Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering Third edition Dr C. R. Bayliss CEng FIET and B. J. Hardy ACGI CEng FIET AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD ELSEVIER PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Newnes is an imprint of Elsevier
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Transmission andDistribution
ElectricalEngineering
Third edition
Dr C. R. Bayliss CEng FIET andB. J. Hardy ACGI CEng FIET
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD
ELSEVIER PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Newnes is an imprint of Elsevier
Contents
About the authorsContributorsPreface
1 System Studies
1.1 Introduction1.2 Load flow
1.2.1 Purpose1.2.2 Sample study
1.3 System stability1.3.1 Introduction1.3.2 Analytical aspects1.3.3 Steady state stability1.3.4 Transient stability1.3.5 Dynamic stability1.3.6 Effect of induction motors1.3.7 Data requirements and interpretation of transient
stability studies1.3.8 Case studies
1.4 Short circuit analysis1.4.1 Purpose1.4.2 Sample study
10.9 Practical distribution network case study10.9.1 Introduction10.9.2 Main substation protection10.9.3 Traction system protection10.9.4 21 kV distribution system and protection
philosophy10.9.5 21 kV pilot wire unit protection10.9.6 21 kV system back-up protection10.9.7 Use of earth fault indicators10.9.8 Summary
10.10 Recent advances in control, protection andmonitoring10.10.1 Background10.10.2 Developments
References
11 Fuses and Miniature Circuit Breakers
11.111.2
11.3
11.4
IntroductionFuses11.2.111.2.211.2.311.2.411.2.5
Types and standardsDefinitions and terminologyHRC fusesHigh voltage fusesCartridge fuse construction
Fuse operation11.3.111.3.211.3.311.3.411.3.5
High speed operationDiscriminationCable protectionMotor protectionSemiconductor protection
Miniature circuit breakers11.4.1 Operation
Contents xi
11.4.211.4.3
References
12 Cables
12.112.212.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
StandardsApplication
IntroductionCodes and standardsTypes of cables and materials12.3.112.3.212.3.312.3.4Cable12.4.112.4.212.4.312.4.412.4.512.4.612.4.7
General design criteriaCable constructionSubmarine cablesJoints and terminations
sizingIntroductionCables laid in airCables laid direct in groundCables laid in ductsEarthing and bondingShort circuit ratingsCalculation examples
Calculation of losses in cables12.5.112.5.2
Dielectric lossesScreen or sheath losses
Fire properties of cables12.6.112.6.212.6.312.6.412.6.512.6.612.6.7
IntroductionToxic and corrosive gasesSmoke emissionOxygen index and temperature indexFlame retardance/flammabilityFire resistanceMechanical properties
Control and communication cables12.7.112.7.212.7.3Cable12.8.112.8.212.8.3
References
Low voltage and multicore control cablesTelephone cablesFibre optic cables '
Open terminal 145 kV switchgear examplesDistribution system switchgear exampleDistribution ring main unit
Power Transformers
14.114.2
14.3
14.4
IntroductionStandards and principles14.2.114.2.214.2.314.2.414.2.514.2.6Voltage,14.3.114.3.214.3.314.3.414.3.514.3.614.3.714.3.814.3.9
Thermal14.4.114.4.214.4.3
Basic transformer actionTransformer equivalent circuitVoltage and current distributionTransformer impedance representationTap changersUseful standardsimpedance and power ratingGeneralVoltage dropImpedanceVoltage ratio and tappings - generalVoltage ratio with off-circuit tappingsVoltage ratio and on-load tappingsBasic insulation levels (BIL)Vector groups and neutral earthingCalculation example to determine impedanceand tap rangedesignGeneralTemperature riseLoss of life expectancy with temperature
Contents xiii
14.4.4 Ambient temperature 53414.4.5 Solar heating 53514.4.6 Transformer cooling classifications 53514.4.7 Selection of cooling classification 53814.4.8 Change of cooling classification in the field 53914.4.9 Capitalization of losses 540
18.8 Substation busbar selection - case study 68118.8.1 Introduction 68118.8.2 Conductor diameter/current carrying capacity 68118.8.3 Conductor selection on weight basis 68118.8.4 Conductor short circuit current capability 68418.8.5 Conductor support arrangements 687
References 692
19 Testing and Commissioning 693
19.1 Introduction 69319.2 Quality assurance 694
19.2.1 Introduction 69419.2.2 Inspection release notice 69619.2.3 Partial acceptance testing 69619.2.4 System acceptance testing 69619.2.5 Documentation and record systems 696
19.3 Works inspections and testing 69819.3.1 Objectives 69819.3.2 Specifications and responsibilities 69919.3.3 Type tests 69919.3.4 Routine production tests 700
19.4 Site inspection and testing 70019.4.1 Pre-commissioning and testing 70019.4.2 Maintenance inspection 70119.4.3 On-line inspection and testing 701
19.5 Testing and commissioning methods 70519.5.1 Switchgear 70519.5.2 Transformers 71319.5.3 Cables t 71819.5.4 Protection 724
Appendix A: Commissioning test procedure requirements 738Appendix B: Drawings, diagrams and manuals 739
20.4.2 Magnetic field radiated emission measurements 74420.4.3 Electric field radiated emission measurements 74620.4.4 Conducted emission measurements 74820.4.5 Immunity testing 749
20.5 Screening 75020.5.1 Introduction 75020.5.2 The use of screen wire 75020.5.3 The use of screen boxes and Faraday enclosures 75020.5.4 The use of screen floors in rooms 752
20.6 Typical useful formulae 75520.6.1 Decibel reference levels 75520.6.2 Field strength calculations 75520.6.3 Mutual inductance between two long parallel 756
pairs of wires20.6.4 Attenuation factors 756
20.7 Case studies 75720.7.1 Screening power cables 75720.7.2 Measurement of field strengths 761
21.2.1 Functions 76421.2.2 PLC selection 76521.2.3 Application example 770
21.3 Power line carrier communication links 77621.3.1 Introduction 77621.3.2 Power line carrier communication principles 777
21.4 Supervisory control and data acquisition 78021.4.1 Introduction 78021.4.2 Typical characteristics 78321.4.3 Design issues 78521.4.4 Example (Channel Tunnel) 786
21.5 Software management 78821.5.1 Software - a special case 78921.5.2 Software life cycle ,• 79021.5.3 Software implementation practice 79321.5.4 Software project management 796
References 798
22 Project Management 799
22.1 Introduction 79922.2 Project evaluation 799
22.2.1 Introduction 799
22.3
22.4
22.5
22.6
22.7
22.2.222.2.3
Contents
Financial assessmentEconomic assessment
Financing22.3.122.3.222.3.322.3.422.3.522.3.6
Responsibilities for fundingCash flowSources of financeExport credit agenciesFunding risk reductionUse of private finance
23.3 Load forecasting23.3.1 Users of load forecasts23.3.2 The preparation of load forecasts23.3.3 The micro load forecast23.3.4 The macro load forecast23.3.5 Nature of the load forecast
23.4 System parameters23.4.1 Distribution feeder arrangements23.4.2 Voltage drop calculations23.4.3 Positive sequence resistance23.4.4 Inductive reactance23.4.5 Economic loading of distribution feeders
and transformers23.4.6 System losses
23.5 System reliability23.5.1 Introduction23.5.2 Reliability functions23.5.3 Predictability analysis
23.6 Drawings and materials take off
24 Power Quality - Harmonics in Power Systems
24.1 Introduction24.2 The nature of harmonics
24.2.1 Introduction24.2.2 Three phase harmonics
24.3 The generation of harmonics24.3.1 General24.3.2 Transformers24.3.3 Converters24.3.4 The thyristor bridge24.3.5 Railway and tramway traction systems24.3.6 Static VAr compensators and balancers
24.4 The effects of harmonics24.4.1 Heating effects of harmonics24.4.2 Harmonic overvoltages24.4.3 Resonances24.4.4 Interference
24.5 The limitation pf harmonics24.5.1 Harmonic filters24.5.2 Capacitor detuning
24.6 Ferroresonance and subharmonics24.6.1 Introduction24.6.2 A physical description of ferroresonance24.6.3 Subharmonics24.6.4 Interharmonics
Contents xix
24.7 Harmonic studies 92924.7.1 The requirement 92924.7.2 The studies 93024.7.3 Measurement 931
24.8 Case studies 931References 931
25 Power Quality-Voltage Fluctuations 933
25.1 Introduction 93325.2 The nature and cause of voltage disturbances in 933
power systems25.2.1 Short-term interruptions and voltage dips 933
and peaks25.2.2 Voltage fluctuations 93725.2.3 Voltage flicker 93725.2.4 Slow-voltage fluctuations 93825.2.5 Voltage unbalance 93825.2.6 Step-change events 939
25.3 Solutions 93925.3.1 Energy storage 93925.3.2 Balancing 94025.3.3 Static var compensators 94025.3.4 The STATCOM 942
25.4 Case study 942References 944
26 Fundamentals 945
26.1 Introduction 94526.2 Symbols and nomenclature 945
26.2.1 Symbols 94526.2.2 Units and conversion tables 946
26.5.1 The j operator 95926.5.2 Exponential vector format 96026.5.3 Polar co-ordinate vector format 96126.5.4 Algebraic operations on vectors 96126.5.5 The h operator 962
26.7.1 Introduction 96626.7.2 Fundamental formulae 96626.7.3 Simplified network reduction example 971
26.8 Design optimization 97726.8.1 Introduction 97726.8.2 Technical problems 97826.8.3 Loss reduction 98226.8.4 Communication link gain or attenuation 99026.8.5 Reactive compensation 99126.8.6 Power factor correction calculation procedures 994