TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS OVER THE PAST DECADE by Wenjia Gu B.S. Civil Engineering University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2014 ARCHIVES 1 MASSACM I TT 1 ;r OF 1*KCHN0L0LGY JUL 02 2015 LIBRAR IES SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AT THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY JUNE 2015 C2015 Wenjia Gu. All rights reserved. The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part in any medium now known of hereafter created. Signature of Author: Signature redacted Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering May 21, 2015 Signature redacted Certified by: Accepted b ( v: Jerome Connor Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering Thesis Supervisor Signature redacted ?'Hei4 Nepf Donald and Martha Harleman Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering Chair, Departmental Committee for Graduate Students
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TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS OVERTHE PAST DECADE
by
Wenjia Gu
B.S. Civil EngineeringUniversity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2014
ARCHIVES1MASSACM I TT1 ;r
OF 1*KCHN0L0LGY
JUL 02 2015
LIBRAR IES
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTALENGINEERING IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTER OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL ENGINEERINGAT THE
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
JUNE 2015
C2015 Wenjia Gu. All rights reserved.
The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distributepublicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document
in whole or in part in any medium now known of hereafter created.
Signature of Author: Signature redactedDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering
May 21, 2015
Signature redactedCertified by:
Accepted b
(
v:
Jerome ConnorProfessor of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Thesis Supervisor
Signature redacted?'Hei4 Nepf
Donald and Martha Harleman Professor of Civil and Environmental EngineeringChair, Departmental Committee for Graduate Students
TRENDS AND INNOVATIONS IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS OVER
THE PAST DECADE
by
Wenjia Gu
Submitted to the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering on May 21, 2015 in
Partial Fulfillment of the Degree Requirements for
Master of Engineering in Civil and Environmental Engineering
ABSTRACT
Over the past decade, high-rise buildings in the world are both booming in quantity and
expanding in height. One of the most important reasons driven the achievement is the
continuously evolvement of structural systems. In this paper, previous classifications of
structural systems are summarized and different types of structural systems are introduced.
Besides the structural systems, innovations in other aspects of today's design of high-rise
buildings including damping systems, construction techniques, elevator systems as well as
sustainability are presented and discussed.
To better understand current high-rise buildings, information about buildings above 200
meter completed within recent ten years and the current 100 tallest building in the world is
collected and analyzed. Structural systems of worldwide 100 tallest buildings are discussed,
from which trends are found. Data shows that tubular systems are in vast majority in recent
high-rise building designs and an increasing number of buildings are using concrete and
composite materials instead of steel. Developments in structural systems also reduce
structures' dependence on auxiliary damping devices. Additionally, sustainability has been
given more and more consideration.
Thesis Supervisor: Jerome Connor
Title: Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering
3
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. IN TR O D U C T IO N ................................................................................. 7
To better understand the implement of different structural systems, construction
materials and design critics of high-rise buildings in the actual world, information about
high-rise buildings above 200 meters completed in the past ten years as well as the current
100 tallest buildings in the world has been collected and analyzed.
5.1 Structural Systems
Based on the properties of different types of structural systems which are
introduced in previous section, structural systems of modem high-rise buildings are divided
into seven categories: rigid frames, core and outrigger systems, framed tubes, trussed tubes,
tube in tube systems and bundle systems. The results have been shown in Figure 21 and
Figure 22.
Figure 21 shows the distribution of structural systems of high-rise buildings above
200 meter completed during each period over time. As the figure shows, tube in tube
systems have been more and more used in the design of high-rise buildings, while rigid
frame systems is no more been used within the past five decades.
Figure 22 shows the distribution of structural systems of the current worldwide 100
tallest buildings. As can be seen, vast majority of the structural system consist of tubular
systems and core and outrigger systems, in which the tube in tube system has the largest
percentage of 38%.
37
16
14
12
10
5* -
6
4,
2... ... ...
" Bundled system
" Tube in tube
" Trussed tube
" Framed tube
N Core and outrigger
* Rigid Frame
Figure 21: Distribution of structural systems of buildings over 200m over time.
2%
0 Bundled system
U Tube in tube
8 Trussed tube
a Framed tube
M Core and outrigger
0 Rigid Frame
Figure 22: Distribution of structural systems of the current 100 tallest buildings.
Taking the average stories of different types of structural systems of the current 100
tallest buildings in the world, comparison can be conducted with previous theoretical
analysis of structural systems. As Figure 23 shows, bundle system has the highest average
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number of stories, while core and outrigger system has the lowest average number of stories.
Rigid frame system has the second highest average number of stories, which is quite
different from previous analysis, because of relatively small sample size.
100
90
; 80
70
60
s0
40
30
20
10
0Core and Tube in Framed Trussed Rigid Bundled
outrigger tube tube tube Frame system
Figure 23: Average number of stories of different types of structural systems.
5.2 Construction Materials
To study the trend of construction materials, information about worldwide 100
tallest buildings in each period is collected. Result is shown in Figure 24.
A steel building is defined as a building where the main vertical and lateral
structural elements and floor systems are constructed from steel. Similarly, a concrete
building is defined as one where the main vertical and lateral structural elements and floor
systems are constructed from concrete. A composite building utilizes a combination of both
steel and concrete acting compositely in the main structural elements. A mixed-structure
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building is any building that utilizes distinct steel and concrete systems above or below each
other.
As the figure indicates, a high percentage of buildings are using composite materials
in the past few decades. The most common combination is a steel building with a concrete
core. At the same time, the number of buildings using concrete as the construction materials
is increasing as well. One possible reason behind the increasing number of concrete
buildings is the development of high-strength concrete and concrete pumping techniques
which have been discussed previously.
100
* Unknown75
" Mixed
50 a Composite
" Concrete25
" Steel
01960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 2010 2015
Figure 24: Distribution of construction materials of 100 tallest buildings in each
period.
5.3 Sustainability
Since the matter of sustainability has been given more and more consideration in
recent years, the sustainable design of 72 buildings completed in the past decade that are
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listed in the current 100 tallest buildings is studied besides the aspects of structural systems
and construction materials. Result is shown in Figure 25.
As the result shows, 43 percent of buildings have considered sustainability in their
design, and most of them are awarded LEED certificates. According to the data collected,
most popular measures of sustainable design of high-rise buildings include double-sided
windows or double curtain walls to provide thermal protection and water recycling and air
filtration systems.
Figure 25: Distribution of buildings considering sustainability.
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* Number of buildingsconsideringsustainability
* Number of buildingswithout consideringsustainability
6. CASE STUDY OF BURJ KHALIFA
At 828 meters, the Burj Khalifa (formerly the Burj Dubai) has 163 stories and is the
world's tallest freestanding structure as well as the world's tallest building (Figure 26).
Construction of the tower began in January 2004 and the structure was topped out in
October 2009. It was officially opened in January 2010. The architectural and engineering
designer of this tower was Skidmore, Owings and Merill (SOM) of Chicago and its primary
contractor is Samsung Engineering and Construction Group of South Korea.
Figure 26: Bur Khalifa.
The structural system of Buj Khalifa is buttressed core system that is mentioned
above. It is designed to efficiently support a super-tall building utilizing a strong central core,
buttressed by its three wings. The vertical structure is tied together at the mechanical floors
through outrigger walls in order to maximize the building's stiffness. It is an inherently
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stable system in that each wing is buttressed by the other two. The central core provides the
torsional resistance for the building, while the wings provide the shear resistance and
increased moment of inertia. The result is an efficient system where all of the building's
vertical structure is used to resist both gravity and lateral loads (Figure 27).
wing
central core
corridor wall
Figure 27: Typicalfloor plan of Bur Khalifa.
The structural integrity of the building itself can also serve as the damping system.
The building rises to the heavens in several separate stalks, which top out unevenly around
the central spire. This somewhat odd-looking design deflects the wind around the structure
and prevents it from forming organized whirlpools of air current, or vortices, that would
rock the tower from side to side and could even damage the building. The variation of the
tower shape, and width, resulted in wind vortices around the perimeter of the tower that
behaved differently for different shapes at different frequencies, thus disorganizing the
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interaction of the tower structure with the wind (Figure 28). Over 40 wind tunnel tests were
conducted on Burj Khalifa to examine the effects wind would have on the tower and its
occupants. Engineers determined that no tuned-mass damping was needed.
VM T~-
Lower Pan
PWoo
Figure 28: Wind profile around Bur] Khalifa.
During the construction process, over 45,000 m3 of concrete weighing more than
110,000 tons were used to construct the concrete and steel foundation, which features 192
piles. Each pile is 1 .5m in diameter and 43m long buried more than 50m deep. The
construction of Burj Khalifa's used 330,000 m3 of concrete and 39,000 tons of steel rebar.
Special mixes of concrete are made to withstand the extreme pressure of the massive
building. It was difficult to create a concrete that could withstand both thousands of tons
bearing down on it and high Persian Gulf temperatures that can reach 50 0C (122 0F). To
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combat this problem, the concrete was not poured during the day. Instead, it was poured at
night when the air is cooler and the humidity is higher, and during the summer months ice
was added to the mixture. In November 2007, the highest reinforced concrete core walls
were pumped using 80 MPa concrete from ground level to the height of 606 meters, which
broke the previous pumping record of 470m in the Taipei 101.
At the aspect of elevator systems, eight escalators and 57 elevators were installed in
Burj Khalifa, of which two are double-deck elevators used exclusively for the travel to the
observation deck. Engineers of Bun Khalifa considered triple deck elevators at first, but the
final design called for double deck elevators. With the rising and descending speed up to
1Om/s, these are the world's fastest double-deck elevators. The elevator system of this tower
is also awarded as the longest travel distance elevator in the world that is 504 meters, and the
world's highest elevator which lands at 638 meters (Otis, 2010).
Burj Khalifa is also considered as a sustainable building. Solar panels are capable of
heating 140000 liters of water daily. A special performance glazing glass with low
emissivity provides the tower with advanced thermal protection. Due to its significant height,
the building is able to utilize ventilation from where air temperature is cooler and humidity
is relatively lower. When air is drawn in at the top of the building, it requires less energy for
air conditioning, ventilation, and dehumidification system. LED modules used for signage
throughout to ensure reliable low maintenance lighting with low energy consumption.
Additionally, Burj Khalifa has one of the largest condensate recovery systems in the world.
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Collecting water from air conditioning condensate discharge prevents it from entering the
wastewater stream and reduces the need for municipal potable water (Burj Khalifa,
CTBUH).
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7. CONCLUSION
Over the past decade, both the number of high-rise buildings and the average height
of high-rise buildings have increased rapidly. Continuously evolving structural systems
creates opportunities for structures to be more efficient. Other developments in construction
techniques, accessory systems as well as structural materials have enabled the structure to
actually stand taller and taller.
Based on the study of recent high-rise buildings and the current 100 tallest buildings
in the world, following trends can be summarized: By the year of 2015, tubular structures
are in vast majority of the structural systems in recent high-rise buildings, in which tube in
tube system is the most popular one and has been applied in the design of a large number of
high-rise buildings. Advancements in structural systems also help to reduce buildings'
dependence on auxiliary damping devices. For structural materials, there is an increasing
trend to use concrete and composite materials to construct the structure. Additionally,
sustainability has been given more consideration in modem high-rise building designs.
47
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Otis (2010). "Burj Khalifa, the world's tallest building, inaugurated: Global press and firstvisitors ride Otis elevators to observation deck".<http://www.otis.com/_layouts/ProjectNewsPopup.aspx?ID= 1 3&siteURL=http://www.otis.com/site/in/pages/OtisNews.aspx> (May 20, 2015)
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A2. 100 TA LLEST BUILINGS IN THE WORLD BY 2015
# Building Name City Height Floors Completed Material(m)