

Antal Apró, Károly Kiss, Ferenc Münnich and Zoltán Szabó, managed to take control of the

Hungarian Working People's Party. At the same time revolutionary workers' councils and local

national committees were formed all over Hungary.

The change of leadership in the party was reflected in the articles of the government newspaper,

Szabad Nép (i.e. Free People). On 29 October the newspaper welcomed the new government and

openly criticised Soviet attempts to influence the political situation in Hungary. This view was

supported by Radio Miskolc that called for the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from the

country.

On 30 October Imre Nagy announced that he was freeing Cardinal József Mindszenty and other

political prisoners. He also informed the people that his government intends to abolish the one-

party state. This was followed by statements of Zoltán Tildy, Anna Kéthly and Ferenc Farkas

concerning the restitution of the Smallholders Party, the Social Democratic Party and the Petőfi

(former Peasants) Party.

Nagy's most controversial decision took place on 1 November when he announced that Hungary

intended to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact as well as proclaiming Hungarian neutrality he

asked the United Nations to become involved in the country's dispute with the Soviet Union.

On 3 November Nagy announced details of his coalition government. It included communists

(János Kádár, Georg Lukács, Géza Losonczy), three members of the Smallholders Party (Zoltán

Tildy, Béla Kovács and István Szabó), three Social Democrats (Anna Kéthly, Gyula Keleman,

Joseph Fischer), and two Petőfi Peasants (István Bibó and Ferenc Farkas). Pál Maléter was

appointed minister of defence.

Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of the Soviet Union, became increasingly concerned about these

developments and on 4 November 1956 he sent the Red Army into Hungary. Soviet tanks

immediately captured Hungary's airfields, highway junctions and bridges. Fighting took place all

over the country but the Hungarian forces were quickly defeated.

During the Hungarian Uprising an estimated 20,000 people were killed, nearly all during the

Soviet intervention. Imre Nagy was arrested and replaced by the Soviet loyalist, János Kádár.

Nagy was imprisoned until being executed in 1958. Other government ministers or supporters

who were either executed or died in captivity included Pál Maléter, Géza Losonczy, Attila

Szigethy and Miklós Gimes.

Post Revolution (or Kádár) era 1956–1989

Once he was in power, János Kádár led an attack against revolutionaries. 21,600 mavericks

(democrats, liberals, reformist communists alike) were imprisoned, 13,000 interned, and 400

killed. But in the early 1960s, Kádár announced a new policy under the motto of "He who is not

against us is with us." (this was a modification of Rákosi's statement 'He who is not with us is

against us'). He declared a general amnesty, gradually curbed some of the excesses of the secret

police, and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the

post-1956 hostility toward him and his regime. In 1966, the Central Committee approved the

"New Economic Mechanism," through which it sought to rebuild the economy, increase

productivity, make Hungary more competitive in world markets, and create prosperity to ensure

political stability. Over the next two decades of relative domestic quiet, Kádár's government

responded alternately to pressures for minor political and economic reforms as well as to

counter-pressures from reform opponents. By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting

economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which

encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to

mounting foreign debt, incurred to shore up unprofitable industries.

Hungary's transition to a Western-style democracy was one of the smoothest among the former

Soviet bloc. By late 1988, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based

intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Some of these became reform socialists, while

others began movements which were to develop into parties. Young liberals formed the

Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz); a core from the so-called Democratic Opposition

formed the Alliance of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), and the national opposition established the

Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF). Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the

1956 revolution.

In 1988, Kádár was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party, and reform

communist leader Imre Pozsgay was admitted to the Politburo. In 1989, the Parliament adopted a

"democracy package," which included trade-union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly,

and the press; a new electoral law; and in October 1989 a radical revision of the constitution,

among others. Since then, Hungary has tried to reform its economy and increase its connections

with western Europe, hoping to become a member of the European Union as soon as possible. A

Central Committee plenum in February 1989 endorsed in principle the multiparty political

system and the characterization of the October 1956 revolution as a "popular uprising," in the

words of Pozsgay, whose reform movement had been gathering strength as Communist Party

membership declined dramatically. Kádár's major political rivals then cooperated to move the

country gradually to democracy. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an

agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991.

National unity culminated in June 1989 as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and,

symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national round table, comprising

representatives of the new parties and some recreated old parties—such as the Smallholders and

Social Democrats—the Communist Party, and different social groups, met in the late summer of

1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and

the transition to a fully free and democratic political system.

In October 1989, the communist party convened its last congress and re-established itself as the

Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP). In a historic session on 16–20 October 1989, the Parliament

adopted legislation providing for multiparty parliamentary elections and a direct presidential

election. The legislation transformed Hungary from a People's Republic into the Republic of

Hungary, guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensures

separation of powers among the judicial, executive, and legislative branches of government. On

the day of the 1956 Revolution, 23 October, the Hungarian Republic was officially declared (by

the provisional President of the Republic Mátyás Szűrös), replacing the Hungarian People's

Republic. The revised constitution also championed the "values of bourgeois democracy and

democratic socialism" and gave equal status to public and private property.

Free elections and a democratic government since 1989

The first free parliamentary election, held in May 1990, was a plebiscite of sorts on the

communist past. The revitalized and reformed communists performed poorly despite having

more than the usual advantages of an "incumbent" party. Populist, center-right, and liberal

parties fared best, with the Democratic Forum (MDF) winning 43% of the vote and the Free

Democrats (SZDSZ) capturing 24%. Under Prime Minister József Antall, the MDF formed a

center-right coalition government with the Independent Smallholders' Party (FKGP) and the

Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) to command a 60% majority in the parliament.

Parliamentary opposition parties included SZDSZ, the Socialists (MSZP), and the Alliance of

Young Democrats (Fidesz).

Between March 12, 1990 and June 19, 1991 the Soviet troops ("Southern Army Group") left

Hungary. The last units commanded by general Viktor Silov crossed the Hungarian-Ukrainian

border at Záhony - Csap. The total number of Soviet military and civilian personnel stationed in

Hungary was around 100,000, having at their disposal approximately 27,000 military equipment.

The withdrawal was performed with 35,000 railway cars. Since 2001, by a special bill passed in

the Hungarian Parliament, June 16 was declared a national memorial day.

Péter Boross succeeded as Prime Minister after Antall died in December 1993.

The Antall/Boross coalition governments achieved a reasonably well-functioning parliamentary

democracy and laid the foundation for a free-market economy, and the massive worsening of

living standards because of the free-market reforms led to a massive loss of support.

In May 1994 the socialists came back to win a plurality of votes and 54% of the seats after an

election campaign focused largely on economic issues and the substantial decline in living

standards since 1990. A heavy turnout of voters swept away the right-of-center coalition but

soundly rejected extremists on both right and left. After its disappointing result in the election,

Fidesz changed its political position from liberal to conservative. In 1995, it added "Hungarian

Civic Party" (Magyar Polgári Párt) to its shortened name. The conservative turn caused a severe

split in the membership. Péter Molnár left the party, as well as Gábor Fodor and Klára Ungár,

who joined the liberal Alliance of Free Democrats. The MSZP, whose politics was as much

determined by the socialism of PM Gyula Horn and a large part of the base, as by the economic

focus of its technocrats (educated with a Western orientation in seventies-eighties) and ex-cadre

entrepreneur supporters, and its liberal coalition partner SzDSz continued economic reforms and

privatization, adopting a painful policy of fiscal austerity (the "Bokros plan") in 1995. The

government pursued a foreign policy of integration with Euro-Atlantic institutions and

reconciliation with neighboring countries. But neither an invitation to join NATO nor improving

economic indicators guaranteed the governing parties' re-election; dissatisfaction with the pace

and style of economic recovery, rising crime, the attempt to re-start the unpopular program of

building a dam in the Danube, and cases of government corruption convinced voters to propel

center-right parties into power following national elections in May 1998.

Fidesz captured a plurality of parliamentary seats and forged a coalition with the Smallholders

and the Democratic Forum. The new government, headed by 35-year-old Prime Minister Viktor

Orbán, promised to stimulate faster growth, curb inflation, and lower taxes. Although the Orbán

administration also pledged continuity in foreign policy, and continued to pursue Euro-Atlantic

integration as its first priority, it was a more vocal advocate of minority rights for ethnic

Hungarians abroad than the previous government. In 2002 it was decided that Hungary, together

with 9 other countries was to join the European Union on 1 January 2004.

However, Fidesz lost the next election in April 2002, in which the MSZP and its liberal ally

SzDSz 51% won over Fidesz and its ally MDF 48% in a fierce fight that showed a loss of trust in

Fidesz due to supposed professed corruption problems, a style seen as arrogant by parts of the

population, and lack of communication between the government and the other parties and some

strategically bad connections to extreme right-wing parties during the election campaign, while

also showing the doubt and memories of already mentioned problems with the socialist party's

last government.

On 12 April 2003 Hungary voted for joining the European Union, where 83% of the votes said

"Yes" to EU (45% of the population voted). Since the EU already accepted Hungary as a

possible member, the 4 leading political parties (MSZP, Fidesz, SZDSZ and MDF) agreed to

establish the required prerequisites and policies and to work together to prepare the country for

the accession with the least possible harm to the economy and people while maximising the

positive effects on the country. On 1 May 2004 Hungary became a member of the EU.

In the elections of April 2006, Hungary decided to keep its government in place for the first time

in the history of the Third Hungarian Republic. The left-wing strengthened its positions, with the

coalition of the Social Democrats (MSZP) and the Liberals (SZDSZ) reaching 54 percent of the

votes, gaining 210 seats as opposed to the previous 198. Surprise elements were the rise in votes

for the smaller parties SZDSZ and MDF, and the largest conservative party Fidesz (joining

forces with one of the Christian Democrat parties for the elections) winning a considerably lower

number, 164 of the altogether 386 seats, while most polls showed a head-to-head competition

and an almost equal amount of seats won by the two large parties. Many analysts have pointed to

Fidesz's largely negative political campaign, its conflicts with MDF (which refused to ally with

Fidesz because, among others, of differences in basic principles and a number of alleged

blackmail incidents), as well as the content of public speeches of some of its candidates (such as

deputy prime minister nominee István Mikola referring to young Hungarians participating in

Budapest Parade as "hordes made up of single people") as probable causes of the party's loss of

voters especially in the second round where, according to the Tárki institute, Fidesz lost as much

as ten percent of its voters. The new Parliament assembled in late May 2006, and the new

government was formed in June 2006. Under the socialist-liberal government (since 2002) all

indexes of the Hungarian economy started to downfall. There were mass protests against the

social-liberal Gyurcsány government between 17 September and 23 October 2006. It is the first

sustained protest in Hungary since 1989

Airline   Departs      Arrival    Stops  

       Duration

Aeroflot Russian Air New Delhi 28 Sep, 02:00 AM Budapest 28 Sep, 03:00PM 116hr 30min

Budapest 01 Oct, 11:30 AMNew Delhi02 Oct, 12:30 AM19hr 30min

Rs.36,215 (Incl. of taxes & fee)

 Rs.21,000 Fare +Rs.15,215 Taxes & Fee

Fare Summary: Rs.36,215

Traveller Type

Base Fare Taxes & Fee Per Traveller Total

AdultRs.21,000 (X

1)Rs.15,215 (X

1)Rs.36,215 (X

1)Rs.36,215

      Grand Total: Rs.36,215Fare RulesThis is a Non Refundable E-ticket.

Cancellation Penalty:All bookings booked on MakeMyTrip.com are subject to cancellation penalty levied by the airlines. In addition to the airlines cancellation penalty, MakeMyTrip charges a service fee of Rs 500 per passenger for all cancellations.

Date Change Penalty: In addition to the airlines date change penalty, MakeMyTrip charges a date change assistance service charge of Rs 500 per ticket.You are requested to consult consulate/airlines to check the visa requirement for your travel. Makemytrip will not be responsible for any visa related information.

Hotel

Danubius Hotel Gellert - Budapest

Hotel Information & Location(rent $61) 

The four-star Danubius Hotel Gellert is one of the most traditional hotels in Budapest and

Hungary.

Sophisticated guests, who admire traditional architecture and dedicated service will honour this

preserved jewel of construction art and at the same time enjoy the unique historical atmosphere

of the Hotel Gellert. The hotel was erected on the right bank of the River Danube between 1916

and 1918 until its opening to the public on September 24th, 1918 and has maintained the highest

recognition ever since. The special ambience and furniture of the rooms together with the

friendly style of the hotel are blending in perfect harmony. Next to the hotel you can find the

world famous Gellert Bath.

Danubius Hotel Gellert Budapest, located in a picturesque environment at the foot of Gellert

Hill, on the bank of the Danube, is ideally situated for both business and leisure travellers. This

impressive location is within walking distance to Budapest's most fashionable shopping and

business district with one of the most beautiful sights of Budapest, the Liberty Bridge.

Rooms

Economy DBL - Double or twin bedded room with bathtub/shower overlooking the patio or

outdoor pool area. Size: 27-30 sqm. Rooms equipped with phone, international TV and news

channels, movie channel, radio, alarm clock and Minibar. Hotel bathrobe is available in every

room.

Guest room DBL - Double or twin bedded room with bath overlooking the river or hill. Size:

cca. 25 sqm. Rooms are equipped with phone, satellite TV and news channels, movie channel,

radio, alarm clock. Minibar in room. Hotel bathrobe is available in every room.

Deluxe DBL - Double or twin bedded refurbished room with bath, overlooking to the river. Size:

cca. 30 sqm. Rooms are equipped with phone, satellite TV and news channels, movie channel,

radio, alarm clock. Minibar and safety box in room. Hotel bathrobe is available in every room.

Suite Deluxe - Superior suite with bathroom overlooking the river Danube or the Gellért hill.

Size: 65-75 m2. Rooms are equipped with phone, satellite TV and news channels, movie

channel, radio, alarm clock, minibar. Hotel bathrobe is available in every room.

Suite - Spacious rooms overlooking to river or the hill, with living room, bedroom and bathroom.

Total size: 56-62 sqm. Rooms are equipped with phone, satellite TV and news channels, movie

channel, radio, alarm clock, minibar and bathrobe. WIFI is available.

Hotel services

Business centre * Central safe * 24-hour open reception * Organisation of Programmes *

Function rooms * Conference rooms * Hotel taxi * Souvenir shop * Restaurant * Brasserie *

Drinkbar * Movie channel * Computer connection * Minibar * In-room safe * Non-smoking

rooms * Room-service * Pets allowed * Baby-sitter upon request * Laundry * Dry cleaning *

Massage * Outdoor swimming pool * Indoor pool * Indoor swimming pool * Jacuzzi * Sauna *

Solarium * Open-air bath * Beauty parlour * Hairdresser * Surgery * Dentist * Other medical

services * Rheumathology

Fare

Ticket to Hungary (return ticket included) (direct destination) Rs 36215

Hotel stay(for 4 days) ($61*3=183) Rs 9150

Hungary tour (for 8 hours)(including food) $101 Rs 5050

Taxi fare (included in hotel facility)

Total amount Rs 50415