Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council Western Australian Implementation Plan for the National Greenhouse Strategy in the Areas of Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Prepared by Western Australian Planning Commission Albert Facey House 469 Wellington Street Perth, Western Australia 6000 JUNE 1999
47
Embed
Transport, Urban land Use & Planning Working Group
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
FOR PUBLIC COMMENT
J U N E 1 9 9 9
TRANSPORT, URBAN LAND USE
& PLANNING WORKING GROUP
TRANSPORT, URBAN LAND USE
& PLANNING WORKING GROUP
Report to the WA Greenhouse CouncilReport to the WA Greenhouse Council
Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group
Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
Western Australian Implementation Plan for the National Greenhouse Strategy in the
Areas of Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning
Prepared by
Western Australian Planning CommissionAlbert Facey House
469 Wellington StreetPerth, Western Australia 6000
J U N E 1 9 9 9
The Ministry for Planning and the Department of Transport have joint
responsibility for the administration of the TULUP Working Group.
This report has been finalised in consultation with the agencies
below through the forum of the TULUP Working Group.
The purpose of this report is to increase the level of information
and awareness of the issue of greenhouse gas emissions in the
transport and land use planning sectors. The TULUP Working
Group notes the difficulty in estimating greenhouse benefits from
implementation of actions with the current level of information,
especially where actions relate to changing community behaviour
and perceptions. It recommends that further investigation be
undertaken to determine social costs and benefits prior to formal
decisions on the implementation of greenhouse abatement
measures and procedures. The TULUP Working Group also
recommends that the additional benefits generated from
implementation of actions should be taken into consideration
during decision making.
ii TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
List of Contributors
The Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning (TULUP) Working Group was established in July 1998. Its membership comprises:
Mr Gary Prattley Ministry for Planning (Chair)
Mr Emmerson Richardson Department of Transport
Mr Richard McKellar Department of Transport
Mr Michael Waite Department of Environmental Protection (DEP)
Mr Derrick Fitzpatrick Main Roads Western Australia (MRWA)
Mr Jim Ironside Westrail
Mr Steve Hiller Western Australian Municipal Association (WAMA)
Mr David Wake Conservation Council of WA
Mr Matthew Quinn Urban Development Institute of Australia (UDIA)
A/Professor Barrie Mellote Royal Australian Planning Institute (RAPI)
Ms Verity Allan Housing Industry Association (HIA)
Mr Alan Layton Road Transport Association (RTA)
Mr Mike Upton Royal Automobile Club of Australia (RAC)
Mr Gary Mason Institute of Engineers Transport Panel
Dr Jeff Kenworthy Murdoch University
Mr Jim Davies Westralia Airports Corporation
Mr Simon Luff Australian Chamber of Shipping
Mr Aart ter Kuile Australian Gas Association
Ms Jane Aberdeen Chamber of Minerals and Energy (CME)
Copies of this document are available in alternative formats on application to the Disabilities Services Coordinator
iii
Contents
Executive summary v
1. Background 1
1.1 The enhanced greenhouse effect 1
1.2 History of greenhouse negotiations 1
1.3 The Prime Minister’s Statement 1
1.4 National Greenhouse Strategy 1
2. WA Greenhouse Council and the TULUP Working Group 3
2.1 Role of the Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group 3
3. Methodology 3
3.1 Data sources 4
3.2 National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4
3.3 Greenhouse performance indicators 5
4. Context 5
4.1 Urban land use planning 5
4.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and transport 6
4.3 Business as usual 8
5. Greenhouse gas abatement strategies for transport and urban land use planning 9
5.1 Improved transport management, including better integration of modes,
infrastructure, and urban planning and design 10
5.1.1 Traffic management 10
5.1.2 Integration of transport modes 11
5.1.3 Infrastructure 11
5.1.3.1 Public transport infrastructure 11
5.1.3.2 Public transport fares 12
5.1.3.3 New public transport modes and technologies 12
5.1.3.4 Freight infrastructure 13
5.1.4 Integration of land use and transport planning 13
5.2 Reducing the demand for travel 15
5.2.1 ‘Just in time’ delivery 16
5.2.2 Telecommuting 16
5.2.3 Ride sharing and car pooling 16
5.2.4 Competitive neutrality within the freight industry 17
5.3 Encouraging sustainable modes of transport 18
5.3.1 Individualised marketing – TravelSmart 18
5.3.2 Cycling 19
5.3.3 Walking 19
5.3.4 Increasing public transport patronage 19
5.4 Improving fuel consumption of the vehicle fleet, covering both vehicle technology and vehicle mix 20
5.4.1 Vehicle emission standards 20
5.4.2 Vehicle tuning 20
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
Co
nten
ts
5.4.3 Targets for reducing emissions from commercial and freight vehicles 21
5.4.4 Vehicle emissions testing 21
5.4.5 Car scrapping programs 21
5.4.6 Incentives for fuel efficient vehicles 22
5.4.7 Information programs on efficient vehicle use 22
5.4.8 Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle Industry 23
5.5 Increasing the use of alternative fuels in the vehicle fleet and/or revised specifications
for conventional fuels 24
5.5.1 Petrol 24
5.5.2 Diesel 25
5.5.3 Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) 25
5.5.4 Compressed natural gas (CNG) 26
5.5.5 Methanol 27
5.5.6 Ethanol 27
5.5.7 Hydrogen 27
5.5.8 Increased use of alternative fuels 28
6. Evaluation of greenhouse gas abatement measures 28
6.1 ‘No regrets’ measures 28
7. Summary of greenhouse gas abatement measures and actions 29
8. Conclusions 33
References 35
Figures
Figure 1: Greenhouse gas emission levels from commuting to work from East Perth and the Urban Fringe. 6
Figure 2: Greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources in 1990 and 1995 by mode (NGGIC, 1998) 7
Figure 3: Greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector in WA in 1995 (NGGIC, 1998). 7
Figure 4: Forecast population and vehicle kilometres travelled in Perth to 2021 (Transport, 1995a). 8
Figure 5: Predicted road emissions by vehicle type (Mt CO2 equivalents) (BTCE, 1996) 8
Figure 6: Increases in patronage of the Perth Urban rail system 12
Tables
Table 1: A summary of Existing and Additional measures identified in Module 5 of the NGS 2
Table 2: Predicted increases in greenhouse gas emissions (Mt CO2) from the road transport sector in
Western Australia. 9
Table 3: Predicted increases in greenhouse gas emissions from the Australian transport sector in
2010 in comparison with 1990 levels (BTCE, 1996). 9
Table 4: Predicted reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) from implementation of actions
currently being undertaken by Government agencies. 30
Table 5: Actions unlikely to be implemented without additional funding. 31
Table 6: Other greenhouse abatement actions. 32
Appendices
1. Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning Working Group Terms of Reference 38
2. List of Abbreviations 40
iv TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
Co
nte
nts
v
Executive summary
As a result of agreements made at the Framework
Convention on Climate Change in Kyoto in December
1997, Australia has agreed to limit its greenhouse gas
emissions to 108% of 1990 levels during the period
2008 to 2012. Australia responded to the Kyoto
Protocol by releasing the National Greenhouse
Strategy (NGS) which describes initiatives to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions from human activities.
The NGS looks at the abatement of greenhouse gas
emissions through action on three fronts: fostering
knowledge and understanding of greenhouse issues;
limiting greenhouse gas emissions; and laying the
foundations for adaptation to climate change. This
report focuses on limiting net greenhouse gas
emissions through efficient transport and sustainable
urban planning.
Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are
significant. In 1995, the transport sector was
responsible for 15.4% of greenhouse gas emissions in
Western Australia (including the ‘forestry and other’
category, excluding land clearing), an increase of 0.7
megatonnes (Mt) or 1.5% since 1990 (NGGIC, 1998).
The proportion of greenhouse gas emissions from
mobile sources is expected to increase further if
business practices continue as usual.
This report identifies actions currently being
undertaken by Government and other agencies that
reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transport,
urban land use and urban planning sectors. These
actions demonstrate Western Australia’s compliance
with measures identified in Module 5 of the NGS, in
the areas of integrating land use and transport
planning, travel demand management and traffic
management, encouraging greater use of public
transport, walking and cycling, improving vehicle fuel
efficiency and fuel technologies, and freight and
logistics systems. The report identifies measures
additional to the NGS, including vehicle emissions
testing, emissions targets for commercial and freight
vehicles, changes to vehicle registration charges and
changes to regulation of the rail and sea freight
industry. It should be noted that a comprehensive
cost benefit analysis of these actions would need to be
undertaken prior to decisions to implement them.
In order to identify greenhouse gas abatement actions
that should be implemented, each action should be
evaluated to determine its cost effectiveness. This will
allow decisions on the implementation of actions to
be based on sufficient information and allow
justification in terms of environmental, economic
and social considerations; however, it is difficult to
quantify social considerations, however this is
necessary if accurate comparisons are to be made.
Unlike other sectors, it is difficult to reliably quantify
reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from actions
in the transport and urban land use sectors, as the
effectiveness of the majority of actions relies on
changes to community attitudes and behaviours.
Additionally, actions are not undertaken in isolation
and the outcomes of many strategies are influenced
by other actions.
The TULUP Working Group has used the targets for
mode shift outlined in the Metropolitan Transport
Strategy (MTS). The MTS predicts that emissions
from cars in the Perth metropolitan area will be
reduced by nearly 25% of the ‘business as usual’
(BAU) scenario in 2010 if the proposed mode shifts
are on target for 2029. This is a reduction of around
1 Mt CO2 equivalents (CO2-e) per annum.
Owing to predicted growth in emissions from certain
sectors, abatement strategies should focus on the
areas of private vehicle use, light commercial vehicle
and articulated truck use, and air transport. This
report has not discussed the issue of air transport, as
this sector is regulated federally and is being
investigated by the Commonwealth. The reduction of
emissions in other areas has been discussed largely on
a qualitative basis.
The Transport, Urban Land Use and Planning
Working Group believes that regional planning is an
effective tool to ensure the integration of land uses
with an efficient transportation system. Emissions
from the land use planning sector relate largely to the
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
Execu
tiveS
um
mary
5
annual emissions of greenhouse gases from mobile
combustion engines consuming fuel purchased in
Australia and includes emissions from fuel
combustion and fugitive releases (fuel evaporation).
3.3 Greenhouse performance indicators
As recommended in the NGS, greenhouse
performance indicators should be developed for all
urban centres within Western Australia with
populations of more than 20,000. The indicators
should focus on energy use and greenhouse emissions
from the residential sector, urban systems and urban
transport. Key support indicators could be included
(e.g. trip numbers and lengths, emissions per
kilometre travelled).
Possible key indicators are:
• residential – total and per capita emissions;
• transport – total and per capita emissions;
– emissions per passenger kilometre
travelled; and
– emissions per tonne kilometre
travelled for freight.
Possible support indicators are:
• total kilometres travelled in urban areas;
• number and average length of trips;
• average kilometres per capita by mode;
• emissions per kilometre travelled in urban areas;
and
• emissions by mode and by fuel type.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
4
Actions
1. Establish a database for emissions from both the transport and urban land use sectors.
2. Develop performance indicators for greenhouse gas emissions from transport and urban land uses.
4. Context
In 1990, Western Australia contributed approximately
10% of the total 622 million tonnes (in Mt CO2
equivalent) of greenhouse gases emitted in Australia,
making it the fourth largest contributor in the
country (NGGI, 1997). Western Australia’s net
greenhouse gas emissions for 1990 totalled 42.5 Mt of
CO2 equivalents (CO2-e), increasing by 16% to 49.3
Mt CO2-e in 1995 (NGGIC, 1998).
4.1 Urban land use planning
Metropolitan and regional urban areas emit a
significant proportion of greenhouse gases in WA.
Conventional urban development, which places an
emphasis on greenfield developments, has resulted in
the segregation of land uses and a consequent heavy
reliance on private cars for transport to reach both
services and employment (Energy Victoria et al, 1996).
The urban land use sector emits greenhouse gases
through clearing for urban land use (i.e. loss of
vegetation), energy requirements of buildings (such
as heating and cooling), and the resultant travel
requirements of the population. The continued
growth of the Perth metropolitan area has resulted in
clearing of remnant bushland and changes to land use
patterns in agricultural areas on the periphery of
Perth and regional centres. This reduces the amount
of vegetation available to sequester greenhouse gas
emissions or act as a sink and, accordingly, increases
net emissions.
The life-cycle costs of building materials also
contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. This includes
emissions generated from energy used in the
production and extraction of raw materials, heating
and cooling resulting from poor insulation, and
emissions produced when structures are demolished.
It is recognised that more compact forms of urban
development have lower greenhouse gas emissions
from transport than dispersed forms (Dess & Millard,
1998). The growth of Perth using conventional urban
development has resulted in what is commonly called
suburban sprawl. This type of urban development
usually segregates land uses and tends to be
inadequately serviced by public amenities,
employment and public transport, and is difficult for
walking and cycling. This has consequently resulted
in increased reliance on the motor vehicle (Newman,
Kenworthy & Vintila, 1992).
In recent years, however, there has been a trend
towards smaller block sizes within the Perth
metropolitan area. In the past seven years, the average
size of green title blocks has decreased by over 130 m2.
In 1991, the median size of a green title residential lot
was 729 m2. This decreased in 1992 to average 698 m2
and again in 1998 to average 593 m2 (MfP
unpublished, 1999).
Additionally, a number of medium density urban
developments (such as Ellen Brook, Mindarie Keys,
Harbour Rise, Subi Centro and East Perth) are being
implemented in the Perth metropolitan region. This
new, more compact form of urban development is
similar to the concept of the ‘urban village’.
Both on a national and international scale, the urban
village model in its various forms is being promoted
as a means of achieving more sustainable cities.
Urban villages are suburban centres with a variety of
housing types, offices and shops, local employment
opportunities, good access to public transport, safe
and attractive streets and a range of community
facilities within easy walking distance. Their design
promotes energy efficiency and they provide
opportunities for people to travel by means other
than the car (i.e. walking, cycling and public
transport) (Dess & Millard, 1998).
The concept of the urban village has been developed
to address the social, environmental, economic and
transport problems that exist within the conventional
urban environment. Studies undertaken in Victoria,
such as the Greenhouse Neighbourhood (Loder and
Bayly et al, 1993) and the Urban Villages Project
(Energy Victoria et al, 1996), investigated the effect on
greenhouse gas emissions from mixed use, medium
density development in metropolitan environments
in comparison to more conventional urban forms.
The Urban Villages Project estimated that the
introduction of this type of development on the
urban fringe of Melbourne could result in a 26%
reduction in heating and cooling related emissions
and a 57% reduction in car related emissions (Energy
Victoria et al, 1996).
Figure 1: Greenhouse gas emission levels (Mt CO2-e) fromcommuting to work from East Perth and the Urban Fringe.
Figures based on comparison of the East Perth Redevelopmentmodel with traditional urban development on the urban fringe.
Source: Kenworthy & Newman 1992.
Research also suggests that urban redevelopment
based on the urban village model is more effective in
reducing greenhouse gas emissions for journey to
work trips than traditional urban development on the
metropolitan fringe (Figure 1) (Kenworthy &
Newman, 1992). It is likely that applying urban
village principles on the urban development fringe
would also achieve reductions in greenhouse
emissions as compared with traditional development
on the urban fringe.
4.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and transport
In 1990, emissions from mobile energy (transport)
sources in Western Australia totalled 6.9 Mt CO2-e.
This is equal to 20.5% of greenhouse gases emitted
from the energy sector and represents 13.5% of total
greenhouse gas emissions in Western Australia
(NGGIC, 1998). Although there were changes in
absolute emissions (i.e. mobile sources emitted 7.6
Mt CO2-e in 1995), the relative contribution of each
sector to Western Australia’s emissions in 1990 and
1995 remained stable. Emissions from mobile sources
in WA in 1995 represent just over 11% of total
6 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Urban FringeEast Perth
GH
GE
(Mt
CO
2-e)
4
7
emissions from mobile sources in Australia
(NGGIC, 1998).
The majority of greenhouse gases from mobile
sources are emitted from road transport (Figure 2),
primarily from cars (Figure 3). Rail transport is
accountable for around five per cent of greenhouse
gas emissions, although it should be noted that this
does not include emissions from generating
electricity for electric rail systems. Emissions from air
transport have increased from nine percent of mobile
sources to twelve percent between 1990 and 1995 and
emissions from sea transport have decreased from ten
to six percent (NGGIC, 1998).
Figure 2: Greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources in 1990and 1995 by mode (NGGIC, 1998)
In 1995, road transport was responsible for 77.4% of
greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector
in Western Australia, of which 50.4% is attributed to
passenger cars (Commonwealth of Australia, 1998b)
(Figure 2). Emissions from motorcycles, buses and
medium sized tucks are negligible (0.2, 2.0 and 2.2%
of total WA emissions respectively); however,
emissions from heavy trucks and light commercial
vehicles (LCVs or light trucks) are fairly substantial
(10.7 and 11.8% respectively).
Figure 3: Greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector inWA in 1995 (NGGIC, 1998).
Unless transport management strategies are put in
place, the continued growth of Perth is predicted to
lead to an 18% increase in vehicle kilometres travelled
(VKT) per capita in 2011 based on 1990 levels
(Figure 4) (Transport, 1995a). The growth of the
metropolitan area will result in enhanced emissions
of greenhouse gases from vehicles through increased
traffic congestion, extended travel times and extended
travel distances. However, as cars emit over half the
emissions from mobile sources, reducing the demand
for car travel and increasing the use of non-car modes
of transport are key elements in limiting greenhouse
gas emissions from transport.
Figure 4: Forecast population and vehicle kilometres travelled inPerth to 2021 (Transport, 1995a).
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
4
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
71990
1995
Transport sectorRailRoadSeaAir
GH
GE
(Mt
CO
2-e)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
1995
1990
Road transport mode
GH
GE
(Mt
CO
2-e)
MotorcyclesBusesHeavytruck
Mediumtruck
Lighttruck
Car
50
100
150
200
250
300
VKT per personVehicle kilometres travelledPopulation
20212016201120062001199619911986Year
Inde
x
4.3 Business as usual
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of measures to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions over a period of
time, it is necessary to establish a base case or
‘business as usual’ (BAU) scenario of greenhouse gas
emissions. A base case BAU estimation is projected on
the assumption that no specific actions are taken to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
The Bureau of Transport and Communications
Economics (BTCE) first estimated long term base
case projections for greenhouse gas emissions from
transport within Australia (BTCE, 1995). These
estimates have since been revised using more up-to-
date information on likely technological
improvements. Models used by BTCE to predict the
BAU scenario include CARMOD, TRUCKMOD and
AVMOD (BTCE, 1996). These models can be adapted
to predict transport growth for Western Australia.
BTCE estimates that greenhouse gas emissions from
cars in Australia will grow by around ten per cent over
the period from 1996 to 2015 (Figure 5). This estimate,
however, assumes that there will be a significant
slowing in the growth of car ownership in Australia.
According to the BTCE report, Australia, like the
United States, is nearing the “saturation” point of
vehicle ownership. The Australian saturation level has
been estimated to be between 490 and 540 vehicles per
1000 persons (McRobert, 1997), but the current figures
of car ownership in Perth are already greater than
580 per 1000 persons (Transport et al, 1995).
BTCE, however, concludes that by modelling this
trend, coupled with a slowing in population growth
and reduced new car fuel and emissions intensities,
passenger vehicle (car) emissions of greenhouse gases
are projected to decline after 2010 (BTCE, 1996). The
conclusions about declining personal vehicle travel in
Australia are contrary to many European studies that
project a continuation of vigorous personal travel
demand and burgeoning car ownership (McRobert,
1997), and contrary to the MTS which estimates the
ratio to be around 630 cars per 1000 people by the
year 2010 and still growing (Transport et al, 1995).
Accordingly, the BTCE emissions projections may
significantly underestimate potential emissions from
cars in 2010.
The estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from
trucks and light commercial vehicles (LCVs) suggests
a completely different scenario. During the same
period, the growth in commercial road freight is
expected to increase by more than 90% and the levels
of emissions will be similar to that of cars sometime
after 2015 (BTCE, 1996). Figure 5 illustrates BTCE’s
projections for greenhouse gas emissions from the
road transport sector in Australia to the year 2015.
Figure 5: Predicted road emissions by vehicle type (Mt CO2 equivalents) (BTCE, 1996)
Extrapolating the BTCE projections for greenhouse
gas emissions from the Australian transport sector for
2010, based on the 1995 WA proportions of the
Australian vehicle task (ABS, 1996), suggests that
greenhouse gas emissions from road transport will
increase by nearly 150% in Western Australia. This
increase is just under ten per cent greater than that
projected for the whole of Australia.
Greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles
(cars) in Western Australia are projected to increase
to 109% of 1990 levels to 3.7 Mt CO2 (Table 2).
Emissions from LCVs will increase the most
dramatically however, to nearly 2.6 Mt CO2 or over
209% of 1990 levels. It should be noted that Western
8 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
BicyclesArticulated trucksRigid trucks
Year
LCV'sBusesMotorcyclesCars
20142010200620042002200019981996199419921990
CO
2 eq
uiva
lent
s (M
t)
4
9
Australia has proportionally more vehicles, with the
exception of passenger cars, than the average in
Australia. This is more than likely due to the size of
the State and the relatively small population and low
density development of Perth.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
Table 2: Predicted increases in greenhouse gas emissions (Mt CO2) from the road transport sector in Western Australia(assuming similar WA proportions of the Australian transport task in 2010 to those in 1995)
scrapping programs can also have positive effects in
other areas, such as local air quality, through the
reduction in tail-pipe emissions. The United States
and Canada have implemented successful car
scrapping programs, for example the SCRAP-IT
program in Vancouver.
The ‘Scrap-It’ program, which forms part of the
Motor Vehicle Emissions Inspection and
Maintenance Program (as known as ‘AirCare’), has
been highly successful in removing polluting vehicles
from the vehicle fleet. Scrap-It is a voluntary program
for residents in British Columbia to trade older, high-
polluting vehicles for incentives toward cleaner forms
of transportation. The incentives include money that
can be put towards a new natural gas vehicle, a new
vehicle, a 1988 or newer used vehicle, a bicycle, or a
supply of transit passes. To qualify for the program, a
vehicle must be a model dated 1987 or older, and it
must be insured and have failed an AirCare test at
some point in the vehicle’s history.
The Scrap-It program reduced greenhouse gas
emissions by between 1,500 and 4,300 tonnes per year
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
per 1,000 vehicles scrapped in situations where
people chose a new car, used car or transit pass. This
equates to a cost effectiveness of around $130 per
tonne CO2 abated per year (Scrap-It Program
Steering Committee, 1997), which is a rather high
abatement cost. Consequently, the abatement of CO2
alone is not likely to justify the introduction of a car
scrapping program in WA.
Research has also shown that car scrapping schemes
may only be beneficial when targeted at very old
models and less-developed vehicle fleets. In addition,
only registered vehicles should be purchased as part
of the program and an appropriate price paid for the
scrapped vehicles (US DOE, 1996 as cited in ECMT,
1997). Accordingly, a large amount of research would
be required prior to implementation of a car
scrapping program in Western Australia or Australia.
The Federal Government, however, has recently
announced plans for a car scrapping program. It is
suggested that owners of cars more than twenty years
old would be given a payment of $1000 to consign
their old cars to the wreckers. This program takes no
account of the emission performance of the car and
will not ensure the owner purchases a vehicle with
‘cleaner’ emission performance or increased fuel
economy and lower fuel consumption.
5.4.6 Incentives for fuel-efficient vehicles
Fiscal measures could be introduced to promote the
sale of more efficient vehicles. Dealerships could be
rewarded for selling a greater proportion of
‘environmentally conscious’ cars. Vehicle
manufacturers could also be approached to
manufacture vehicles with lower emission levels than
required by Australian standards. Import restrictions
on highly polluting vehicles could be imposed to
reduce the occurrence of accepting imported vehicles
with low emission performance.
Changing the general preference of Australians for
large capacity engines towards smaller, more fuel
efficient cars has the potential to significantly reduce
greenhouse emissions. Consumers could be
encouraged to modify their preference for 6 cylinder
cars and purchase a vehicle with a smaller engine
capacity through education programs. The
Government could reduce registration charges for
small cars or provide stamp duty concessions when
changing over to a smaller car. A small car would be
defined as less than 2000cc engine capacity.
Alternatively, vehicle registration charges could be
formulated on the basis of engine size, power rating
and type of fuel.
5.4.7 Information programs on efficient vehicle use
It is widely recognised that the way drivers use their
vehicles can significantly affect vehicle fuel
consumption and emissions. It has also been shown
that differences in driving style can account for a
variation of up to fifty per cent in fuel consumption
among drivers using the same cars (ECMT, 1997).
Factors of driver behaviour that may lead to
improved fuel consumption include:
• avoiding excessive idling of the engine;
• driving smoothly and avoiding high revs;
• limiting high speed driving as fuel consumption
and pollution increase significantly above 80km/h
and even more so above 100 km/h;
• maintaining adequate tyre pressure; and
• eliminating unnecessary sources of drag.
Additionally, the RAC is currently conducting an
education campaign, supported by Transport (WA),
designed to raise the awareness for Western
Australian motorists about environmental issues
concerned with motor vehicle use. The RAC’s “Air
Care” campaign aims to reduce air pollution from
motor vehicles by increasing public awareness of how
proper car maintenance can assist with maintaining
Perth’s relatively good air quality. Even though this
campaign is aimed at local air pollution issues,
regular in-service maintenance will also improve
vehicle fuel efficiency and thereby reduce emissions
of CO2.
It is recommended by the TULUP Working Group
that a long term, Government funded information
campaign be initiated to educate Western Australian
drivers in ways to reduce vehicle fuel consumption.
22 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
5
23
Emphasis should be made of the environmental
consequences and economic gains that may be
achieved from modification to current driver
behaviour. The following “tips to reduce your
transport related greenhouse gas emissions” could be
included in a brochure:
• Buy a fuel-efficient car. Ask your car dealer for a
Fuel Consumption Guide to check the fuel
efficiency of the car you are considering buying.
• Drive smoothly and avoid stop-start traffic. Save
up to 30% of greenhouse emissions.
• Tune your car regularly. Save up to 15% of
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Ensure tyres have maximum recommended air
pressure so they roll more easily. Save up to 100
kilograms CO2 each year and extend tyre life.
• If possible walk, ride a bike or catch public
transport.
• Every litre of petrol saved reduces greenhouse
emissions by 2.5 kilograms.
• Remove unnecessary weight from the car – 50
kilograms less weight decreases greenhouse gas
emissions by nearly 2%.
• Removing roof racks and external sun visors
when not required can save hundreds of
kilograms per year. (Adapted from AGO, 1999)
In the area of freight transport, “TruckSafe”, the
industry accreditation program developed by the
Road Transport Forum (RTF), is currently being
promoted in Western Australia. The TruckSafe
program is similar to a quality assurance program
and contains various modules that specify
objectives for best practice for trucks in the
transport industry. The RTF is in the process of
developing a module for environmental
management for road transport companies as an
optional addition to the TruckSafe program.
Other innovations, largely in the area of road freight
transportation, include:
• the trialling of alternate vehicle combinations
which allow greater payloads hauled by a single
prime mover;
• aerodynamic developments which allow greater
fuel efficiency of road freight vehicles;
• on-board computers which allow a range of
advances which increase operating efficiency; and
• the integration of engines and transmissions to
provide fuel economy dividends.
5.4.8 Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle
Industry
An Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle
Industry is proposed to be pursued by the
Commonwealth Government and the motor vehicle
industry, in consultation with States and Territories
through MVEC and other stakeholders (including the
fuel industry and motoring organisations) where
appropriate.
The Environmental Strategy for the Motor Vehicle
Industry was announced in June 1997. This strategy
aims to significantly enhance the environmental
performance of the automotive industry through a
range of measures including:
• negotiation of improved NAFC targets for new
vehicles for 2005 and 2010 (with an expectation of
at least a 15% improvement over ‘business as
usual’ by 2010);
• extension of the NAFC framework to include
LCVs and 4WDs up to 3.5 tonnes;
• continuation of the Fuel Consumption Guide and
publication of fuel consumption data on the
internet;
• negotiations with individual car manufacturers
on initiatives they might take to improve the fuel
efficiency of the models they produce;
• model specific fuel efficiency labels for new motor
vehicles;
• fuel efficiency targets for the Commonwealth fleet
from 2003;
• the development of partnerships with consumer
groups (both private and fleet) to encourage
attention to fuel efficiency;
• a review of fuel quality in Australia, covering
issues such as the phasing out of leaded fuel and
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
24 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
5
Actions
16. Encourage the Australian Federal Government to adopt emission standards that are compatible with the
UN ECE standards as soon as is practically possible.
17. Actively participate in the oversighting of fuel efficiency and fuel technology investigations through
MVEC.
18. Initiate an information campaign to educate Western Australian drivers in ways to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions. Emphasis should be on the environmental consequences and economic gains that may
be achieved from modification to current behaviours and attitudes.
19. Encourage involvement and registration in the TruckSafe accreditation program, including
participation in environmental management. The potential for transport related concessions for
TruckSafe accredited companies should also be investigated.
5.5 Increasing the use of alternative fuels in
the vehicle fleet and/or revised
specifications for conventional fuels
Increased use of available alternative fuels, such as
LPG, CNG and ethanol, will result in reduced
emissions of CO2 from the transport sector. There is
widespread uncertainty, however, about the scope for
other alternative fuels to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions (McRobert, 1997). In addition to the
consideration of end use or tail-pipe emissions, the
emissions generated from the extraction, production
and distribution of the energy source need also to be
examined.
At present, about 80% of the world’s demand for
transportation fuels for road, rail, air and sea travel
are met by derivatives from the fossil fuel, petroleum.
Petrol is the major derivative of petroleum used as a
motor vehicle fuel. The major fossil fuel alternatives
to petrol are:
• diesel;
• liquid petroleum gas (LPG);
• compressed natural gas (CNG);
• ethers – methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)
produced from natural gas and butane;
• electricity from coal/oil/gas; and
• methanol produced from natural gas or coal.
The investigation and development of viable
alternative fuels for the transport sector has been
necessitated by the steadily dwindling supply of fossil
fuels as well as heightened awareness about the
environmental consequences of the dependence on
fossil fuels. Some alternative transport fuels are derived
from non-fossil, or partly renewable, sources such as
grain or other agricultural crops. However, these crops
often require fertilisers which are made from fossil
fuels and are not, therefore, totally renewable.
The major non-fossil alternative fuels are:
• ethanol; and
• hydrogen.
5.5.1 Petrol
Most cars today run on petrol because it is a relatively
cheap, convenient, safe and reliable fuel that yields
good vehicle performance complete with a good
vehicle range capability. It can also be stored and
handled easily. Exhaust emissions from petrol-driven
cars include, in addition to CO2 and water vapour,
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and CO (Australian
Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
the introduction of higher octane fuel; and
• harmonisation with international vehicle
emission standards by 2006, a measure more
focused on air quality rather than greenhouse
emissions.
25
5.5.2 Diesel
Diesel cars have better fuel economy than petrol-
driven cars and are cheaper to maintain; however, the
capital costs of a diesel are greater due to components
that are more costly than an equivalent petrol engine.
The diesel combustion system is very efficient. Diesel
fuels emit less CO2 per kilometre travelled than any
other fuel of fossil origin. Emissions of carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, benzene, butadiene and
formaldehyde are also lower than for petrol engines
(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
The sulfur content of diesel fuels is of increasing
interest in terms of the potential effects of
particulates on health. Reduction in sulfur levels
creates difficulties such as fuel pump failure, reduced
engine durability, more expensive fuel and an
increase in CO2 emissions from the refining
operations necessary to remove the sulfur. Elevated
levels of particulates have been linked to serious
health problems.
A range of Australian and international studies has
shown that the health effects of air pollution are
extensive and include increases in mortality,
incidence of respiratory illness, hypertension, strokes,
heart disease and damage to the IQs of children. Most
of the health damage and associated costs arise from
increased deaths due to exposure to particles
(Australia Institute et al, 1999).
In Australia, the total economic cost of particulate
pollution has been estimated at around $8 billion per
annum. Around $4 billion of this figure may be
attributable to particle emissions from road vehicles,
principally those that run on diesel (Australia
Institute et al, 1999).
Western Australia recently announced its intention to
replace 133 buses in the Transperth fleet; 128 of
which were to be powered with diesel fuel. Significant
community concern was expressed with regard to the
use of diesel fuel and the potential impact of this on
the environment. In response to these concerns, an
Expert Reference Group (ERG) was established to
provide independent, expert advice on the most
appropriate fuel for Perth’s buses in the long term.
The ERG claims that ultra low sulfur diesel, known as
city diesel, with a continuous regenerating particulate
trap gives lower full cycle CO2 emissions per
kilometre than LPG or CNG (Bult et al, 1998). Buses
powered by diesel were also found to have the highest
reliability and the lowest maintenance costs.
However, research suggests that new diesel
technology may produce more small particle
pollution, increasing the risk to health.
In April 1998, the WA Premier agreed to replace
some of the buses in Transperth’s fleet over the
period of twelve years. If Transperth replaces 848
buses with engines utilising ultra low sulfur diesel
fuel, as described in the Report on the Findings of
the ERG (Bult et al, 1998), this should reduce CO2
emissions by approximately 0.3 Mt per year. This is
equal to four per cent of greenhouse gas emissions
from transport sources.
5.5.3 Liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
LPG is produced as a secondary result when raw
natural gas is processed into pipeline quality natural
gas. LPG is also produced when crude oil is refined.
The use of LPG is widespread, with an estimated
250,000 vehicles running on it in Australia. Of these,
around 180,000 are privately owned. Estimates are
that exhaust and evaporative greenhouse emissions
are approximately 15 per cent lower from LPG than
from petrol vehicles. LPG is a non-renewable
resource (Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
LPG is available Australia-wide through the service
station networks. When converted to a gas, LPG
expands up to 270 times. This means that the liquid
form, which is easily achieved, is a very efficient way
of carrying large amounts of gas. In general economic
terms, however, LPG is unattractive as it requires a
subsidy, in the form of an excise exemption, as an
incentive to consumers who must cover the costs of
conversion of the vehicle to operate on LPG
(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
5.5.4 Compressed natural gas (CNG)
Methane is the principal component of natural
gas, generally comprising between 87 per cent and
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
97 per cent by volume hydrocarbon, depending on
the source of the gas. Natural gas is lighter than air
and will dissipate into the atmosphere if leakage
occurs. It is non-toxic and non-reactive and can be
compressed for use as an automotive fuel – CNG.
The major issues with CNG for cars are the
economics associated with conversion and the short
range between refuelling. A CNG-fuelled car with a
75 litre tank is about 150 kg heavier than a petrol-
driven car of the same size (Australian Institute of
Petroleum, 1998). When properly operated and
maintained, leakage of CNG is minimal, although it
should be noted that methane is an even more active
greenhouse gas than CO2.
Cars running on natural gas are estimated to emit
twenty per cent less greenhouse gases than diesel and
petrol cars (Australian Gas Industry, 1998). Use of
CNG also substantially reduces particulate
emissions, particularly from the new, dedicated CNG
engines now available for buses and trucks. Natural
gas is also about half the cost of other fuels due to
fuel excise tax exemptions. Additionally, as natural
gas is produced locally the cost of obtaining this fuel
is drastically reduced.
Many State Governments have perceived the benefits
of CNG for city bus fleets. TransAdelaide currently
operates one of the world’s largest fleets of CNG
buses and NSW State Transit has awarded a contract
for the supply of 300 new ultra low floored CNG
powered buses. The NSW decision came after an
exhaustive analysis of financial considerations and
follows four years of experience operating CNG buses
at State Transit. During this time, it was found that
savings in fuel costs more than offset increases in
capital and maintenance costs (State Transit, 1997).
Operational needs of natural gas vehicles must be
supported by a carefully planned infrastructure. In
many countries, the overall costs of natural gas
vehicle operation, including capital, maintenance and
fuel, are much less than the total cost of running
conventionally fuelled vehicles (International
Association for Natural Gas Vehicles, 1998).
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Infrastructure
Program
To encourage companies to switch their fleets to
compressed natural gas, the Prime Minister’s
statement allocated $3.8 million over four years to
facilitate the establishment of a distribution network
of service stations supplying CNG. An additional $3.8
million was announced by the Government during
the 1998 election campaign. The program aims to
establish a minimum refuelling network within
urban areas in collaboration with natural gas
companies and local government authorities.
This action, however, seems to be in direct opposition
with plans by the current Government to reduce the
price of diesel fuel. The GST Package proposes to cut
the price of diesel by 25 cents/litre for vehicles with a
gross or loaded weight exceeding 3.5 tonnes. While the
target is large trucks, the threshold covers almost all
trucks as well as some 4WD and All-Terrain Vehicles.
This change in policy position has the potential to
create a major disincentive for the transport sector to
embrace the benefits of gaseous fuels.
A fall in the price of diesel will increase demand for
diesel. Using elasticities calculated by the BTCE and
the Australian Road Research Board, it is estimated
that the reduction in the price of diesel will lead to an
increase in diesel consumption and diesel pollution
over the longer term (by 2010) of at least 7.6%
(Australia Institute et al, 1999). This will, in turn, lead
to increased production of greenhouse gases through
reduced levels of utlisation of other alternative fuels.
For example, the New Zealand government provided
incentives through the late 1970s and early eighties to
promote CNG use. This resulted in sales of CNG for
motor vehicles growing from 0.1 PJ to 5.4 PJ between
1979 and 1986 (GASEX, 1996). In New Zealand
incentives were removed between 1984 and 1986, and
the excise on diesel was cut by 15 cents/litre in 1989
and 11 cents/litre in January 1991. Between 1989 and
1998, diesel consumption grew in New Zealand by
around 130% while alternative fuels fell by around
66% (Australia Institute et al, 1999).
It is recommended that a balance between these two
competing interests be found, possibly by
26 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
5
27
maintaining the reduction in the diesel excise while
providing an incentive for users to convert to and
continue to use gaseous fuels. Grants could be also
provided for a portion of the capital cost of
conversion of each LPG or CNG powered vehicle.
5.5.5 Methanol
Methanol is a clear liquid alcohol that can be
produced from natural gas, coal, crude oil and
biomass crops such as wood and wood residues as
well as directly from catalytic synthesis. At present,
however, natural gas is by far the most economically
and environmentally viable source of methanol.
Methanol is a high cost fuel compared with petrol,
but relatively cheap compared with other options. It
has only half the energy content of petrol, which
results in greater fuel consumption per unit volume
and shorter travelling range.
Methanol has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions but would need to be produced from
biomass to make a possible contribution. Methanol
derived from natural gas using current technology
offers at best only a small greenhouse gas emission
benefit over petrol.
Methane is a major greenhouse gas. The use of
methanol as fuel can lead to large unburnt fuel
emissions of methanol and methane; however,
methanol produces neither soot particles nor sulphur
oxides and emits lower levels of CO, hydrocarbons
and nitrogen oxides. Methanol is extremely toxic and
therefore hazardous to handle. It is also corrosive,
requiring modification of a conventional vehicle’s
fuel system (Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
5.5.6 Ethanol
Ethanol is presently the most widely used alternative
fuel in the world. It is mostly produced from crops
which contain sugar or by pretreatment of starch
crops or cellulose. Ethanol is less toxic and corrosive
than methanol, although its technical performance
and emission levels are similar (Australian Institute of
Petroleum, 1998).
A positive environmental aspect is that ethanol is a
renewable resource, unlike oil, gas or coal, and in
some cases may even be produced from waste
material. However, there are drawbacks. Ethanol has a
high affinity with water and this can cause
environmental problems. For example, if ethanol is
spilt in a small watercourse or drain it will dissolve
and be almost impossible to recover. Ethanol is,
however, more easily biodegraded or diluted to non-
toxic concentrations than petrol (Australian Institute
of Petroleum, 1998).
As with methanol, the potential greenhouse gas
savings depend on the feedstock and process used for
production. Ethanol’s full fuel cycle greenhouse gas
emissions are said to range from 30 – 180% from
maize and 0 – 115% from wood, of the emissions
from the petrol it replaces. CO2 from the combustion
process alone is similar for alcohol fuels and petrol on
an energy equivalent level (Australian Institute of
Petroleum, 1998).
Ethanol has the potential to become an important
renewable fuel for the Australian transport sector over
the long term (Australian Institute of Petroleum,
1998). At present ethanol production is two to three
times more expensive than petrol production;
nevertheless, the Federal Government has allocated $2
million to build an ethanol pilot plant to demonstrate
new technologies for the production of ethanol.
5.5.7 Hydrogen
There are two common feedstocks for hydrogen
production – water and hydrocarbons, such as are
found in methane. Hydrogen is produced from
water by hydrolysis using electricity. The major
positive aspects of hydrogen are that there is an
almost limitless supply of water and that hydrogen is
non-toxic. Because electricity is most often derived
from fossil fuel-powered stations and is also
required for electrolysis, the full life cycle process
may involve considerable CO2 emissions. For the
total environmental effect of hydrogen to be
positive, the electricity used in its production should
be generated from renewable sources such as solar,
wind or hydro-power.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
5
The main technical difficulty with hydrogen is
storage. In compressed or liquid form, it needs a
heavy and expensive tank. Other disadvantages of the
use of hydrogen gas include the cost of liquification
and safety factors due to it high level of flammability
(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
Currently, hydrogen is used as a fuel only in space
rockets. However, some vehicle manufacturers are
developing hydrogen powered engines which may be
tested as prototypes in about three years’ time
(Australian Institute of Petroleum, 1998).
5.5.8 Increased use of alternative fuels
Increased use of alternative fuels with low greenhouse
gas emissions could be obtained through
encouragement and promotion of the benefits of
alternative fuels for the environment. Incentives such
as fuel tax exemptions could also be introduced;
however, current use suggests that this will not ensure
the use of alternative fuels is significantly increased.
Enforcement of alternative fuels is likely to be costly
and problematic, especially if the infrastructure
required to support the introduction of alternative
fuels, such as modified engines, has not sufficiently
progressed. Social and equity issues would also need
to be considered.
28 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
6
Action
20. Investigate the potential for compensating subsidies to encourage development and use of alternative fuels
6. Evaluation of greenhouse gasabatement measures
The actions in this report have been evaluated in
terms of the possible maximum level of greenhouse
abatement achievable per annum at full
implementation and the cost of implementing these
actions for Government per annum. The TULUP
Working Group acknowledges that this evaluation is
not sufficient to identify cost effective abatement
actions; however, it has committed to a further
investigation to obtain more quantitative data.
The following estimations are approximations of
Government funding required per annum for
implementation of each action. This approximation
should not be considered to represent the ‘real’ cost of
abatement of CO2, as the total cost of abatement
should include an estimate of social and
environmental costs (and benefits) to the community
at large as well as financial costs. The estimation of
cost per kilogram CO2 abated presented in this
report, however, is useful for comparing the
effectiveness of abatement actions in terms of
funding required for implementation. The costs to
Government have been quantified approximately, but
costs and benefits to the community are only
qualitatively identified.
The TULUP Working Group emphasises that the
estimates produced in this report are based on many
assumptions and information available at the current
time. Decisions on implementation of greenhouse
abatement measures should not be made until a full
analysis of the costs and benefits, both environmental
and societal, have been made. This is particularly
relevant in the transport and urban planning sectors
due to the high cost of the provision of infrastructure
and the level of benefit to the community in social
terms.
The majority of actions in this report are not likely to
be cost effective to implement in terms of reductions
in greenhouse gas emissions only. This is because the
economic gain from just the resultant reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions is not likely to be large
enough to justify the expense of implementation of
the action. As previously mentioned, the abatement
of greenhouse gas emissions is a secondary outcome
for the bulk of actions in this report, as the measures
and actions were designed and implemented for
other purposes (Tables 4, 5,6).
6.1 ‘No regrets’ measures
‘No regrets’ measures are those that have financial,
social and environmental benefits to the community
29
at large, in addition to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and which, over time, are sufficient to
outweigh the direct and indirect costs associated with
the measures. Within this framework, benefits and
costs are considered from a community rather than
an individual perspective, although individual
impacts and equity considerations should be
addressed over-all timeframes, including the short,
medium and long term.
As no social or environmental cost/benefit analysis
has been undertaken for the actions in this report,
none of the strategies identified have been classified
as ‘no regrets’ measures. Further investigation is
planned to determine the true cost of the actions in
this report. The implementation estimates of the
measures have therefore been categorised as either
low to medium, high or very high. These
classifications are defined in Section 7.
7. Summary of greenhouse gasabatement measures andactions
The following tables summarise the actions
mentioned in this report. Table 4 outlines actions that
are currently being undertaken in Western Australia
by various agencies. As previously noted, the
estimations of greenhouse gas emission abatement
are based on many assumptions such as the
achievement of the MTS targets. Consideration
should be given to the level of accuracy required prior
to using the following information for greenhouse
policy decisions. The TULUP Working Group cannot
be expected to predict with accuracy changes in
community attitudes and behaviours.
Additionally, the TULUP Working Group
recommends that the additional or primary benefits
(tabulated below) that can be achieved from each
action should be taken into consideration in future
policy decisions.
The actions in this report have been classified in
terms of the magnitude of implementation cost for
Government as follows:
• Low to medium cost measures – cost of
implementation is less than $30 per tonne CO2
per annum;
• High cost measures – the next magnitude, where
the cost of implementation is estimated between
$30 and $300 per tonne CO2 per annum; and
• Very high cost measures – cost of implementation
estimated to be over $300 per tonne CO2 per
annum. Very high cost measures are unlikely to be
implemented on the basis of greenhouse
abatement only due to the significant costs
involved; however, benefits achieved in other areas
generally outweigh the cost.
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
7
Table 4: Predicted reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) from implementation of actionscurrently being undertaken by Government agencies
Action Primary benefits GHGE Implemen- Other considerationsreduction tation
per annum cost
30 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
7
Urban villageprinciples
Integrated land use planning,community formation, transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
20%reduction in‘village’ VKT
Low tomedium
Urban village model applied onurban fringe – 25% job self-containment. Depends on size ofdevelopment. 26% reduction inheating and cooling emissions, 57%reduction in car related emissions.
LocalGovernmentactions
Integrated land use planning,transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality
Variable Low tomedium
Dependent on level of participationand promotion
TruckSafe Transport efficiency, safety, localair quality
Variable Low tomedium
Dependent on level of participationand promotion
Perth ParkingPolicy
Reduced car use, local air quality Negligible Low tomedium
Fees should be increased to obtainadditional benefits
Encouragementof use ofalternative fuels
Local air quality Negligible Low tomedium
Dependent on level of participationand promotion
Car pooling Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality
Negligible High Dependent on level of participationand promotion
Bike Ahead Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality, health
0.1 Mt CO2-e
High 1.8% Metro VKT. Dependent on levelof participation and promotion
MetropolitanPedestrianStrategy
Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality, health
0.14 Mt CO2-e
High 3.4% Metro VKT. Dependent on levelof participation and promotion
Intelligenttransportsystems
Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality
Negligible High Potential for abatement increase iflevel of implementation increased
MTS Transport efficiency, reduced caruse, local air quality
1 Mt CO2-e Very high GHGE from cars reduced by 25%BAU by 2010
SWMRMP Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
0.026 – 0.055Mt CO2-e
Very high Electricity generation GHGE intensive.Abatement incr. if move away fromcoal-fired power generation
Bus prioritysystems andtransitways
Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
0.06 Mt CO2-e
Very high MTS target for public transportusage would reduce emissions by0.16 Mt CO2-e
Regionalstrategies
Integrated land use planning Negligible Very high
31
Table 5:Actions unlikely to be implemented without additional funding
Action Primary benefits GHGE Implemen- Other considerationsreduction tation
per annum cost
June 1999 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council
7
TravelSmart Increase public awareness,reduced car use, local air quality
0.3 Mt CO2-e
Low tomedium
Undertaken in Perth’s inner suburbs– 500,000 people
Telecommuting Reduced car use, local air quality 0.1 Mt CO2-e
Low tomedium
Dependent on level of participationand promotion
Fuel efficiencystandards
Local air quality Variable Low tomedium
Dependent on stringency ofstandards
Vehicle emissionstandards
Local air quality Variable Low tomedium
Dependent on stringency ofstandards
Education andinformationprograms
Safety, local air quality Variable Low tomedium
Dependent on level of participationand promotion
HOV lanes Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
negligible High
Additional railinfrastructure
Improved public and freighttransport efficiency, reduced roadtransport, local air quality
Variable Very high Dependent on accessibility andquality of service
Table 5 identifies actions that have yet to be allocated
funding, together with those that may have
greenhouse benefits but are not likely to be cost
effective to implement in terms of greenhouse
abatement only. It should be noted that the
effectiveness of these actions largely depends on the
level of promotion undertaken by relevant agencies
and the level of participation by the community.
The estimation of abatement and cost of these actions
is, however, only an indication of scale of magnitude.
Not enough information currently exists to allow a
reliable assessment of the effectiveness of these
actions under Western Australian conditions. Further
investigation of the costs and benefits of each action
is recommended prior to decisions regarding
potential implementation. This is proposed to be
undertaken by appropriate Government agencies.
Table 6 contains actions that have been identified as
having some greenhouse benefit, but which, for
certain reasons, may not be implemented due to their
estimated cost effectiveness or the potential social
repercussions. Many of these actions may also involve
major changes to Government policy or an increase
in the level of regulation and control on community
lifestyle by the Government.
The level of abatement indicated is representative of
the reduction that could be achieved at full
development of the action. The levels of abatement
are as follows:
High above 1.0 Mt CO2-e per annum
Medium 0.1 to 1.0 Mt CO2-e per annum
Low 0.01 to 0.1 Mt CO2-e per annum
Negligible below 0.01 Mt CO2-e per annum
No cost estimates of implementation for the actions
in Table 6 have been performed as it is considered
that cost of implementation by the Government is
not representative of the “real” cost of the action. A
comprehensive cost benefit analysis is planned to be
undertaken to identify social, economical and
environmental consequences of greenhouse
abatement actions in the urban land use and
transport sectors and this will provide support for the
greenhouse abatement decision-making process.
Table 6: Other greenhouse abatement actions
Action Other benefits Potential Other considerationslevel of
abatement
32 TULUP Working Group Report to the WA Greenhouse Council June 1999
7
Targets for reducing GHGE fromcommercial and freight vehicles
Local air quality High Competitiveness of freight industry
Maintenance of speed limit Improved transport efficiency,safety, local air quality
Low
Compulsory tuning of vehicles Local air quality Low Equity and social implications.Benefit reduces as older cars removedfrom population
Vehicle emissions testing Local air quality Low Equity and social implications. Benefitreduces as emission standards tighten
Fuel efficiency targets forGovernment fleets
Local air quality Low Benefit reduces as emission standardstighten
Reducing access to the centralbusiness district
Local air quality Low Implications for retail industries andpublic transport infrastructure
Fiscal advantages for publictransport companies
Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
Low
Fiscal measures to encouragepublic transport use byprofessional commuter traffic
Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
Low Measures to reduce incentive forbusiness travel
Fiscal measures that promotesale of more efficient vehicles
Local air quality Low Social considerations
Establishing a green-belt aroundthe Perth metropolitan area
Urban consolidation Variable Dependent on level of additionaldevelopment
Ferries Improved public transportefficiency, reduced car use, localair quality
Negligible Journeys are more likely to be forpleasure than commuting
Car scrapping programs Local air quality, safety Negligible Equity and social implications.Benefit reduces as older cars removedfrom population
Removal of cabotage Competitiveness of national seafreight industry
Unknown Impact on local industry, loss ofrevenue
Removal of duty on foreign-flagged vessels
Competitiveness of national seafreight industry
Unknown Impact on local industry, loss ofrevenue
Reduce PT fares to 80% currentlevels
Increased public transport use,reduced car use, local air quality
Medium Level of resultant service due to lackof funding
Increased use of methanol andethanol fuels
Local air quality Medium Dependent on advancement oftechnology