Transnational partnerships in higher education in China ...the article will discuss the concept of transnational partnership, drawing on research literature in the fieldand including
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
London Review of Education DOI1018546LRE14108Volume14Number1April2016
Transnational partnerships in higher education in China The diversity and complexity of elite strategic alliances
CatherineMontgomeryUniversity of Hull
TransnationalpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiescanillustratethechangingpoliticalsocialandculturalterrainofglobalhighereducationDrawingonsecondarydataanalysisofgovernmenteducational statistics university web pages and a comprehensive literature review thisarticlefocusesontransnationalpartnershipswithparticularreferencetoChinainordertoilluminatethediversifyingrelationshipsbetweennetworksofglobaluniversitiesInternationalpartnershipsdevelopinhistoricalgeographicsocialandculturalcontextsandtheanalysisofChinese universitiesrsquo partnerships across different social cultural and geopolitical contextsindicates that even within the elite groups of universities transnational partnerships arediverseandcomplexThisarticleaimstodemonstratethatthespreadofinternationalizationintheformoftransnationalpartnershipisnotuniformbutisinfluencedbycomplexcontextualfactorssomeofwhichareaccentuatinginequalitiesinthesystem
Fromearlyinthehistoryofhighereducation(HE)universitieshavebeeninfluencedbyastronginternational and transnational dimension (Gunn and Minstrom 2013) and have from theirinceptionmovedacrossnationalboundariesInthepastthreedecadeshowevertransnationalpartnershipshavebecomeincreasinglysignificantbeingatacomplexandcontradictorynexusof both collaboration and competition (Oleksiyenko andYang 2015)Although historicallytransnational partnership in HE centred on research and scholarship latterly programmecoordinationorTransnationalHigherEducation (TNHE)wherestudentsstudypartorallofa foreign degree in their home country has emerged as an increasingly significant elementof internationalization across a rangeof countries (Huang 2007Trahar 2015)Global highereducationpartnershipsarediversifyingandbecomingincreasinglyimportantinabroaderrangeofwaysTheriseintransnationalpartnershipintheUKhasbeenmirroredinotherpartsoftheglobewithparticularlyrapiddevelopmentinEastAsiawithMalaysiaSingaporeandChinabeingthetopthreecountriesforactivity(HESA2015)
Transnationalhighereducation inChinahasalsobeengrowing in the last threedecadesandmore than 1000 programmes and institutions have nowbeen approved by theChinesegovernment (Fang 2012)TNHE plays out differently in different national contexts howeverand in China the emphasis is on controlled cooperation with joint investment in forms ofcapital includingland intellectualpropertybrandsandmanagementsystems(Fang2012)TheunderlyingpurposeofTNHEpartnershipsoftenvaries internationallywith themotivationofUKTNHEbeingpredominantlyfinancialandthedrivingforceforChinarelatingtoaccesstoaninternationalhighereducationathomeforabroaderrangeofthepopulation(Huang2006
Emailcmontgomeryhullacuk copyCopyright 2016 MontgomeryThis is an OpenAccess article distributed under the terms of theCreativeCommonsAttributionLicencewhichpermitsunrestrictedusedistributionandreproductioninanymediumprovidedtheoriginalauthorandsourcearecredited
London Review of Education 71
Houet al2014)Researchinterestsaroundtheconceptoftransnationalpartnershiparealsobeginning to intensify (Oleksiyenko 2015) and there has been a sharp increase in publishedworkinthisareasince2006(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)includinginitiativesaroundEUprogrammecollaborationandresearchcarriedoutbytheBritishCouncilNotwithstandingthisincreaseinresearchOleksiyenkoandYang(2015)notethattherehasbeenadearthofresearchon partnerships and their associated policies and challenges particularlywith regard to theemerging global andeconomicpowersof theBRICSnations (BrazilRussia IndiaChina andSouthAfrica)andChinainparticular
This article focuses on transnational partnerships in China and considers the influenceof geopolitical and sociocultural context on the diversity and complexity of Chinarsquos globalpartnershipsThenatureofChinarsquostransnationalpartnershipsisexploredconsideringthevariationwithinthecountryandfocusingontheelite985and211groupsofChineseuniversitiesFirstlythearticlewilldiscusstheconceptoftransnationalpartnershipdrawingonresearchliteratureinthefieldand includingreferencetothehistoricalperspectiveontransnationalpartnershipSecondlythearticlemapsthegeographicallocationoftheelitealliancesofChineseuniversitiesasameansofillustratingthatthegapbetweenurbaneastChinaandtheruralwestisreflectedinthegeographical locationoftheelitegroupsofuniversitiesandhasimplicationsforaccesstohighereducation(Yang2014)ThirdlythearticlefocusesonthepartnershipsestablishedbysomeoftheelitegroupsofChineseuniversitiesdefininglsquoelitersquoasthoseuniversitiesthatarepartoftheChineseC9groupandthe985and211projectsthatareexplainedbelowTwoindividualcasesofuniversitiesindifferentsocioculturalandgeographiccontextsareconsideredinmoredepthwithaviewtounderstandingtheinfluenceofdiversityincontextonpartnershipFinallythearticledrawssomeconclusionsregardingtherelationshipbetweenthedevelopmentofelitealliancesinChinaandinternationalizationinhighereducationmorebroadly
The research
This article draws on three forms of evidenceThe first is a systematic literature reviewofelectronically accessible articles on transnational higher education published in journals andotherelectronicsources(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)Anonlinesearchofhighereducationresearchplatformswascarriedout focusingonhighereducation journalsandresourcesandpaying particular attention to work produced by non-Western authorsThis was a broadliteraturereviewthatselectedsourcesusingawiderangeofsearchtermsincludingforexamplelsquotransnational educationrsquo lsquotransnational higher educationrsquo and lsquointernationalinterculturalpartnershiprsquoandsearcheswerecarriedoutonpolicyatthenationalandsupranational levelslsquostudentrsquofocuslsquostaff rsquofocusandlsquoqualityrsquo(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)AsecondaryanalysisofthelibraryoftheinitialprojectwascarriedoutforthepurposesofthisarticleandthetermswerenarrowedtofocusontransnationalhighereducationinChinaandtheissueofpartnershipelitealliancesandtheimplicationsofHEpartnerships
ThesecondsourceofevidenceisananalysisofChineseMinistryofEducationdocumentsrelatingtothe locationandnatureofpartnershipsofChinesehighereducationTheMinistryofEducation(MoE)onlinestatistics inthepublicdomainwereaccessedinChineseusingtheofficialwebsiteoftheMoEandtranslatedintoEnglishThedataaccessedwasthemostrecentMoEdataavailablecollectedintheyears2012and2013thefiguresfollowatwo-yearcensusperiodandrefresheddatawillbeavailableattheendof2015ThreeareasoftheMoEdatawereexplored inparticularfirstly thegeographicaldistributionofeliteChinese institutions in the211and985groupswasfocusedonmappingthenumbersofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionsinthedifferentprovincesacrossChinaSecondlytheinternationalpartnershipsengagedinby11
72 Catherine Montgomery
eliteChineseinstitutionswerefocusedonincludingthe9universitiesintheChineseC9group(ChinarsquoselitemissiongroupandequivalentoftheUKRussellGroup)and2exampleuniversitiesthataremembersofboththe211and985groupsTheMoEpartnershipdatadiscretelyanalyseddifferentdimensionsofrelationshipsbetweentheinstitutionsincludingexchangeandcooperativeprogrammes jointdegreeprogrammes researchandlsquoacademicexchangeandcooperation inrunningschoolsrsquotheChinesetermfortransnationalhighereducationThethirdandfinalareaofMoEdatarelatestospecificreferencetothegeographicallocationofTNHEprovisioninChinaacross thedifferent provincesof the countryThe spreadof partnerships for each individualprovince is mapped through this dataThis information was also accessed from the officialChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite
Thethirdsourceofevidenceconsistsofadetailedreviewoftwouniversitiesrsquowebpageswhich were translated into English where necessary In addition to this associated publiclyavailabledocumentsandpolicieswereaccessedtoinvestigatethetwouniversitiesrsquointernationalpartnershipsandcollaborationsincludingprobingthestatedaimsbehindtheirpartnershipswithinternationalinstitutionswherethisinformationwasavailable
Transnational partnerships in global HE
Partnershipbetweenuniversitiesworldwideisafundamentalelementoftwenty-firstcenturyinternationalizationandYangandXienote thatglobalizationhasputuniversity internationalnetworkinglsquoonsteroidsrsquo(201566)Thegrowthintransnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofhighereducationinstitutionsacrossthegloberepresentsfundamentalchangesinthewaysthat universities areworking together and constructing themselves Partnerships networksandglobalallianceshavebecomestrategicallyimportantandlsquouniversitiescanrealisesignificantvalue fromengaging in allianceshellipglobal university alliances create substantively importantcollaborative advantages for those involvedrsquo (Gunn and Mintrom 2013 180) Partnershipswithinandbetweenthelargestemergingglobalpoliticalandeconomicpowersarebecomingparticularlysignificantwiththeso-calledBRICSnationsofBrazilRussiaIndiaChinaandSouthAfrica investing hugely in elite groups of flagship institutions in order to compete globally(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)
However transnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofHE institutionsarecomplexandcontradictoryanddevelopagainstabackdropofintensecompetitivenesstermedlsquocompetitive-collaborative perspectivesrsquo by Oleksiyenko andYang (2015) Marginson (2015) notes thatthe shape of higher education systemsworldwide is being stretched vertically and that thehierarchiesofglobaluniversitiesarebecomingmoreacuteThisstratificationandthedevelopingsignificanceoftheglobalrankings(Kehm2014)hasasignificantinfluenceonpartnershipsTheincreasinginfluenceofrankingshascoincidedwithawaveofmodernizationmarketizationandreform of higher education acrossmany national contexts and this has brought interactionbetweentherankingsandmarketization(Locke2014)anduniversitypartnershipsarecaughtupinthiscycleThesignificanceofuniversityrankingshasgonewellbeyondbeingatooltosupportstudentorfamilychoiceofuniversitywiththisformofpoliticalandeconomicpositioningbynationsalsohavinganinfluenceonchoiceofpartnership(Locke2014)particularlywithrespecttoresearchactivitythatisincreasinglyenactedcooperativelyandcompetitivelyonagloballevel(Horta2009)Rankingsorderthestatusofinstitutionsandthishasacceleratedalsquostatusculturersquo(Marginson2014)RolesandpositionsareshiftinginglobalhighereducationwiththestrongstrategiesespousedbyChinahavinganimpactforexampleonHongKongwhichisnolongertheonlynexusorhuboftransnationalpartnershipinEastAsia(Ng2011)
London Review of Education 73
Itisimportanttonotethatpartnershipinhighereducationishistoricallysociallypoliticallyand culturally situated with geography also having an influenceThere can be tensions invaluesvisionsandgoalswhichcanplacepartnershipatthecentreofpowerstrugglesthatcanbecomeobstaclestocollaboration(Oleksiyenko2014)Thehistoricalcontextofpartnershipis influentialandcollaborationdevelops in thecontextof thehistoricityofnationsandtheireducationsystemsTherearestronginfluencesfromtheWesterntraditionsofhighereducationincountriesinboththeEastandtheWest(forexampleboththeUKandChina)Partnershipin HE is embedded in a context of colonialism imbalance and asymmetry and historicalinequalitiesstillhavean influencetoday(YangandXie2015)Highereducation isan integralpart of the colonial structure and is a site where colonial attitudes are perpetuated (YangandXie2015)DespitethefactthatinternationalpartnershipsinHEaimtopositionnationalinterest above global agendas themajority of countries includingChina tend to favour andprioritizepartnershipswithWesternuniversitiesandglobalcompetitivenessisstilldefinedbylsquotheWestrsquo(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)Thusinternationalnetworkingcouldbeperceivedasbeinglsquoadouble-edgedswordrsquothatshouldbeaccompaniedbyhistoricalawarenessandasenseofcontext(YangandXie201587)Partnershipsdevelopwithinacomplexenvironmentofpowerstructures identities and subjectivities between international national regional institutionalandindividuallevelsofstructureandagency(Djerasimovic2014)ComparisonsacrossnationalcontextswithregardtothedevelopmentandnatureofglobalHEpartnershipsarethereforedifficultgiventhecomplexityanddiversityofthepoliticaleconomicandsocioculturalcontextsinwhichuniversitiesoperateAltbachandBassett(2014)argueforexamplethatcomparisonofcollaborationacrosstheBRICSgroupofnationsisoflittlevalueduetothecomplexityoftheindividualcountriesrsquohighereducationenvironmentsThisunderlinestheinfluentialroleofhistoricalandsocioculturalcontextinpartnership
Global alliances and groups The elite universities of China and the UK
Partnershipsdevelopingbetweenuniversitiesgloballyarepartofcomplexmultilateralnetworksandalliancesbuiltonhistoricalpoliticalandsocioculturalcontexts(YangandXie2015)TheemergenceoflsquomissiongroupsrsquointheUKisanexampleofwaysinwhichHEinstitutionsintheBritishHEsystemareestablishinglsquoself-identitiesrsquoandforminghierarchicalalliancesinassociationwithother institutions (Filippakou andTapper 2015)There are a numberofmission groupsin theUK including theMillion+ and theGuildHE aswell as theRussellGroupofBritishHEinstitutionswhichisseenasanelitegroupthatclaimstorepresent24research-intensiveinstitutions who also boast outstanding teaching and learning and excellence in links withbusinessandthepublicsector(FilippakouandTapper2015)DespitemembershipoftheRussellGroupbeingbasedonprestige there is alsodiversitywithin this groupwhichhasmembersrangingfromOxfordandCambridgeuniversitiesinEnglandtoCardiffandGlasgowuniversitiestwohighlydistinctiveinstitutionsthatarepartoftheWelshandScottishsystemsofHEwhichcanbedifferentiated from theEnglish systemnot leastbecauseof the issueof student fees(FilippakouandTapper2015)
InthelastthreedecadesChinahasengagedinanintensivereformofitshighereducationsystem and this has involved a staggering level of investment in the building of capacity andresource in a relatively small number of universitieswith the aimof developingworld-classinstitutionsthatwillcompeteonaglobalscaleTheChinese211Projectwasinitiatedin1995andintheyearsupto2011agroupof112universitiesweresupportedbyinvestmentintheproject
As a means of understanding a sample of Chinese partnerships their relationship with UKinstitutions is focused on here and their affiliation with UK lsquomission groupsrsquo is highlighted(FilippakouandTapper2015)AsampleanalysisoftheUKpartnershipsofthreeeliteinstitutionsofChina(twoC9institutionsandone985211university)wascompiledusingdatafromtheMoE
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 71
Houet al2014)Researchinterestsaroundtheconceptoftransnationalpartnershiparealsobeginning to intensify (Oleksiyenko 2015) and there has been a sharp increase in publishedworkinthisareasince2006(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)includinginitiativesaroundEUprogrammecollaborationandresearchcarriedoutbytheBritishCouncilNotwithstandingthisincreaseinresearchOleksiyenkoandYang(2015)notethattherehasbeenadearthofresearchon partnerships and their associated policies and challenges particularlywith regard to theemerging global andeconomicpowersof theBRICSnations (BrazilRussia IndiaChina andSouthAfrica)andChinainparticular
This article focuses on transnational partnerships in China and considers the influenceof geopolitical and sociocultural context on the diversity and complexity of Chinarsquos globalpartnershipsThenatureofChinarsquostransnationalpartnershipsisexploredconsideringthevariationwithinthecountryandfocusingontheelite985and211groupsofChineseuniversitiesFirstlythearticlewilldiscusstheconceptoftransnationalpartnershipdrawingonresearchliteratureinthefieldand includingreferencetothehistoricalperspectiveontransnationalpartnershipSecondlythearticlemapsthegeographicallocationoftheelitealliancesofChineseuniversitiesasameansofillustratingthatthegapbetweenurbaneastChinaandtheruralwestisreflectedinthegeographical locationoftheelitegroupsofuniversitiesandhasimplicationsforaccesstohighereducation(Yang2014)ThirdlythearticlefocusesonthepartnershipsestablishedbysomeoftheelitegroupsofChineseuniversitiesdefininglsquoelitersquoasthoseuniversitiesthatarepartoftheChineseC9groupandthe985and211projectsthatareexplainedbelowTwoindividualcasesofuniversitiesindifferentsocioculturalandgeographiccontextsareconsideredinmoredepthwithaviewtounderstandingtheinfluenceofdiversityincontextonpartnershipFinallythearticledrawssomeconclusionsregardingtherelationshipbetweenthedevelopmentofelitealliancesinChinaandinternationalizationinhighereducationmorebroadly
The research
This article draws on three forms of evidenceThe first is a systematic literature reviewofelectronically accessible articles on transnational higher education published in journals andotherelectronicsources(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)Anonlinesearchofhighereducationresearchplatformswascarriedout focusingonhighereducation journalsandresourcesandpaying particular attention to work produced by non-Western authorsThis was a broadliteraturereviewthatselectedsourcesusingawiderangeofsearchtermsincludingforexamplelsquotransnational educationrsquo lsquotransnational higher educationrsquo and lsquointernationalinterculturalpartnershiprsquoandsearcheswerecarriedoutonpolicyatthenationalandsupranational levelslsquostudentrsquofocuslsquostaff rsquofocusandlsquoqualityrsquo(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)AsecondaryanalysisofthelibraryoftheinitialprojectwascarriedoutforthepurposesofthisarticleandthetermswerenarrowedtofocusontransnationalhighereducationinChinaandtheissueofpartnershipelitealliancesandtheimplicationsofHEpartnerships
ThesecondsourceofevidenceisananalysisofChineseMinistryofEducationdocumentsrelatingtothe locationandnatureofpartnershipsofChinesehighereducationTheMinistryofEducation(MoE)onlinestatistics inthepublicdomainwereaccessedinChineseusingtheofficialwebsiteoftheMoEandtranslatedintoEnglishThedataaccessedwasthemostrecentMoEdataavailablecollectedintheyears2012and2013thefiguresfollowatwo-yearcensusperiodandrefresheddatawillbeavailableattheendof2015ThreeareasoftheMoEdatawereexplored inparticularfirstly thegeographicaldistributionofeliteChinese institutions in the211and985groupswasfocusedonmappingthenumbersofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionsinthedifferentprovincesacrossChinaSecondlytheinternationalpartnershipsengagedinby11
72 Catherine Montgomery
eliteChineseinstitutionswerefocusedonincludingthe9universitiesintheChineseC9group(ChinarsquoselitemissiongroupandequivalentoftheUKRussellGroup)and2exampleuniversitiesthataremembersofboththe211and985groupsTheMoEpartnershipdatadiscretelyanalyseddifferentdimensionsofrelationshipsbetweentheinstitutionsincludingexchangeandcooperativeprogrammes jointdegreeprogrammes researchandlsquoacademicexchangeandcooperation inrunningschoolsrsquotheChinesetermfortransnationalhighereducationThethirdandfinalareaofMoEdatarelatestospecificreferencetothegeographicallocationofTNHEprovisioninChinaacross thedifferent provincesof the countryThe spreadof partnerships for each individualprovince is mapped through this dataThis information was also accessed from the officialChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite
Thethirdsourceofevidenceconsistsofadetailedreviewoftwouniversitiesrsquowebpageswhich were translated into English where necessary In addition to this associated publiclyavailabledocumentsandpolicieswereaccessedtoinvestigatethetwouniversitiesrsquointernationalpartnershipsandcollaborationsincludingprobingthestatedaimsbehindtheirpartnershipswithinternationalinstitutionswherethisinformationwasavailable
Transnational partnerships in global HE
Partnershipbetweenuniversitiesworldwideisafundamentalelementoftwenty-firstcenturyinternationalizationandYangandXienote thatglobalizationhasputuniversity internationalnetworkinglsquoonsteroidsrsquo(201566)Thegrowthintransnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofhighereducationinstitutionsacrossthegloberepresentsfundamentalchangesinthewaysthat universities areworking together and constructing themselves Partnerships networksandglobalallianceshavebecomestrategicallyimportantandlsquouniversitiescanrealisesignificantvalue fromengaging in allianceshellipglobal university alliances create substantively importantcollaborative advantages for those involvedrsquo (Gunn and Mintrom 2013 180) Partnershipswithinandbetweenthelargestemergingglobalpoliticalandeconomicpowersarebecomingparticularlysignificantwiththeso-calledBRICSnationsofBrazilRussiaIndiaChinaandSouthAfrica investing hugely in elite groups of flagship institutions in order to compete globally(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)
However transnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofHE institutionsarecomplexandcontradictoryanddevelopagainstabackdropofintensecompetitivenesstermedlsquocompetitive-collaborative perspectivesrsquo by Oleksiyenko andYang (2015) Marginson (2015) notes thatthe shape of higher education systemsworldwide is being stretched vertically and that thehierarchiesofglobaluniversitiesarebecomingmoreacuteThisstratificationandthedevelopingsignificanceoftheglobalrankings(Kehm2014)hasasignificantinfluenceonpartnershipsTheincreasinginfluenceofrankingshascoincidedwithawaveofmodernizationmarketizationandreform of higher education acrossmany national contexts and this has brought interactionbetweentherankingsandmarketization(Locke2014)anduniversitypartnershipsarecaughtupinthiscycleThesignificanceofuniversityrankingshasgonewellbeyondbeingatooltosupportstudentorfamilychoiceofuniversitywiththisformofpoliticalandeconomicpositioningbynationsalsohavinganinfluenceonchoiceofpartnership(Locke2014)particularlywithrespecttoresearchactivitythatisincreasinglyenactedcooperativelyandcompetitivelyonagloballevel(Horta2009)Rankingsorderthestatusofinstitutionsandthishasacceleratedalsquostatusculturersquo(Marginson2014)RolesandpositionsareshiftinginglobalhighereducationwiththestrongstrategiesespousedbyChinahavinganimpactforexampleonHongKongwhichisnolongertheonlynexusorhuboftransnationalpartnershipinEastAsia(Ng2011)
London Review of Education 73
Itisimportanttonotethatpartnershipinhighereducationishistoricallysociallypoliticallyand culturally situated with geography also having an influenceThere can be tensions invaluesvisionsandgoalswhichcanplacepartnershipatthecentreofpowerstrugglesthatcanbecomeobstaclestocollaboration(Oleksiyenko2014)Thehistoricalcontextofpartnershipis influentialandcollaborationdevelops in thecontextof thehistoricityofnationsandtheireducationsystemsTherearestronginfluencesfromtheWesterntraditionsofhighereducationincountriesinboththeEastandtheWest(forexampleboththeUKandChina)Partnershipin HE is embedded in a context of colonialism imbalance and asymmetry and historicalinequalitiesstillhavean influencetoday(YangandXie2015)Highereducation isan integralpart of the colonial structure and is a site where colonial attitudes are perpetuated (YangandXie2015)DespitethefactthatinternationalpartnershipsinHEaimtopositionnationalinterest above global agendas themajority of countries includingChina tend to favour andprioritizepartnershipswithWesternuniversitiesandglobalcompetitivenessisstilldefinedbylsquotheWestrsquo(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)Thusinternationalnetworkingcouldbeperceivedasbeinglsquoadouble-edgedswordrsquothatshouldbeaccompaniedbyhistoricalawarenessandasenseofcontext(YangandXie201587)Partnershipsdevelopwithinacomplexenvironmentofpowerstructures identities and subjectivities between international national regional institutionalandindividuallevelsofstructureandagency(Djerasimovic2014)ComparisonsacrossnationalcontextswithregardtothedevelopmentandnatureofglobalHEpartnershipsarethereforedifficultgiventhecomplexityanddiversityofthepoliticaleconomicandsocioculturalcontextsinwhichuniversitiesoperateAltbachandBassett(2014)argueforexamplethatcomparisonofcollaborationacrosstheBRICSgroupofnationsisoflittlevalueduetothecomplexityoftheindividualcountriesrsquohighereducationenvironmentsThisunderlinestheinfluentialroleofhistoricalandsocioculturalcontextinpartnership
Global alliances and groups The elite universities of China and the UK
Partnershipsdevelopingbetweenuniversitiesgloballyarepartofcomplexmultilateralnetworksandalliancesbuiltonhistoricalpoliticalandsocioculturalcontexts(YangandXie2015)TheemergenceoflsquomissiongroupsrsquointheUKisanexampleofwaysinwhichHEinstitutionsintheBritishHEsystemareestablishinglsquoself-identitiesrsquoandforminghierarchicalalliancesinassociationwithother institutions (Filippakou andTapper 2015)There are a numberofmission groupsin theUK including theMillion+ and theGuildHE aswell as theRussellGroupofBritishHEinstitutionswhichisseenasanelitegroupthatclaimstorepresent24research-intensiveinstitutions who also boast outstanding teaching and learning and excellence in links withbusinessandthepublicsector(FilippakouandTapper2015)DespitemembershipoftheRussellGroupbeingbasedonprestige there is alsodiversitywithin this groupwhichhasmembersrangingfromOxfordandCambridgeuniversitiesinEnglandtoCardiffandGlasgowuniversitiestwohighlydistinctiveinstitutionsthatarepartoftheWelshandScottishsystemsofHEwhichcanbedifferentiated from theEnglish systemnot leastbecauseof the issueof student fees(FilippakouandTapper2015)
InthelastthreedecadesChinahasengagedinanintensivereformofitshighereducationsystem and this has involved a staggering level of investment in the building of capacity andresource in a relatively small number of universitieswith the aimof developingworld-classinstitutionsthatwillcompeteonaglobalscaleTheChinese211Projectwasinitiatedin1995andintheyearsupto2011agroupof112universitiesweresupportedbyinvestmentintheproject
As a means of understanding a sample of Chinese partnerships their relationship with UKinstitutions is focused on here and their affiliation with UK lsquomission groupsrsquo is highlighted(FilippakouandTapper2015)AsampleanalysisoftheUKpartnershipsofthreeeliteinstitutionsofChina(twoC9institutionsandone985211university)wascompiledusingdatafromtheMoE
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
72 Catherine Montgomery
eliteChineseinstitutionswerefocusedonincludingthe9universitiesintheChineseC9group(ChinarsquoselitemissiongroupandequivalentoftheUKRussellGroup)and2exampleuniversitiesthataremembersofboththe211and985groupsTheMoEpartnershipdatadiscretelyanalyseddifferentdimensionsofrelationshipsbetweentheinstitutionsincludingexchangeandcooperativeprogrammes jointdegreeprogrammes researchandlsquoacademicexchangeandcooperation inrunningschoolsrsquotheChinesetermfortransnationalhighereducationThethirdandfinalareaofMoEdatarelatestospecificreferencetothegeographicallocationofTNHEprovisioninChinaacross thedifferent provincesof the countryThe spreadof partnerships for each individualprovince is mapped through this dataThis information was also accessed from the officialChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite
Thethirdsourceofevidenceconsistsofadetailedreviewoftwouniversitiesrsquowebpageswhich were translated into English where necessary In addition to this associated publiclyavailabledocumentsandpolicieswereaccessedtoinvestigatethetwouniversitiesrsquointernationalpartnershipsandcollaborationsincludingprobingthestatedaimsbehindtheirpartnershipswithinternationalinstitutionswherethisinformationwasavailable
Transnational partnerships in global HE
Partnershipbetweenuniversitiesworldwideisafundamentalelementoftwenty-firstcenturyinternationalizationandYangandXienote thatglobalizationhasputuniversity internationalnetworkinglsquoonsteroidsrsquo(201566)Thegrowthintransnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofhighereducationinstitutionsacrossthegloberepresentsfundamentalchangesinthewaysthat universities areworking together and constructing themselves Partnerships networksandglobalallianceshavebecomestrategicallyimportantandlsquouniversitiescanrealisesignificantvalue fromengaging in allianceshellipglobal university alliances create substantively importantcollaborative advantages for those involvedrsquo (Gunn and Mintrom 2013 180) Partnershipswithinandbetweenthelargestemergingglobalpoliticalandeconomicpowersarebecomingparticularlysignificantwiththeso-calledBRICSnationsofBrazilRussiaIndiaChinaandSouthAfrica investing hugely in elite groups of flagship institutions in order to compete globally(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)
However transnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofHE institutionsarecomplexandcontradictoryanddevelopagainstabackdropofintensecompetitivenesstermedlsquocompetitive-collaborative perspectivesrsquo by Oleksiyenko andYang (2015) Marginson (2015) notes thatthe shape of higher education systemsworldwide is being stretched vertically and that thehierarchiesofglobaluniversitiesarebecomingmoreacuteThisstratificationandthedevelopingsignificanceoftheglobalrankings(Kehm2014)hasasignificantinfluenceonpartnershipsTheincreasinginfluenceofrankingshascoincidedwithawaveofmodernizationmarketizationandreform of higher education acrossmany national contexts and this has brought interactionbetweentherankingsandmarketization(Locke2014)anduniversitypartnershipsarecaughtupinthiscycleThesignificanceofuniversityrankingshasgonewellbeyondbeingatooltosupportstudentorfamilychoiceofuniversitywiththisformofpoliticalandeconomicpositioningbynationsalsohavinganinfluenceonchoiceofpartnership(Locke2014)particularlywithrespecttoresearchactivitythatisincreasinglyenactedcooperativelyandcompetitivelyonagloballevel(Horta2009)Rankingsorderthestatusofinstitutionsandthishasacceleratedalsquostatusculturersquo(Marginson2014)RolesandpositionsareshiftinginglobalhighereducationwiththestrongstrategiesespousedbyChinahavinganimpactforexampleonHongKongwhichisnolongertheonlynexusorhuboftransnationalpartnershipinEastAsia(Ng2011)
London Review of Education 73
Itisimportanttonotethatpartnershipinhighereducationishistoricallysociallypoliticallyand culturally situated with geography also having an influenceThere can be tensions invaluesvisionsandgoalswhichcanplacepartnershipatthecentreofpowerstrugglesthatcanbecomeobstaclestocollaboration(Oleksiyenko2014)Thehistoricalcontextofpartnershipis influentialandcollaborationdevelops in thecontextof thehistoricityofnationsandtheireducationsystemsTherearestronginfluencesfromtheWesterntraditionsofhighereducationincountriesinboththeEastandtheWest(forexampleboththeUKandChina)Partnershipin HE is embedded in a context of colonialism imbalance and asymmetry and historicalinequalitiesstillhavean influencetoday(YangandXie2015)Highereducation isan integralpart of the colonial structure and is a site where colonial attitudes are perpetuated (YangandXie2015)DespitethefactthatinternationalpartnershipsinHEaimtopositionnationalinterest above global agendas themajority of countries includingChina tend to favour andprioritizepartnershipswithWesternuniversitiesandglobalcompetitivenessisstilldefinedbylsquotheWestrsquo(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)Thusinternationalnetworkingcouldbeperceivedasbeinglsquoadouble-edgedswordrsquothatshouldbeaccompaniedbyhistoricalawarenessandasenseofcontext(YangandXie201587)Partnershipsdevelopwithinacomplexenvironmentofpowerstructures identities and subjectivities between international national regional institutionalandindividuallevelsofstructureandagency(Djerasimovic2014)ComparisonsacrossnationalcontextswithregardtothedevelopmentandnatureofglobalHEpartnershipsarethereforedifficultgiventhecomplexityanddiversityofthepoliticaleconomicandsocioculturalcontextsinwhichuniversitiesoperateAltbachandBassett(2014)argueforexamplethatcomparisonofcollaborationacrosstheBRICSgroupofnationsisoflittlevalueduetothecomplexityoftheindividualcountriesrsquohighereducationenvironmentsThisunderlinestheinfluentialroleofhistoricalandsocioculturalcontextinpartnership
Global alliances and groups The elite universities of China and the UK
Partnershipsdevelopingbetweenuniversitiesgloballyarepartofcomplexmultilateralnetworksandalliancesbuiltonhistoricalpoliticalandsocioculturalcontexts(YangandXie2015)TheemergenceoflsquomissiongroupsrsquointheUKisanexampleofwaysinwhichHEinstitutionsintheBritishHEsystemareestablishinglsquoself-identitiesrsquoandforminghierarchicalalliancesinassociationwithother institutions (Filippakou andTapper 2015)There are a numberofmission groupsin theUK including theMillion+ and theGuildHE aswell as theRussellGroupofBritishHEinstitutionswhichisseenasanelitegroupthatclaimstorepresent24research-intensiveinstitutions who also boast outstanding teaching and learning and excellence in links withbusinessandthepublicsector(FilippakouandTapper2015)DespitemembershipoftheRussellGroupbeingbasedonprestige there is alsodiversitywithin this groupwhichhasmembersrangingfromOxfordandCambridgeuniversitiesinEnglandtoCardiffandGlasgowuniversitiestwohighlydistinctiveinstitutionsthatarepartoftheWelshandScottishsystemsofHEwhichcanbedifferentiated from theEnglish systemnot leastbecauseof the issueof student fees(FilippakouandTapper2015)
InthelastthreedecadesChinahasengagedinanintensivereformofitshighereducationsystem and this has involved a staggering level of investment in the building of capacity andresource in a relatively small number of universitieswith the aimof developingworld-classinstitutionsthatwillcompeteonaglobalscaleTheChinese211Projectwasinitiatedin1995andintheyearsupto2011agroupof112universitiesweresupportedbyinvestmentintheproject
As a means of understanding a sample of Chinese partnerships their relationship with UKinstitutions is focused on here and their affiliation with UK lsquomission groupsrsquo is highlighted(FilippakouandTapper2015)AsampleanalysisoftheUKpartnershipsofthreeeliteinstitutionsofChina(twoC9institutionsandone985211university)wascompiledusingdatafromtheMoE
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 73
Itisimportanttonotethatpartnershipinhighereducationishistoricallysociallypoliticallyand culturally situated with geography also having an influenceThere can be tensions invaluesvisionsandgoalswhichcanplacepartnershipatthecentreofpowerstrugglesthatcanbecomeobstaclestocollaboration(Oleksiyenko2014)Thehistoricalcontextofpartnershipis influentialandcollaborationdevelops in thecontextof thehistoricityofnationsandtheireducationsystemsTherearestronginfluencesfromtheWesterntraditionsofhighereducationincountriesinboththeEastandtheWest(forexampleboththeUKandChina)Partnershipin HE is embedded in a context of colonialism imbalance and asymmetry and historicalinequalitiesstillhavean influencetoday(YangandXie2015)Highereducation isan integralpart of the colonial structure and is a site where colonial attitudes are perpetuated (YangandXie2015)DespitethefactthatinternationalpartnershipsinHEaimtopositionnationalinterest above global agendas themajority of countries includingChina tend to favour andprioritizepartnershipswithWesternuniversitiesandglobalcompetitivenessisstilldefinedbylsquotheWestrsquo(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)Thusinternationalnetworkingcouldbeperceivedasbeinglsquoadouble-edgedswordrsquothatshouldbeaccompaniedbyhistoricalawarenessandasenseofcontext(YangandXie201587)Partnershipsdevelopwithinacomplexenvironmentofpowerstructures identities and subjectivities between international national regional institutionalandindividuallevelsofstructureandagency(Djerasimovic2014)ComparisonsacrossnationalcontextswithregardtothedevelopmentandnatureofglobalHEpartnershipsarethereforedifficultgiventhecomplexityanddiversityofthepoliticaleconomicandsocioculturalcontextsinwhichuniversitiesoperateAltbachandBassett(2014)argueforexamplethatcomparisonofcollaborationacrosstheBRICSgroupofnationsisoflittlevalueduetothecomplexityoftheindividualcountriesrsquohighereducationenvironmentsThisunderlinestheinfluentialroleofhistoricalandsocioculturalcontextinpartnership
Global alliances and groups The elite universities of China and the UK
Partnershipsdevelopingbetweenuniversitiesgloballyarepartofcomplexmultilateralnetworksandalliancesbuiltonhistoricalpoliticalandsocioculturalcontexts(YangandXie2015)TheemergenceoflsquomissiongroupsrsquointheUKisanexampleofwaysinwhichHEinstitutionsintheBritishHEsystemareestablishinglsquoself-identitiesrsquoandforminghierarchicalalliancesinassociationwithother institutions (Filippakou andTapper 2015)There are a numberofmission groupsin theUK including theMillion+ and theGuildHE aswell as theRussellGroupofBritishHEinstitutionswhichisseenasanelitegroupthatclaimstorepresent24research-intensiveinstitutions who also boast outstanding teaching and learning and excellence in links withbusinessandthepublicsector(FilippakouandTapper2015)DespitemembershipoftheRussellGroupbeingbasedonprestige there is alsodiversitywithin this groupwhichhasmembersrangingfromOxfordandCambridgeuniversitiesinEnglandtoCardiffandGlasgowuniversitiestwohighlydistinctiveinstitutionsthatarepartoftheWelshandScottishsystemsofHEwhichcanbedifferentiated from theEnglish systemnot leastbecauseof the issueof student fees(FilippakouandTapper2015)
InthelastthreedecadesChinahasengagedinanintensivereformofitshighereducationsystem and this has involved a staggering level of investment in the building of capacity andresource in a relatively small number of universitieswith the aimof developingworld-classinstitutionsthatwillcompeteonaglobalscaleTheChinese211Projectwasinitiatedin1995andintheyearsupto2011agroupof112universitiesweresupportedbyinvestmentintheproject
As a means of understanding a sample of Chinese partnerships their relationship with UKinstitutions is focused on here and their affiliation with UK lsquomission groupsrsquo is highlighted(FilippakouandTapper2015)AsampleanalysisoftheUKpartnershipsofthreeeliteinstitutionsofChina(twoC9institutionsandone985211university)wascompiledusingdatafromtheMoE
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
As a means of understanding a sample of Chinese partnerships their relationship with UKinstitutions is focused on here and their affiliation with UK lsquomission groupsrsquo is highlighted(FilippakouandTapper2015)AsampleanalysisoftheUKpartnershipsofthreeeliteinstitutionsofChina(twoC9institutionsandone985211university)wascompiledusingdatafromtheMoE
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 75
Table 2 TheUKpartnersofPekingUniversity
Institution (Chinese) Institution (English) Country Affiliation
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
78 Catherine Montgomery
Figure 1 MapofChinashowingtheprovinces(Shen2015)
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)