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Handbook for the Training of Water Kiosk- and Public Sanitation Facility Operators

Water kiosks should not be used as a car wash! (Drawing by Charles Kut, 2008)

___________________________________________________________________Toolkit for Urban Water Supply Projects Module 3 Operator Training Handbook

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Table of Contents 1 Organisation, Objective and Use of this Training Handbook 62 The Operator Training Workshop: Objectives and Themes 8

2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................8

2.2 The Main Objectives of the Operator Training Workshop..............................8

2.3 Themes to be Addressed during the Training Workshop..............................9

2.4 Training Activities........................................................................................11

2.5 What Happens After the Training Workshop?.............................................11

2.6 When and How to Organise the Operator Training Workshop?..................12

2.7 The Input of Local Experts...........................................................................12

2.8 The Operator Recruitment Process.............................................................133 Organisation of the Training Workshop 14

3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................14

3.2 Preparatory Activities...................................................................................14

3.3 Duration, Venue and Invited Experts...........................................................14

3.4 Required Materials......................................................................................14

3.5 Workshop Budget........................................................................................15

3.6 The Training Programme: Timetable and Themes......................................15

3.7 The Various Themes of the Training Workshop..........................................16

3.7.1 Welcome and Presentations................................................................16

3.7.2 The Hydrological Cycle and Municipal Water Supply...........................17

3.7.3 Water Supply in Kenya and the Service Provider.................................18

3.7.4 Water, Hygiene and Public Health........................................................18

3.7.5 The Kiosk System................................................................................19

3.7.6 Communication and Service Delivery...................................................20

3.7.7 Water Treatment and How the Service Provider Functions.................22

3.7.8 Evaluation of the Training Workshop....................................................23

3.7.9 Closing Remarks and Appointments....................................................23

3.8 Visit to the WSP Office(s), the Treatment Works and to a Kiosk.................24

3.8.1 Objectives.............................................................................................24

3.8.2 Sequence.............................................................................................24

3.9 Evaluation, Conclusions and Making Appointments....................................24


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3.10 Informing Unsuitable (Operator) Candidates...............................................25

3.11 On-the-Job Training.....................................................................................25

3.12 Some Remarks on Bookkeeping, Remuneration and Accountability...........254 The Importance of Water and the Hydrologic Cycle 26

4.1 The Availability and Importance of Water....................................................26

4.2 Detailed Description of the Hydrologic Cycle...............................................275 Municipal Water Supply, Water Sources and Water Quality 29

5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................29

5.2 Historical Background..................................................................................29

5.2.1 Developments in Supply Systems........................................................29

5.2.2 Developments in Water Treatment.......................................................30

5.3 Water Sources.............................................................................................31

5.3.1 Global Distribution of Water.................................................................31

5.3.2 Surface and Ground Water..................................................................31

5.4 Drinking-Water Quality................................................................................32

5.4.1 Introduction...........................................................................................32

5.4.2 Drinking-Water Quality: Health Concerns.............................................32

5.4.3 Aesthetic Concerns (Taste, Colour, Odour).........................................33

5.4.4 Drinking Water Quality: Hardness........................................................33

5.4.5 Water Quality Standards......................................................................33

5.5 Water Requirements....................................................................................34

5.5.1 Introduction...........................................................................................34

5.5.2 Municipal Water Consumption.............................................................34

5.5.3 Water Treatment..................................................................................356 The Distribution Network 36

6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................36

6.2 Materials......................................................................................................36

6.3 Fittings.........................................................................................................37

6.4 Installation...................................................................................................37

6.5 Pumps.........................................................................................................37

6.6 Storage Tanks.............................................................................................38

6.7 Low Pressure, Interruption in Supply and Loss of Water Quality................38

6.8 The Water Kiosk..........................................................................................39

6.8.1 The Various Parts of a Water Kiosk.....................................................39

6.8.2 The Functioning and Purpose of the Water Meter................................397 Water, Hygiene and Public Health 40


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7.1 Introduction..................................................................................................40

7.2 Kenya: The Current Water Supply and Public Health Situation...................40

7.3 Water Wastage and its Potential Impact upon Public Health......................42

7.4 The Public Health Objectives of the Service Provider.................................438 Description of Some Water-Related Diseases 44

8.1 Bacteria.......................................................................................................44

8.2 Diarrhoea.....................................................................................................44

8.3 Cholera........................................................................................................45

8.4 Dysentery....................................................................................................46

8.5 Typhoid........................................................................................................47

8.6 Common Worm Infections...........................................................................48

8.7 Pollution of Water by Chemical Substances................................................489 Improving Public Health: the Contribution of the Kiosk Operators 49

9.1 Introduction..................................................................................................49

9.2 Keeping the Kiosk Clean: The Important Role of the Kiosk Operator..........50

9.3 Sensitising Kiosk Clientele on Chains and Barriers.....................................51

9.3.1 About Chains........................................................................................51

9.3.2 Barriers.................................................................................................52

9.3.3 Transmission Routes............................................................................52

9.4 The Operator and Public Health Emergency Situations..............................55

9.5 Inviting Local Experts..................................................................................55

9.6 Using the PHAST Method...........................................................................5610 Water Supply in Kenya: The Institutional Context 57

10.1 The Water Act of 2002.................................................................................57

10.2 The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI)..................................................57

10.2.1 MWI’s Vision.........................................................................................57

10.2.2 MWI’ s Mission.....................................................................................57

10.2.3 MWI’s Mandate....................................................................................57

10.3 The Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB).....................................58

10.3.1 WASREB’s Strategc Objectives...........................................................58

10.3.2 Main Functions.....................................................................................58

10.4 The Water Services Trust Fund...................................................................59

10.4.1 History..................................................................................................59

10.4.2 Mandate of the WSTF..........................................................................59

10.4.3 Core Objective of the WSTF................................................................59

10.5 The Water Services Boards.........................................................................59


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10.5.1 History..................................................................................................59

10.5.2 Number of WSBs..................................................................................60

10.5.3 Main Functions of the WSBs................................................................60

10.5.4 Mandate of the WSBs..........................................................................60

10.6 The Water Service Providers (WSPs).........................................................61

10.6.1 Main responsibilities of WSPs..............................................................61

10.6.2 Operator Training Workshop: Presenting the WSP..............................61

10.7 Sector Overview..........................................................................................6111 The Kiosk System 63

11.1 Using the Contract and Rules and Guidelines during the Workshop...........63

11.2 Why the Service Provider Decided to Introduce a Kiosk System................63

11.3 What is a Kiosk System?.............................................................................64

11.4 The Tasks, Responsibilities and Status of the Operator..............................65

11.5 Contract and Guidelines..............................................................................65

11.5.1 The Contract.........................................................................................65

11.5.2 The Appendix to the Contract...............................................................66

11.6 Operators: Addressing Their Interests, Complaints and Suggestions.........67

11.7 Introducing the Kiosk System: Step-by-Step...............................................68

11.8 Community Participation and Kiosks...........................................................68

11.8.1 Project Implementation.........................................................................68

11.8.2 Daily Management of the Kiosk System...............................................6812 Assisting Vulnerable Persons: The SWAS 70

12.1 Identifying Potential SWAS Beneficiaries....................................................70

12.2 Timing of the Implementation of the SWAS Programme.............................7113 Kiosk Hygiene and Poor Practices of Residents, Providers & Operators 72

13.1.1 Introduction...........................................................................................72

13.1.2 Poor Practices of Service Providers.....................................................72

13.1.3 Poor Practices of Operators.................................................................73

13.1.4 Poor Practices of Customers and other Residents...............................73List of Abbreviations 75Bibliography 75


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1 Organisation, Objective and Use of this Training Handbook This handbook is written for the:

WSTF Field Monitors,

staff members of the Water Service Provider (WSP),

Public Health Officers,

and others who are responsible for the recruitment, training and monitoring of the water kiosk and/or public sanitation facility Operators.

This handbook consists of the following chapters:

Chapter 1: The organisation and use of the handbook.

Chapter 2: Objectives and themes of the Operator Training Workshop.

Chapter 3: Organisation of the Operator Training Workshop.

Chapter 4: The importance of water and the water (hydrologic) cycle.

Chapter 5: Technical aspects of water production, treatment and distribution

Chapter 6: The water supply system, distribution network and the water kiosk.

Chapter 7: Water, hygiene and public health, the public health situation in Kenya, the public health objectives of the Water Service Provider (WSP) and water supply in the urban low income areas.

Chapter 8: Description of some water-related diseases

Chapter 9: Improving public health and the contribution of the Operators.

Chapter 10: Water (supply) in Kenya and the role and responsibilities of the various Ministries and of the Regulator (WASREB).

Chapter 11: The kiosk system.

Chapter 12: The Social Welfare Assistance Scheme (SWAS).

Chapter 13: Kiosk Hygiene and poor practices of stakeholders.


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Although the chapters follow the chronology of the training programme, the trainers may, at an early stage, decide to introduce some messages, procedures and practices discussed in later chapters. This handbook should not prevent the trainers from being flexible and creative.

This handbook contain a number of texts, which, as they discuss rather complicated issues, are quite complex and contain concepts and jargon which not always clear to the layman.

This handbook should be considered as a tool, which: Identifies the various elements of the Operator Training Programme. Deals with the organisational aspect of the training programme. Contains the necessary background information that can be used to train the

future Operators.

In other words, the main objective of this handbook is to assist the trainers of Operators to prepare an efficient and stimulating training programme. It is up to the trainers to divide the various tasks and to prepare texts and messages that are adapted to the knowledge levels of the participants taking part in the training programme. Trainers may wish to consult additional reports and publications. This handbook, therefore, has a short bibliography, which will help the trainers to obtain additional reading materials.

The appendix of this handbook contains detailed information on subjects such as: water, water treatment, sewage treatment, solid waste disposal, public health, and malaria. 1

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1 Some elements of this training programme are based upon or have been inspired by a similar programme that was prepared for the National Water and Sanitation Office (ONEA: Office National de l’Eau et de l’Assainissement) of Burkina Faso by two consultancy firms. NIRAS and Sahel Consult prepared their Operator training programme within the framework of a project financed by DANIDA. The original title of the document is: Module de Formation des Gérants de Bornes-Fontaines et de Fontainiers.

Some parts of the handbook, such as the description of the Social Welfare Assistance Programme were prepared by Mabvuto Tembo, the Public Relations and Commercial Manager of the North-Western Water Supply and Sewerage Company in Kenya.


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2 The Operator Training Workshop: Objectives and Themes

2.1 IntroductionTraining of Water Kiosk Operators is necessary in order to assure the long-term sustainability of a kiosk system. Experience shows that within the framework of a project or programme, Water Kiosk Operators tend to receive training, but that after the project, new Operators no longer participate in training programmes and workshops. New Operators at best receive a kind of training on-the-job. Sometimes the kiosk is simply “given” to a local resident. In Burkina Faso, for example, a large number of Operators are hardly known to the local offices of the national service provider (ONEA). An evaluation of the Chipata kiosk system in Zambia carried out in 1998, revealed that the main complaint expressed by the Operators concerned the fact that they had only received a kind of on-the-job training instead of a proper training by the service provider. The lack of training hampered their communication with the water company, as most Operators were not well informed about their rights and duties.

2.2 The Main Objectives of the Operator Training WorkshopThe Operator Training Workshop should enable the participants to become responsible, efficient and hard working Water Kiosk Operators, who have the interests of the service provider and their clientele in mind.

The training workshop should make the Operators aware of the fact that they play a crucial role in the provision of water in the low income areas, where a majority of the urban population resides. Operators should know the various objectives the service provider intends to achieve with the introduction and operation of the kiosk system.

Operators should be aware that they are representing the service provider at the grassroots level. In other words they are the interface between the low income population and the Water Service Provider. Operators delivering a poor service are likely to tarnish the image of the service provider. Trainers should emphasise that the service provider intends to deliver a good product (treated water) to its low income customers and that these clients, as they pay for their water, also have the right to a good service. Operators should also be able to explain to their customers how to transport, store and use the product.

The objectives of the training workshop/programme are the following:

Enable the Operators to manage their kiosks.

Assure that the service provider can deliver a good product (treated water) and a good service in the low income areas.

Enable Operators to sensitise their clients on how to keep the kiosk clean and on how to use water in a proper way.

Enable Operators to take part in emergency programmes.

The expected results of the training programme can be summed up as follows:

The Operators understand all aspects of the kiosk system.


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They are fully aware of the importance of keeping the kiosk clean.

They have a basic knowledge of water-related diseases.

They are aware of their status and of their rights, as well as of the rules and procedures they have to follow.

They can read the meter, calculate their income and keep track of sales.

They know how they will be supervised and controlled by the service provider.

They know how to communicate with the various stakeholders and how to deal with special circumstances.

2.3 Themes to be Addressed during the Training WorkshopThe Operator Training Workshop should tackle the following issues:

1. General information The water supply problematic (worldwide and in Kenya). Water supply in urban and rural Kenya. The water cycle/water as a scarce resource. Water treatment (Explained during a visit of the water treatment works).

2. The Water Service Provider and the objectives of low income water supply The organisational structure of the service provider. The main objectives the service provider intends to achieve by improving

water supply in low income areas. The main characteristics of the kiosk system and the central role of the water

meter.

3. The kiosk system: financial management and administrative tasks The customer-Operator payment system. The importance of the water meter. Billing procedures and billing frequency. Billing cycle and metering cycle. Procedures concerning depositing the amounts of money collected. Keeping records, how to monitor water sales. Remuneration, incentives and sanctions.

4. The Contract The status of the Water Kiosk Operator. The content of the Contract and the appendix to the Contract. The rights and obligations of all parties concerned.

5. Health and hygiene Water hygiene and public health. Water quality and sources of water. Cleaning the kiosk and its immediate surroundings (frequency, tools). Personal hygiene (washing hands, etc.). Fetching water, cleaning containers, and water storage. Washing kitchen utensils and laundry near the kiosk.


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Water-related diseases and how to prevent them. The use of alternative sources of water and the advantages of treated

water. Water usages (drinking, preparing meals, washing, bathing) and the use of

alternative sources. How to sensitise customers on the need to observe the rules concerning

kiosk cleanliness and hygiene.

6. Special circumstances and events Under which circumstances should water be supplied free of charge? What to do in case of a fire or a nearby funeral? What to do in case water quality is poor?

7. Communication with customers and the general public How to make sure that customers (and non-customers) become aware of

the kiosk rules and regulations. How to communicate with customers. How to give advice to customers. How to organise customers during peak demand hours, and how to solve

conflicts and fights (Addressed through a number of role plays in which the future Operators participate).

How to prevent vandalism. How to inform customers (for instance, about tariff changes). How to handle customer complaints. How to attract customers and improve sales (of water and of groceries). How to determine (together the service provider, the clients of the kiosk

and the local leadership) the business hours of the kiosk (kiosk opening and closing hours).

8. Communication with the service provider How to countercheck the Water Bill and the other data (for instance the

meter readings) collected and provided by the service provider. How to communicate with the service provider and with other Water Kiosk

Operators. When and how to inform the service provider (in case of leakages,

prolonged interruptions in supply and other technical problems). With whom and when complaints and proposals should be discussed.

9. Technical management Who is responsible for maintenance and repair work? Responsibilities of the Operator when it comes to the technical state of

his or her kiosk. How the service provider monitors the technical and hygienic condition of

the kiosk. Procedures concerning damage reporting and reporting of low pressure

or poor water quality.

During the Operator Training Workshop, the Operator has to learn how to inform and sensitise his or her clients. It is, therefore, important that the Operators, during their training, acquire some basic sensitisation and communication skills.


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The Operator Training Workshop should last approximately 2 – 2.5 days. The trainers should prepare a programme which shows the themes of the workshop.

Soon after having received their training, the Operators will be allocated their kiosk and start their work.

It is important that during the first weeks all new Operators receive intensive guidance and on-the-job training from the service provider.

2.4 Training Activities The training of the Water Kiosk Operators should consist of the following elements:

Transfer of knowledge : The trainers explain the various themes in a detailed and understandable way. The trainers should prepare their presentations carefully and may decide to use flipcharts or summary sheets.

Field visits : The participants should visit the treatment works, one or more kiosks and the various sections of the service provider (Billing Section, Network Section etc.). During the field visits, the trainers will be assisted by other staff members of the service provider (Plant Operators, etc.). It is important that the future Operators not only visit the various premises, but that during their visit they meet personnel of the various departments/sections of the service provider.

Future Operators should know that treating water is a complicated and costly process and that treated water is a scarce resource. They should also be aware of the fact that the service provider is a complex organisation and that the Operator, although he or she is not an employee, plays an important role in the water supply chain.

Active participation by the participants : In order to verify if the participants have understood the content of the training programme, the trainers will ask the participants to demonstrate their knowledge by answering questions, filling in forms, reading the water meter, playing sketches, etc.

2.5 What Happens After the Training Workshop?The Operator Training Workshop does not mark the end of the training period. The official training programme is followed by a number of activities that serve to assure that the kiosk system becomes a success.

Training on-the-job: As soon as the new Operator starts selling water on behalf of the service provider, the trainers and other staff members of the service provider will provide on-the-job training. This training will last approximately 1 week after which the service provider will continue to monitor the Operators. The trainers or other service provider staff should be present the first time the meter is read and when the Operator receives his or her first Water Bill. When the meter is read, the meter reader or the trainer should be able to provide explanations and answer questions asked by the Operator.

Day-to-day management of the kiosk system: Operators should always be given the opportunity to ask questions, make proposals and express their complaints. Providing this opportunity implies that the trainers, or the staff members of the service provider responsible for the kiosk system, visit the kiosks on a regular


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basis. These regular visits also serve to monitor and supervise the work of the Operators and to discuss the kiosk system with clients.

Additional training: If deemed necessary the service provider may decide to ask the Operators to attend an additional training meeting or workshop. For example, if the Ministry of Health has issued a cholera warning, the service provider may decide to assemble the Operators in order to provide them with detailed information on cholera and on the procedures they will have to follow in the event of an outbreak.

2.6 When and How to Organise the Operator Training Workshop?It is obvious that a WSP cannot organise an Operator Training Workshop each time a new Operator has to be recruited. Operators, who receive on-the-job training, can perform their tasks more or less satisfactorily if they receive sufficient guidance and if they are motivated to consult their (trained) colleagues and even their clients. It is advisable, however, to have new Operators take part in a training workshop as soon as their number justifies the costs of such a programme.

When a kiosk system is introduced in a number of low income areas, the service provider will have to organise a training workshop for all the new Operators. In order to reduce costs, the service provider should also invite and train candidates who are supposed to work in low income areas that will be connected at a later stage.

Training should take place in the town itself, preferably near the office or the treatment works of the service provider or in the low income area itself.

When a kiosk system is introduced in a small town, it will be uneconomical to organise a training workshop for just a few Operators. In such cases, the emphasis should be on on-the-job training. If possible the Operators of these small towns should be asked to attend the training workshop, which is organised programme in a larger town.

2.7 The Input of Local ExpertsWe believe an Operator Training Workshop can be more effective and interesting when relevant service provider staff and local experts, such as the Public Health Officer, the Community Health Extension Workers (CHEWs) and/or the staff of local clinics and health centres are involved.

If possible the trainers should seek the assistance of a number of local experts. Especially items concerning the interrelatedness between water, health and hygiene, can best be explained by health experts who in addition to their professional knowledge have a detailed knowledge of local conditions and risk factors. Local experts should be invited to prepare presentations. It is important that these local experts know what is expected from them and the trainers should put much emphasis on a detailed briefing.

Some aspects of water treatment and water supply should be explained to the participants by local service provider staff. For example, the operators of the treatment works are in a better position to explain the various technical and hygienic aspects of the water treatment process.


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2.8 The Operator Recruitment ProcessIt is important to implicate the low income community in the selection and recruitment of prospective Operators. The WSP, however, should insist on the use of a number of selection criteria.

Experience in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa shows that one of the main difficulties trainers are faced with when training Operators, is the fact that the educational level of the candidates participating the training programme differs from person to person. It is important, therefore, to base the recruitment process upon a set of criteria. 2 If the WSP wants its water kiosks or public sanitation facilities to be operated by individuals, these individuals should meet a number of important criteria.

Only candidates meeting the criteria set by the WSP should be allowed to participate in the training workshop !!

The service provider can decide to ask the Project Task Team to find suitable candidates in the project area. The service provider should provide the Task Team with all the details concerning the recruitment and training process.

Throughout the training, the trainers have to assess the level of comprehension of each candidate. In other words, the trainers, by asking questions to each candidate, have to verify that all participants have clearly understood the messages and various elements of the training programme. Candidates who are unable to follow the programme should be asked to leave and will have to be replaced by other, more suitable candidates.

2 The Oloolaiser Water and Sewerage Company uses the following criteria to select individuals who will sell water at its kiosks. The Kiosk Operator:

Must be able to read and write (English and Swahili) and has a basic understanding of mathematics.

Is preferably a woman. Must be at least 18 years of age. Must be of sober character. Is known as an honest and hard working person. Is respected by the other members of the community (by the other residents). Does not have a criminal record. Has submitted a Medical/Health Certificate. Lives within the project area (within a radius of approximately 1 kilometre of the kiosk) and has

a permanent residence. Is able to socialise and deal with customers and likes to work with and for people. Is expected to display a pleasant behaviour and attitude towards people. Is not active in local politics. Is a businesses minded person who intends to sell a variety of goods at the kiosk. Is able and ready to pay (up-front) a security deposit of KSh 10,000. Respects the Contract his or her Group has signed with the Company and the rules and

guidelines of the Company which are annexed to the Contract.


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3 Organisation of the Training Workshop

3.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the more practical aspects of organising and implementing a Operator Training Workshop. We also present an example of a training programme lasting 2.5 days.

Each theme (topic) is listed and in sections 3.6 and 3.7 the various activities, “tools” and participation levels are indicated.

3.2 Preparatory Activities Before the Operator Training Workshop can be organised, the Project Task Team and/or the trainers have to inform the management of the Water Service Provider. As soon as the management has given its go-ahead, the trainers will have to make the necessary arrangements with:

The staff of the network/metering section of the service provider. The personnel of the treatment works. Local experts. The Operators of the venue where the workshop will take place.

A few days before the start of the training workshop, the trainers have to arrange for means of transport (that is if means of transport are required to enable all participants to visit the treatment works and the service provider office).

3.3 Duration, Venue and Invited ExpertsThe Operator Training Workshop , including field visits will last between 2 and 2.5 days. The trainers will have to arrange an affordable and suitable venue (enough tables and chairs, a quiet conducive environment, suitable for group work, etc.) which should be communicated to all participants, including the invited experts.3

The trainers will also make a list of the experts they have invited. All guest presenters (including the staff members at the treatment works and at the office who will take part in the training programme), will have to be informed about the days the training workshop is going to be held and exactly when their contribution is required. Each participant and guest presenter will receive a copy of the workshop programme

3.4 Required MaterialsThe successful implementation of the training programme requires the following materials:

Enough money to pay for all expenses.A ballpoint, a pencil and a rubber (for each participant).An exercise book for making notes (for each participant).A copy of the programme/timetable of the workshop (for each participant). A copy of the Contract and the “Rules and Guidelines” for Operators (each

participant receives his or her own copy).

3 Preferably the workshop takes place within the low income area itself (at a school, a training institute, a community hall or a church).


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Copies of the various sheets, tables, receipts, etc. (each participant receives his or her own copy).

Copies of posters on HIV/AIDS as well as the HIV/AIDS training manual. One flip chart stand, markers and enough sheets of (A1) paper.One functional water meter .A calculator, a stapler and a perforator.Enough sheets of (A4) paper.Posters explaining the hydrologic cycle, the causes of water-related diseases, the

maintenance of the water kiosk, etc. The PHAST (health and hygiene) Tool. A copy of this Handbook.If necessary: a projection screen, an overhead projector or a laptop computer, a

generator and a beamer.

The last items will only be used if the trainers have prepared a set of overhead sheets or a PowerPoint presentation. Preparing overhead sheets or PowerPoint slides can be useful, if the trainers wish to show photos, graphs or drawings (for example a drawing which explains the water cycle). If possible the trainers should have easy access to a copying machine.

All necessary materials have to be purchased and/or prepared well before the start of the workshop.

3.5 Workshop Budget Before the start of the training programme, the trainers will have to prepare a budget. When preparing this budget the trainers will have to take the following into account:

The service provider will provide lunch for all candidates. During the morning and afternoon sessions each participant will receive tea, coffee or a soft drink.

Each candidate will have to be issued with stationary (exercise book, pen, pencil, rubber, etc.).

Copies have to be made of relevant documents. Sometimes the use of a venue has to be paid for. It may be necessary to give invited guest presenters a fee or allowance for

their contribution.

3.6 The Training Programme: Timetable and Themes This Module of the Toolkit also contains a programme for an Operator Training Workshop. It should be noted that the programme is just an example. Trainers should be flexible and try to adapt their training programme on the basis of experiences, their budget and the availability of means or transport or of external experts and service provider staff. Before the start of the workshop, participants have to be told to be punctual and to respect all arrangements made. Throughout the training programme the trainers should motivate the participants to take active part in the training by asking questions and making proposals.


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3.7 The Various Themes of the Training Workshop

3.7.1 Welcome and Presentations1 & 2. Welcome and Introductions4

Theme: Welcoming the participants and introductionsWho does what?: One of the trainers welcomes all participants

All participants, trainers and guests introduce themselves Necessary hardware: All names, addresses of the participants and the names and

addresses of contact persons have to be recorded in a list Activities: -Participation: All participate

3. Opening address Theme: Opening address Who does what?: Senior staff member of the service provider (CEO or Technical

Director, etc.)Necessary hardware: -Activities: Address by senior WSP managementParticipation: Presenter only

4. Objectives of the workshopTheme: Objectives of the training workshopWho does what?: One of the trainers or a senior staff member of the service providerNecessary hardware: -Activities: A brief outline of (1) the main objectives & expected results of the

workshop Participation: Presenter only

5. Themes, elements and activities of the workshopTheme: Objectives & themes of the training workshopWho does what?: One of the trainers or a senior staff member of the service providerNecessary hardware: -Activities: A brief outline of the various themes that will be addressed as well

as the elements and activities of the training programme Participation: Presenter only

4 The table numbers refer to the themes presented in the programme of the water Kiosk Operator training Workshop.


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3.7.2 The Hydrological Cycle and Municipal Water Supply

6. The importance of water Theme: The importance of water (water is life)

Who does what?: - A trainer gives an introduction to the group works- A trainer divides the participants into groups - Trainers guide the group works

Necessary hardware: Flip chart and markers, posters, this handbook

Activities: Group workParticipation: - Operators are participating in the group sessions

- Operators are presenting the group session results during the plenary session.

Group work questions: The following questions could guide the group work:- People often say: “water is life”. Why do they say that?- What are the advantages of safe water? (What is safe water?)

7. Water production, treatment and distributionTheme: Water production, treatment and distribution

Who does what?: A trainer or an expert of the service provider, gives a presentation on the technical aspects of water supply, explaining:

- the importance of treated water and the water treatment process

- the functioning of the distribution network (purpose of valves, storage tanks etc.)

Necessary hardware: Flip chart and markers, posters, network drawings, this handbook

Activities: Participants are asked questions Participation: Operators are encouraged to ask questions


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3.7.3 Water Supply in Kenya and the Service Provider8. Water supply in Kenya: the institutional contextTheme: Water supply in Kenya: the institutional contextWho does what?: A trainer or an expert of the service provider gives a presentationNecessary hardware: Flipchart and markers, this handbook Activities: - Presentation

- Participants are given the opportunity to ask questions- Trainers ask questions to verify whether the theme is

understood Participation: Operators are encouraged to ask questions

9. The Water Service ProviderThemes: The service provider: history, achievements and objectives

Water supply in the towns where the Operators will be workingWho does what?: A staff member of the service provider gives a presentationRequired hardware: Flipchart and markers, this handbook, the WSP Business PlanActivities: - Presentation

- Participants are given the opportunity to ask questions- Trainers ask questions to verify whether the theme is

understood Participation: Operators are encouraged to ask questions

3.7.4 Water, Hygiene and Public Health

10 & 11. Water, hygiene and public health Theme: Water, hygiene and public healthWho does what?: A local expert (for example the PHO) gives a presentation and

introduces the PHAST Tool Necessary hardware: Flip chart and markers, the PHAST Tool posters, etc.Activities: - The local expert has received a copy of relevant parts of this

handbook and of the PHAST Tool to prepare himself/herself - The participants are given explanations on the group works - Group works- Presentations made by the groups during the plenary session

Participation: - Operators are participating in the group sessions- Operators are asked to give examples or to explain causes of

diseases. Operators are motivated to ask questions- Operators are presenting the group session results during the

plenary session.


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3.7.5 The Kiosk System

14. The kiosk system: how does it function? Theme: How does the kiosk system function?Who does what?: Trainer gives a presentation Necessary hardware: Flipchart and markers, this handbook,Activities: - Presentation

- Questions and answers sessionParticipation: Operators are motivated to ask questions

15. The water meterTheme: How does the water meter function and how will it be used?Who does what?: Trainers explain the water meter Necessary hardware: A functioning or a demonstration water meter and this handbook Activities: - Presentation (short)

- Operators read the meter and calculate water consumption- Questions and answers session

Participation: - Operators are asked questions and calculate consumptions- Participants are given the opportunity to ask questions

16 & 17. The billing system and bookkeeping by the Operator

Theme: How does the billing system function and how does the Operator keep his or her books?

Who does what?: Trainers explain the billing and bookkeeping system

Necessary hardware: The necessary billing sheets and forms and exercise books

Activities: - Presentation (short)- Operators participate in billing simulation exercises - Questions and answers session

Participation: - Operators can ask questions- Operators are asked to calculate Water Bills

18. Operator remuneration Theme: How are Operators remunerated?Who does what?: Trainers explain the remuneration system Necessary hardware: The receipts, sheets and forms, a flipchart and markers

Activities:- Presentation- Operators participate in consumption calculations and

remuneration calculation exercises

Participation: - Operators are encouraged to ask questions- Operators are asked to calculate remunerations


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19. The kiosk system: responsibilities and tasksTheme: What are the responsibilities, tasks and rights of all stakeholders?Who does what?: The trainers explain the various elements (step-by-step approach) Necessary hardware: The Contract and the appendix to the Contract (a copy for every

participant)Activities: - Presentation

- Questions and answers sessionParticipation: Operators are motivated to ask questions

20. The sale of other goods at the kioskTheme: The sale of groceries at the kiosk by the Operator Who does what?: The trainers explain the opportunities and restrictions (which goods

cannot be sold at the kiosk) Necessary hardware: The Contract and the Appendix to the Contract (a copy for every

participant)Activities: - Presentation

- Asking questions to establish if operators can identify goods which are not to be sold at the kiosk

- Questions and answers sessionParticipation: Operators are asked questions & are motivated to ask questions

21. The Contract and its appendixTheme: The Contract and the rules and guidelines for Operators Who does what?: The trainers explain the various elements (step-by-step approach) Necessary hardware: The Contract and the appendix to the Contract (a copy for every

participant)Activities: - Presentations (step-by-step discussion of the documents)

- Asking questions to verify the Contract and its appendix are understood

- Questions and answers sessionParticipation: Operators are encouraged to ask questions

3.7.6 Communication and Service Delivery

24. Communication with the Water Service ProviderTheme: Communication with the service providerWho does what?: Trainers explain the various communication channels Necessary hardware: A flipchart and markersActivities: - Trainers present several examples that involve different “types”

of communication between the Operator and service provider- Questions and answers session

Participation: Operators are encouraged to ask questions and to explain how they think communicating with the service provider


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24. Communication with clients and other residents Theme: How to communicate with clients?Who does what?: Trainers explain, provide examples and prepare sketches

(Johari’s Window).Necessary hardware: A flipchart and markersActivities: - Operators are asked to play sketches that serve to explain a

number of client-Operator communications - Questions and answers session

Participation: Operators are encouraged to ask questions and are invited to participate in the sketches

24 . Dealing with special circumstances: problems and confli cts Theme: How Operators have to respond if they are faced with special

circumstances, such as conflicts with and between clients Who does what?: Trainers explain, provide examples and prepare Necessary hardware: A flipchart and markersActivities: - Operators are asked to play sketches that serve to explain a

number of potential client-Operator conflicts - Questions and answers session

Participation: - Operators participate in the sketches- Operators are encouraged to ask questions

24. Dealing with special circumstances: outbreaks of water-related diseases

Theme: The kiosk system and the outbreak of water-related diseases

Who does what?: Trainers explain the various institutions involved and the role of the Operators in preventing or containing outbreaks

Necessary hardware: A flipchart and markers

Activities: Discussions

Participation: Operators are motivated to ask questions

26. HIV/AIDS, Water and Sanitation

Theme: HIV & AIDS, water supply and sanitation

Who does what?: Trainers, local expert (e.g. the PHO)

Necessary hardware: Training manuals, markers, flipchart, HIV/AIDS posters, male and female condoms

Activities: Presentations & discussions

Participation: - Operators will participate by initially answering questions- Operators will be engaged in discussions where they provide

their observations, views, and suggestions


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3.7.7 Water Treatment and How the Service Provider Functions

26. Water treatment (during a visit of the water treatment works) (see section 3.8)

Theme: Water treatment

Who does what?: An expert of the service provider explains and shows the various phases of the water treatment process and explains the water quality control process and procedures (chemical and bacteriological tests, etc.)

Necessary hardware: Means of transport, flip chart, paper and markers, equipment and chemicals for a flocculation experiment (showing the difference between treated and untreated water)

Activities: Making necessary arrangements with staff of the treatment works Participation: Operators are encouraged to ask questionsObjectives: The main objectives of the visit are:

- Operators understand the treatment process - Operators understand why everybody has to pay for treated water

26. How does the service provider function? / A visit to the offices of the service provider

Theme: How does the service provider function?

Who does what?: Staff members of the service provider explain their responsibilities and the way their section/department functions

Necessary hardware: Means of transport

Activities: Making the necessary arrangements with service provider staff

Participation: Operators are motivated to ask questions

27. Visit of one of the kiosks (see section 3.8)

Theme: Explaining the kiosk (technical aspects, user-friendliness, hygiene)

Who does what?: A trainer or a technical service provider staff member, gives a detailed description of the kiosk itself (platform, valve, meter, taps, soak away, shelves, etc.) also emphasising the ergonomic aspects of kiosk design

Necessary hardware: Means of transport

Activities: - Making the necessary arrangements with WSP staff- Making sure that someone has the key to the kiosk

Participation: Operators are encouraged to ask questions


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3.7.8 Evaluation of the Training Workshop

28. Evaluation of the training programme (see section 3.9)Theme: Evaluation of the programme/workshopWho does what?: - The trainers explains the purpose of the evaluation

(improving the programme) and asks number of prepared questions

- Each theme is evaluated (good, fair, poor) according to a number of criteria: quality of the presentation, time keeping, relevance of the theme, participant participation

- The evaluation should also cover such issues as transport, quality of food and drinks, sanitation facilities, duration of breaks, total duration of the workshop.

- The trainers should note the remarks and proposals made by the participants in order to improve the quality of the workshop

Necessary hardware: Flipchart, markers and paperActivities & participation: Operators are encouraged to make remarks and propose

improvements

3.7.9 Closing Remarks and Appointments

29. Closing remarks and appointments (see section 3.9)Theme: Closing remarks Who does what?: One of the trainers closes the training programme and gives

details on the inauguration of the kiosks and makes appointments with the Operators

Necessary hardware: AgendaActivities: Making appointments with the Operators Participation of Operators: Operators are motivated to ask questions or make proposals

____________________


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3.8 Visit to the WSP Office(s), the Treatment Works and to a Kiosk

3.8.1 ObjectivesThe visit to the treatment works, the office of the service provider and to one of the kiosks is an important element of the training programme. The visit will result in a better understanding, among Operators, of what water supply is all about. It is also an opportunity for the new Operators and the personnel of the service provider to get to know each other.

3.8.2 Sequence1. If possible, the office of the service provider should be visited first. The

purpose of this visit is to meet staff and management and to get an idea on how the company and the various sections work.

2. The workshop participants should proceed to the water treatment facilities. A service provider expert on water treatment should give a guided tour and explain how clean and safe drinking water is produced and pumped into the main distribution system. He or she should also explain that treating water is costly (What are the main costs?).

3. The third part of the visit will be to the network and metering section of the service provider. A staff member should explain the responsibilities and tasks of this section and will also point out why it is sometimes necessary to disconnect customers.

4. The fourth part of the visit should be to one of the kiosks. One of the trainers should explain the various technical, ergonomic and management aspects of the kiosk. If an operational kiosk is visited, the Operator is asked to talk about his or her work (working conditions, disadvantages, advantages, payment, etc.) and the new Operators will be motivated to ask their colleague as many questions as possible.

3.9 Evaluation, Conclusions and Making Appointments Before winding up the training workshop, the participants should be given the opportunity to express their thoughts regarding the training programme. Attention should be given to the content of the programme, but also to the way in which the various elements have been presented by the trainers and by the invited experts. An evaluation is not very useful, if its results are not used to make improvements. The trainers, therefore, should assess if the outcomes of the evaluation need to result in changes in the programme or in the set-up of the training.

After the evaluation the trainers will explain what will happen in the subsequent days, weeks and months and what is expected of the Operators. The trainers should make detailed appointments (for instance an appointment for the signing of the Contract) with the Operators and the other participants.


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3.10 Informing Unsuitable (Operator) CandidatesParticipants, who, after having followed the training programme, do not appear to be suitable candidates, have to be informed as soon as possible (A few days after the termination of the training programme).

3.11 On-the-Job Training During the Operator Training Workshop, the trainers should emphasise that the education of the Operators will continue after the workshop as they will all receive on-the-job training. This training will start the day they become responsible for the management of their kiosk. Operators should know that if they have any questions regarding their work, they are always free to:

Visit the office of the service provider. Ask relevant service provider staff to visit their kiosk.

3.12 Some Remarks on Bookkeeping, Remuneration and AccountabilityModule 4 of the Toolkit contains detailed information on the billing procedures, on cash handling, Operator remuneration and the financial control mechanisms concerning the kiosks. It is important that during the training programme, there are enough copies of:

Meter reading sheets. Water bills. Exercise books the Operators will use to record their sales.

For a successful implementation of a kiosk system, it is necessary that the Operators understand the commission-based billing/remuneration system and are able to keep track of their sales and revenues. The trainers should emphasise that the water meter is at the heart of the kiosk system.

Module 4 also discusses:

The refundable deposit the Operators will have to pay before they can start working.

The quantity (number of litres) that can and should be fetched with a 20 litres container.

Water wastage and how Operators have to act when they are faced with special circumstances.


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4 The Importance of Water and the Hydrologic Cycle

4.1 The Availability and Importance of Water The Operator Training Workshop could start with a discussion on how our

globe is surrounded by the waters of the oceans and seas, which cover 70% of the earth. Water is almost everywhere, but approximately 97% of all water in this world is ocean water and therefore salty.

This means that only 3% of all water on our planet is sweet. Approximately 99% of sweet (fresh) water is fixed in the sense that is contained in glaciers and the polar icecaps. Only 1% of all fresh water is accessible for human consumption (see Awake 22 August 1997: 3-9 and Awake 22 June 2001: 3-13).

Water is indeed life . Life for all living creatures: plants, animals and of course human beings. In fact the human body mainly consists of water.

Every human being needs to consume (drinking or by consuming food) between approximately 2.5 and 4.5 litres/day (depending on the climate and the staple food) in order to survive (WHO, Minimum water quantity needed, for domestic uses, WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia (see also: http://www.whosea.org )

An additional 10 – 15 litres per person/day are needed for personal hygiene (bathing, brushing teeth and doing laundry)

Figure 4.1 (prepared by the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology) shows the hydrologic cycle).

Figure 4.1: The hydrologic cycle


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http://www.whosea.org/

The earth has a limited amount of water. That water keeps going around and around and around and around and in what we call the "Water Cycle".

This cycle is made up of a few main parts:

Evaporation (and transpiration). Condensation. Precipitation. Infiltration. Surface runoff. Collection.

Evaporation is when the sun heats up water in rivers or lakes or the ocean and turns it into vapor or steam. The water vapor or steam leaves the river, lake or ocean and goes into the air.

Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water out of their leaves into the air. Transpiration gives evaporation a bit of a hand in getting the water vapor back up into the air.

Water vapor in the air gets cold and changes back into liquid, forming clouds. This is called condensation.

Precipitation occurs when so much water has condensed that the air cannot hold it anymore. The clouds get heavy and water falls back to the earth in the form of rain, hail, sleet or snow.

When water falls back to earth as rain, hail, sleet or snow, it seeps into the soil due to force of gravity and become part of the ground water. This seeping is called infiltration.

When the soil gets saturated then the water flows into the oceans, lakes or rivers. This is surface runoff. When it ends up on oceans, lakes or rivers the cycle starts again.

Only a small portion of water of the rainfall flows into rivers as surface water and recharges ground water. This water is used for washing, cooking, industries, agriculture and drinking. This is the water we tend to harness through infrastructure development.

4.2 Detailed Description of the Hydrologic Cycle- The following text on the hydrologic cycle has been copied from the

Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003 (Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, key words: Municipal water supply and hydrologic cycle).

The hydrologic cycle is:

“The cycle that involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. Of the many processes involved in the hydrologic cycle, the most important are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Although the total amount of water within the cycle remains essentially constant, its distribution among the various processes is continually changing.


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Evaporation, one of the major processes in the cycle, is the transfer of water from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere. By evaporation, water in the liquid state is transferred to the gaseous, or vapour, state. This transfer occurs when some molecules in a water mass have attained sufficient kinetic energy to eject themselves from the water surface. The main factors affecting evaporation are temperature, humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation. The direct measurement of evaporation, though desirable, is difficult and possible only at point locations. The principal source of water vapour is the oceans, but evaporation also occurs in soils, snow, and ice. Evaporation from snow and ice, the direct conversion from solid to vapour, is known as sublimation. Transpiration is the evaporation of water through minute pores, or stomata, in the leaves of plants. For practical purposes, transpiration and the evaporation from all water, soils, snow, ice, vegetation, and other surfaces are lumped together and called evapotranspiration, or total evaporation.

Water vapour is the primary form of atmospheric moisture. Although its storage in the atmosphere is comparatively small, water vapour is extremely important in forming the moisture supply for dew, frost, fog, clouds, and precipitation. Practically all water vapour in the atmosphere is confined to the troposphere (the region below 6 to 8 miles [10 to 13 km] altitude).

The transition process from the vapour state to the liquid state is called condensation. Condensation may take place as soon as the air contains more water vapour than it can receive from a free water surface through evaporation at the prevailing temperature. This condition occurs as the consequence of either cooling or the mixing of air masses of different temperatures. By condensation, water vapour in the atmosphere is released to form precipitation.

Precipitation that falls to the Earth is distributed in four main ways: some is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation, some may be intercepted by vegetation and then evaporated from the surface of leaves, some percolates into the soil by infiltration, and the remainder flows directly as surface runoff into the sea. Some of the infiltrated precipitation may later percolate into streams as groundwater runoff. Direct measurement of runoff is made by stream gauges and plotted against time on hydrographs.

Most groundwater is derived from precipitation that has percolated through the soil. Groundwater flow rates, compared with those of surface water, are very slow and variable, ranging from a few millimetres to a few metres a day. Groundwater movements studied by tracer techniques and remote sensing.

Ice also plays a role in the hydrologic cycle. Ice and snow on the Earth's surface occur in various forms such as frost, sea ice, and glacier ice. When soil moisture freezes, ice also occurs beneath the Earth's surface, forming permafrost in tundra climates. About 18,000 years ago glaciers and ice caps covered approximately one-third of the Earth's land surface. Today, about 12 percent of the land surface remains covered by ice masses.”

___________________________________________________________________


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5 Municipal Water Supply, Water Sources and Water Quality

5.1 Introduction - The following text (Paragraphs 5.1 – 5.5) concerning municipal water supply

has been copied from the Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003 (Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, key word: Municipal water supply).

“Municipal water supply can be defined as follows: Infrastructure that provides cities and towns with water supply, waste disposal, and pollution control services. They include extensive networks of reservoirs, pipelines, treatment systems, pumping stations, and waste disposal facilities. These municipal works serve two important purposes: they protect human health and safeguard environmental quality. Treatment of drinking water helps to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever, and proper waste treatment and disposal practices prevent degradation of ecosystems and neighbourhoods. Similarly, cleaning the air of pollutant gases and particles as they are generated prevents adverse effects on both human health and the environment.

Steady population growth, urbanization, and industrial development place steadily increasing demands on existing infrastructure, and these demands in turn create a need for the planning, design, and construction of new environmental works. Because the provision, operation, and maintenance of these works require a major investment of public funds, concerned citizens as well as municipal officials and decision makers should be familiar with the basic concepts of environmental works technology.

This article presents an introduction to the fundamentals of environmental works. Its main focus is on the modern facilities and systems that provide communities with water, dispose of waste, and prevent pollution.

Of all municipal services, provision of potable water is perhaps the most vital. All people depend on water for drinking, cooking, washing, carrying away wastes, and other domestic needs. Water supply systems must also meet requirements for public, commercial, and industrial activities. During droughts, floods, earthquakes, or other emergencies, vigorous efforts must be made to maintain public water supplies.”

5.2 Historical Background

5.2.1 Developments in Supply Systems“Water was an important factor in the location of the earliest settled communities, and the evolution of public water supply systems is tied directly to the growth of cities. In the development of water resources beyond their natural condition in rivers, lakes, and springs, the digging of shallow wells was probably the earliest innovation. As the need for water increased and tools were developed, wells were made deeper. Brick-lined wells were built by city dwellers in the Indus River basin as early as 2500 BC, and wells more than 1,600 feet (almost 500 metres) deep are known to have been used in ancient China. Construction of qanâts, slightly sloping tunnels driven into hillsides that contained groundwater, probably originated in north-western Persia (now Armenia) about 700 BC. From the hillsides the water was conveyed by gravity


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in open channels to nearby towns or cities. The use of qanâts became widespread throughout the region, and some are still in existence. Until 1933 the Iranian capital city, Tehrân, drew its entire water supply from a system of qanâts.

The need to channel water supplies from distant sources was an outcome of the growth of urban communities. Among the most notable of ancient water conveyance systems are the aqueducts built between 312 BC and AD 455 throughout the Roman Empire. Some of these impressive works are still in existence. The writings of Sextus Julius Frontinus (who was appointed superintendent of Roman aqueducts in AD 97) provide information about the design and construction of the 11 major aqueducts that supplied Rome itself. Extending from a distant spring-fed area, a lake, or a river, a typical Roman aqueduct included a series of underground and aboveground channels. The longest was the Aqua Marcia, built in 144 BC. Its source was about 23 miles (37 km) from Rome. The aqueduct itself was 57 miles (92 km) long, however, because it had to meander along land contours in order to maintain a steady flow of water. For about 50 miles (80 km) the aqueduct was underground in a covered trench, and only for the last 7 miles (11 km) was it carried aboveground on an arcade. In fact, most of the combined length of the aqueducts supplying Rome (about 260 miles [420 km]) was built as covered trenches or tunnels. When crossing a valley, aqueducts were supported by arcades comprising one or more levels of massive granite piers and impressive arches.

The aqueducts ended in Rome at distribution reservoirs, from which the water was conveyed to public baths or fountains. A few very wealthy or privileged citizens had water piped directly into their homes, but most of the people carried water in containers from a public fountain. Water was running constantly, the excess being used to clean the streets and flush the sewers. Ancient aqueducts and pipelines were not capable of withstanding much pressure. Channels were constructed of cut stone, brick, rubble, or rough concrete. Pipes were typically made of drilled stone or of hollowed wooden logs, although clay and lead pipes were also used.

During the Middle Ages there was no notable progress in the methods or materials used to convey and distribute water. Cast-iron pipes with joints capable of withstanding high pressures were not used very much until the early 19th century. The steam engine was first applied to water pumping operations at about that time, making it possible for all but the smallest communities to have drinking water supplied directly to individual homes. Asbestos cement, ductile iron, reinforced concrete, and steel came into use as materials for water supply pipelines in the 20 th

century.”

5.2.2 Developments in Water TreatmentIn addition to quantity of supply, water quality is also of concern. Even the ancients had an appreciation for the importance of water purity. Sanskrit writings from as early as 2000 BC tell how to purify foul water by boiling and filtering. But it was not until the middle of the 19th century that a direct link between polluted water and disease (cholera) was proved. And it was not until the end of that same century that the German bacteriologist Robert Koch proved the germ theory of disease, establishing a scientific basis for the treatment and sanitation of drinking water.

Water treatment is the alteration of a water source in order to achieve a quality that meets specified goals. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, the main goal was elimination of deadly waterborne diseases. The treatment of public


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drinking water to remove pathogenic, or disease-causing, micro organisms began about that time. Treatment methods included sand filtration as well as the use of chlorine for disinfection. The virtual elimination of diseases such as cholera and typhoid in developed countries proved the success of this water treatment technology.

In developing countries, waterborne disease is still the principal water quality concern. In industrialized nations, however, concern has shifted to the chronic health effects related to chemical contamination. For example, trace amounts of certain synthetic organic substances in drinking water are suspected of causing cancer in humans. The added goal of reducing such health risks is seen in the continually increasing number of factors included in drinking-water standards.

5.3 Water Sources

5.3.1 Global Distribution of WaterWater is present in abundant quantities on and under the Earth's surface, but less than 1 percent of it is liquid fresh water. Most of the Earth's estimated 326 million cubic miles (1.4 billion cubic km) of water is in the oceans or is frozen in polar ice caps and glaciers. Ocean water contains about 4.5 ounces per gallon (35 grams per litre) of dissolved minerals or salts, making it unfit for drinking and for most industrial or agricultural uses.

There is ample fresh water (containing less than one-eighth ounce of salts per gallon, or less than 3 grams of salts per litre) to satisfy all human needs. It is not always available, though, at the times and places it is needed, and it is not uniformly distributed over the Earth. In many locations the availability of good-quality water is further reduced because of urban development, industrial growth, and environmental pollution.

5.3.2 Surface and Ground WaterSurface water and groundwater are both important sources for community water supply needs. Groundwater is a common source for single homes and small towns, and rivers and lakes are the usual sources for large cities. Although approximately 98 percent of liquid fresh water exists as groundwater, much of it occurs very deep in the Earth. This makes pumping very expensive, preventing the full development and use of all groundwater resources.

Surface water sources

The total land area that contributes surface runoff to a river or lake is called a watershed, river basin, or catchment area. The volume of water available for municipal supply depends mostly on the amount of rainfall. It also depends on the size of the watershed, the slope of the ground, the type of soil and vegetation, and the type of land use.

The flow rate or discharge of a river varies with time. Higher flow rates typically occur in the spring, and lower flow rates in the winter. When the average discharge of a river is not enough for a dependable supply of water, a conservation reservoir may be built. The flow of water is blocked by a dam, allowing an artificial lake to be formed. Conservation reservoirs store water from wet-weather periods for use during times of drought and low stream flow. A water intake structure is built within the


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reservoir, with inlet ports and valves at several depths. Since the quality of water in a reservoir varies seasonally with depth, a multilevel intake allows water of best quality to be withdrawn. Sometimes it is advisable, for economic reasons, to provide a multipurpose reservoir. A multipurpose reservoir is designed to satisfy a combination of community water needs. In addition to drinking water, the reservoir may also provide flood control, hydroelectric power, and recreation.

Groundwater sources

The value of an aquifer as a source of groundwater is a function of the porosity of the geologic stratum, or layer, of which it is formed. Water is withdrawn from an aquifer by pumping it out of a well or infiltration gallery. An infiltration gallery typically includes several horizontal perforated pipes radiating outward from the bottom of a large-diameter vertical shaft. Wells are constructed in several ways, depending on the depth and nature of the aquifer. Wells used for public water supplies, usually more than 100 feet (30 metres) deep and from 4 to 12 inches (10 to 30 cm) in diameter, must penetrate large aquifers that can provide dependable yields of good-quality water. They are drilled using impact or rotary techniques and are usually lined with a metal pipe or casing to prevent contamination. The annular space around the outside of the upper portion of the casing is filled with cement grout, and a special sanitary seal is installed at the top to provide further protection. At the bottom of the casing, a slotted screen is attached to strain silt and sand out of the groundwater. A submersible pump driven by an electric motor can be used to raise the water to the surface. Sometimes a deep well may penetrate a confined artesian aquifer, in which case natural hydrostatic pressure can raise the water to the surface.

5.4 Drinking-Water Quality

5.4.1 IntroductionWater has such a strong tendency to dissolve other substances that it is rarely found in nature in a pure condition. When it falls as rain, small amounts of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide become dissolved in it. Raindrops also carry tiny dust particles and other substances. As it flows over the ground, water picks up fine soil particles, microbes, organic material, and soluble minerals. In lakes, bogs, and swamps, water may gain colour, taste, and odour from decaying vegetation and other natural organic matter. Groundwater usually acquires more dissolved minerals than does surface runoff because of its longer direct contact with soil and rock. It may also absorb gases such as hydrogen sulphide and methane. In populated areas the quality of surface water as well as groundwater is directly influenced by human activities and the effects of pollution.

5.4.2 Drinking-Water Quality: Health ConcernsFive general types of impurities are of public health5 concern. These are organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals, turbidity, micro organisms, and radioactive substances. Organic contaminants include various pesticides, industrial solvents, and trihalomethanes such as chloroform. Inorganic contaminants of major concern include arsenic, nitrate, fluoride, and toxic metals such as lead and mercury. All these substances can harm human health when present above certain concentrations in

5 See the appendix of this handbook for a definition and a detailed description of public health.


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drinking water. A low concentration of fluoride, however, has been proved to promote dental health. Some communities add fluoride to their water for this purpose.Turbidity refers to cloudiness caused by very small particles of silt, clay, and other substances suspended in water. Even a slight degree of turbidity in drinking water is objectionable to most people. Turbidity also interferes with disinfection by creating a possible shield for pathogenic organisms. Groundwater normally has very low turbidity owing to the natural filtration that occurs as it percolates through the soil. Surface waters, though, are often high in turbidity.The most important microbiological measure of drinking-water quality is a group of bacteria called coliforms. Coliform bacteria normally are not pathogenic, but they are always present in the intestinal tract of humans and are excreted in very large numbers with human waste. Water contaminated with human waste always contains coliforms, and it is also likely to contain pathogens excreted by infected individuals in the community. Since it is easier to test for the presence of coliforms rather than for specific types of pathogens, coliforms are used as indicator organisms for measuring the biological quality of water. If coliforms are not found in the water, it can be assumed that the water is also free of pathogens. The coliform count thus reflects the chance of pathogens being present. The lower the coliform count, the less likely it is that pathogens are in the water.Radioactive materials from natural as well as industrial sources can be harmful water contaminants. Wastes from uranium mining, nuclear power plants, and medical research are possible pollutants. Strontium-90 and tritium are radioactive contaminants that have been found in water as a result of nuclear weapons testing. Naturally occurring substances such as radium and radon gas are found in some groundwater sources. The danger from dissolved radon gas arises not from drinking the water but from breathing the gas after it is released into the air.

5.4.3 Aesthetic Concerns (Taste, Colour, Odour)Colour, taste, and odour are physical characteristics of drinking water that are important for aesthetic reasons rather than for health reasons. Colour in water may be caused by decaying leaves or algae, giving it a brownish yellow hue. Taste and odour may be caused by naturally occurring dissolved organics or gases. Some well-water supplies, for example, have a rotten-egg odour caused by hydrogen sulphide gas. Chemical impurities associated with the aesthetic quality of drinking water include iron, manganese, copper, zinc, and chloride. Dissolved metals impart a bitter taste to water and may stain laundry and plumbing fixtures. Excessive chlorides give the water an objectionable salty taste.

5.4.4 Drinking Water Quality: HardnessAnother parameter of water quality is hardness. This is a term used to describe the effect of dissolved minerals (mostly calcium and magnesium). Minerals cause deposits of scale in hot water pipes, and they also interfere with the lathering action of soap. Hard water does not harm human health, but the economic problems it causes make it objectionable to most people.

5.4.5 Water Quality StandardsWater quality standards set limits on the concentrations of impurities allowed in water. Standards also affect the selection of raw water sources and the choice of treatment processes. The development of water quality standards began in the


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United States in the early 20th century. Since that time, the total number of regulated contaminants has increased as toxicological knowledge and analytical measurement techniques have improved. Modern testing methods now allow the detection of contaminants in extremely low concentrations—as low as one part contaminant per one billion parts water or even, in some cases, per one trillion parts water. Water quality standards are continually evolving, usually becoming more stringent. As a result, the number of regulated contaminants increases over time, and their allowable concentrations in water are lowered.Drinking-water regulations include two types of standards: primary and secondary. Primary standards are designed to protect public health, whereas secondary standards are based on aesthetic factors rather than on health effects. Primary standards specify maximum contaminant levels for many chemical, microbiological, and radiological parameters of water quality. They reflect the best available scientific and engineering judgment and take into account exposure from other sources in the environment and from foods. Turbidity is also included in the primary standards because of its tendency to interfere with disinfection. Secondary standards are guidelines or suggested maximum levels of colour, taste, odour, hardness, corrosiveness, and certain other factors.

5.5 Water Requirements

5.5.1 IntroductionMunicipal water supply systems include facilities for storage, transmission, treatment, and distribution. The design of these facilities depends on the quality of the water, on the particular needs of the user or consumer, and on the quantities of water that must be processed.

5.5.2 Municipal Water ConsumptionWater consumption in a community is characterized by several types of demand, including domestic, public, commercial, and industrial uses. Domestic demand includes water for drinking, cooking, washing, laundering, and other household functions. Public demand includes water for fire protection, street cleaning, and use in schools and other public buildings. Commercial and industrial demands include water for stores, offices, hotels, laundries, restaurants, and most manufacturing plants. There is usually a wide variation in total water demand among different communities. This variation depends on population, geographic location, climate, the extent of local commercial and industrial activity, and the cost of water.Water use or demand is expressed numerically by average daily consumption per capita (per person). In the United States the average is approximately 380 litres per capita per day for domestic and public needs. Overall the average total demand is about 680 litres per capita per day, when commercial and industrial water uses are included. (These figures do not include withdrawals from freshwater sources for such purposes as crop irrigation or cooling operations at electric power-generating facilities.) Water consumption in some developing countries may average as little as 15 litres per capita per day. The world average is estimated to be approximately 60 litres per person per day.6

6 In many low income areas in Kenya, daily per capita water consumption ranges between 7 and 25 litres.


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In any community, water demand varies on a seasonal, daily, and hourly basis. On a hot summer day, for example, it is not unusual for total water consumption to be as much as 200 percent of the average demand. The peak demands in residential areas usually occur in the morning and early evening hours (just before and after the normal workday). Water demands in commercial and industrial districts, though, are usually uniform during the working day. Minimum water demands typically occur in the very early or predawn morning hours. Civil and environmental engineers must carefully study each community's water use patterns in order to design efficient pumping and distribution systems.

5.5.3 Water TreatmentWater in rivers or lakes is rarely clean enough for human consumption if it is not first treated or purified. Groundwater, too, often needs some level of treatment to render it potable. The primary objective of water treatment is to protect the health of the community. Potable water must, of course, be free of harmful micro organisms and chemicals, but public supplies should also be aesthetically desirable so that consumers will not be tempted to use water from another, more attractive but unprotected source. The water should be crystal clear, with almost no turbidity, and it should be free of objectionable colour, odour, and taste. For domestic supplies, water should not be corrosive, nor should it deposit troublesome amounts of scale and stains on plumbing fixtures. Industrial requirements may be even more stringent. many industries provide special treatment on their own premises.The type and extent of treatment required to obtain potable water depends on the quality of the source. The better the quality, the less treatment is needed. Surface water usually needs more extensive treatment than does groundwater, because most streams, rivers, and lakes are polluted to some extent. Even in areas remote from human populations, surface water contains suspended silt, organic material, decaying vegetation, and microbes from animal wastes. Groundwater, on the other hand, is usually free of microbes and suspended solids because of natural filtration as the water moves through soil, though it often contains relatively high concentrations of dissolved minerals from its direct contact with soil and rock.Water is treated in a variety of physical and chemical methods. Treatment of surface water begins with intake screens to prevent fish and debris from entering the plant and damaging pumps and other components. Conventional treatment of water primarily involves clarification and disinfection (as shown in the figure). Clarification removes most of the turbidity, making the water crystal clear. Disinfection, usually the final step in the treatment of drinking water, destroys pathogenic microbes. Groundwater does not often need clarification, but it should be disinfected as a precaution to protect public health. In addition to clarification and disinfection, the processes of softening, aeration, carbon adsorption, and fluoridation may be used for certain public water sources. Desalination processes are used in areas where freshwater supplies are not readily available. (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe edition, CD-Rom, keyword: Municipal water supply). The various phases of the water treatment process are discussed in the Appendix.


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6 The Distribution Network

6.1 Introduction - The following text (see paragraphs 6.1 – 6.6) on the water distribution network

has been copied from the Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003 (Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, key word: Municipal water supply).

According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica: “A water distribution system is a network of pumps, pipelines, storage tanks, and other appurtenances. It must deliver adequate quantities of water at pressures sufficient for operating plumbing fixtures and fire-fighting equipment, yet it must not deliver water at pressures high enough to increase the occurrence of leaks and pipeline breaks. Pressure-regulating valves may be installed to reduce pressure levels in low-lying service areas. More than half the cost of a municipal water supply system is for the distribution network.

The pipeline system of a municipal water distribution network consists of arterial water mains or primary feeders, which convey water from the treatment plant to areas of major water use in the community, and smaller-diameter pipelines called secondary feeders, which tie in to the mains. Usually not less than 6 inches (150 mm) in diameter, these pipelines are placed within the public right-of-way so that service connections can be made for all potential water users. The pipelines are usually arranged in a gridiron pattern that allows water to circulate in interconnected loops. this permits any broken sections of pipe to be isolated for repair without disrupting service to large areas of the community. “Dead-end” patterns may also be used, but they do not permit circulation, and the water they provide is more susceptible to taste and odour problems because of stagnation.

A water distribution pipeline must be able to resist internal and external forces, as well as corrosion. Pipes are placed under stress by internal water pressure, by the weight of the overlying soil, and by vehicles passing above. They may have to withstand water-hammer forces. These occur when valves are closed too rapidly, causing pressure waves to surge through the system. In addition, metal pipes may rust internally if the water supply is corrosive or externally because of corrosive soil conditions.”

6.2 Materials“Distribution pipes are made of asbestos cement, cast iron, ductile iron, plastic, reinforced concrete, or steel. Although not as strong as iron, asbestos cement, because of its corrosion resistance and ease of installation, is a desirable material for secondary feeders up to 16 inches (41 cm) in diameter. Pipe sections are easily joined with a coupling sleeve and rubber-ring gasket. Cast iron has an excellent record of service, with many installations still functioning after 100 years. Ductile iron, a stronger and more elastic type of cast iron, is used in newer installations. Iron pipes are provided in diameters up to 48 inches (122 cm) and are usually coated to prevent corrosion. Underground sections are connected with bell-and-spigot joints, the spigot end of one pipe section being pushed into the bell end of an adjacent section. A rubber-ring gasket in the bell end is compressed when the two sections are joined, creating a watertight, flexible connection. Flanged and bolted joints are used for aboveground installations.


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The use of plastic pipes is increasing. Available in diameters up to 24 inches (61 cm), they are lightweight and easily installed. They are also corrosion-resistant, and their smoothness provides good hydraulic characteristics. Plastic pipes are connected either by a bell-and-spigot compression-type joint or by threaded screw couplings.

Pre-cast reinforced concrete pipe sections up to 12 feet (366 cm) in diameter are used for arterial mains. Reinforced concrete pipes are strong and durable. They are joined using a bell-and-spigot-type connection that is sealed with cement mortar. Steel pipe is sometimes used for arterial mains in aboveground installations. It is very strong and lighter than concrete pipe, but it must be protected against corrosion by lining the interior and by painting and wrapping the exterior. Sections of steel pipe are joined by welding or with mechanical coupling devices.”

6.3 Fittings“In order to function properly, a water distribution system requires several types of fittings, including hydrants, shut-off valves, and other appurtenances. The main purpose of hydrants is to provide water for fire fighting. They also are used for flushing water mains, pressure testing, water sampling, and washing debris off public streets.

Many types of valves are used to control the quantity and direction of water flow. Gate valves are usually installed throughout the pipe network. They allow sections to be shutoff and isolated during the repair of broken mains, pumps, or hydrants. A type of valve commonly used for throttling and controlling the rate of flow is the butterfly valve. Other valves used in water distribution systems include pressure-reducing valves, check valves, and air-release valves.”

6.4 Installation“Water mains must be placed 3 to 6 feet (91 to 183 cm) below the ground surface to protect against traffic loads and to prevent freezing. Since the water in a distribution system is under pressure, pipelines can follow the shape of the land, uphill as well as downhill. They must be installed with proper bedding and backfill. Compaction of soil layers under the pipe (bedding) as well as above the pipe (backfill) is necessary to provide proper support. A water main should never be installed in the same trench with a sewer line. Where the two must cross, the water main should be placed above the sewer line.”

6.5 Pumps“Many kinds of pumps are used in distribution systems. Pumps that lift surface water and move it to a nearby treatment plant are called low-lift pumps. These move large volumes of water at relatively low discharge pressures. Pumps that discharge treated water into arterial mains are called high-lift pumps. These operate under higher pressures. Pumps that increase the pressure within the distribution system or raise water into an elevated storage tank are called booster pumps. Well pumps lift water from underground and discharge it directly into a distribution system.

Most water distribution pumps are of the centrifugal type, in which a rapidly rotating impeller adds energy to the water and raises the pressure inside the pump casing. The flow rate through a centrifugal pump depends on the pressure against which it operates. The higher the pressure, the lower the flow or discharge. Another kind of


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pump is the positive-displacement type. This pump delivers a fixed quantity of water with each cycle of a piston or rotor. The water is literally pushed or displaced from the pump casing. The flow capacity of a positive-displacement pump is unaffected by the pressure of the system in which it operates.”

6.6 Storage Tanks“Distribution storage tanks, familiar sights in many communities, serve two basic purposes: equalizing storage and emergency storage. Equalizing storage is the volume of water needed to satisfy peak hourly demands in the community. During the late night and early morning hours, when water demand is very low, high-lift pumps fill the tank. During the day, when the water demand is high, water flows out of the tank to help satisfy the peak hourly water needs. This allows for a uniform flow rate at the treatment plant and pumping station. The capacity of a distribution storage tank is about equal to the average daily water demand.

Distribution storage tanks are built at ground level on hilltops higher than the service area. In areas with flat topography, the tanks may be elevated above ground on towers in order to provide adequate water pressures, or ground-level storage tanks with booster pumping may be provided.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003 (Deluxe Edition, keyword: Water distribution network)

6.7 Low Pressure, Interruption in Supply and Loss of Water QualityDuring the Operator Training Workshop, it is important to discuss the various causes of low pressure and loss of water quality. The main causes of low pressure and interruptions in supply are:

Prolonged power cuts. Technical problems at the water works (breakdown of a pump, etc.). Major maintenance work at the treatment works or on the distribution network. Leakages. Rationing in times of draught or when the service provider is unable to supply

all town sections at the same time.

The main causes of leaks in the distribution network are: Lack of maintenance and poor quality repair work. The distribution network is old and pipes are rusted or partly broken (in the

case of asbestos pipes). Acts of theft or vandalism (residents wish to have access to treated water). Pipes get damaged as a result of construction work or traffic.

What should a Operator do if he or she is faced with low pressure, prolonged interruption in supply or poor water quality?:

Inform the service provider. Inform his or her clientele. Stop the sale of water if its quality is not good. Waste poor quality water (Operators will have to do and record the meter

reading before and after the necessary the water wastage).


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6.8 The Water Kiosk

6.8.1 The Various Parts of a Water Kiosk Operators will spend a large part of their day at their water kiosk. In order to be able to maintain the kiosk, and to inform the service provider whenever repair or maintenance work is required, they need to know the purpose of each part of the kiosk.

During the training, the trainers or a technical staff member of the service provider will have to point out the functioning and importance of the following parts:

Platform. “Fetching slap (or fetching bay)”. Soak away. Drainage system. Valve(s) and taps. Water meter. The kiosk itself (door, window, shelves, etc.).

It is important to point out how the various parts of the kiosk have to be kept clean and maintained.

6.8.2 The Functioning and Purpose of the Water MeterSince the Operators will be charged on the basis of the meter readings, it is important that they are able to do the meter reading themselves and to calculate the daily or monthly consumption at their kiosk. It is essential to point out:

The meaning of the black figures (cubic metres. 1 m3 = 1,000 litres which is approximately 50 containers of 20 litres of approximately 5 oil drums).

The meaning of the red figures (right of the black figures) or the little round displays (dials) that show the consumption in litres, decilitres (1 decilitre = 10 litres) and hectolitres (1 hectolitre = 100 litres).

For example:

Indicates a consumption of 1440 cubic metres and 120 litres.

If the next meter reading indicates a total consumption of 1452 cubic metres and 358 litres, the consumption between the 2 meter readings has been 12 cubic metres and 238 litres (= 1452.358 m3 - 1440.120 m3).

The Operator has to report a non-functioning meter immediately to the service provider.


M3

0 1 4 4 0 1 2 0

M3

0 1 4 5 2 3 5 8

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7 Water, Hygiene and Public Health

7.1 Introduction According to the WHO 80% of all diseases in the developing world are water-related, of which a significant proportion is attributable to inadequate drinking water supplies and sanitary installations and to the absence of hygiene education.

Having access to treated water reduces the risk of contracting worm infections and a number of diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery and typhoid, water availability is a major factor in facilitating improvements in hygiene practices (washing, bathing etc.) and. According to Boot:

“Water and sanitation-related diseases include various types of diarrhoea, worm infestations, skin and eye diseases and mosquito-borne diseases. Together they form the most frequent cause of illness and death in the developing world. Water and sanitation projects generally aim to reduce these diseases. They thus contribute to: Improving public health and personal well-being. Reducing the costs of curative health services. Higher productivity of school children and working people because less

energy is lost from poor health and illness. Adequate water and sanitation are basic human needs. Water and sanitation projects address these needs, and so help to improve living conditions. New water supplies may result in: Less burden of water collection, reducing the overall workload, especially of

women and children. Time and energy gains used for better family care, schooling and productive

activities. Use of surplus water for small-scale economic activities. (See Boot 1991:1).

Many studies have been carried out to learn more about the relationship between water, sanitation and health. A review of 144 of these studies by Esrey (Esrey et al 1990) shows that demonstrable health impacts affecting all age groups in most of the developing world can be expected from improvements in water supply, sanitation and hygiene.

7.2 Kenya: The Current Water Supply and Public Health Situation The 2003 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (KDHS) shows that:

“Acute respiratory illness, malaria, and dehydration caused by severe diarrhoea are major causes of childhood mortality in Kenya. “ (KDHS 2003 Preliminary Report: 20)

The KHDS also concludes:“Diarrhoea can cause dehydration, a leading cause of illness and death among children in Kenya. During the two weeks before the survey, 16 percent of Kenyan children under five had diarrhoea. The rate was highest (29 percent) among children 6 to 11 months old. Diarrhoeal disease is least common in Central Province and most common in Western Province. Diarrhoea occurs least often


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among children who drink rainwater or bottled water.” (KDHS 2003, Key Findings: 8)7

Numerous studies show that poor water supply and sanitation are the main causes of diarrhoea typhoid and cholera.

Many households in Kenya do not have access to adequate water supply and sanitation. Table 7.1 shows the sources of water used by households.

Table 7.1: Sources of water used by households

No. Source of water Households %

1 Pond 286,237 4.49

2 Dam 137,772 2.16

3 Lake 94,230 1.48

4 Stream/river 1,731,675 27.18

5 Spring 753,864 11.83

6 Well 843,821 13.21

7 Borehole 505,857 7.94

8 Piped system 1,944,424 30.52

9 Jabias/tank 73,490 1.15

Total: 6,371,370 100

Source: CBS: January 2001: 7-1)

Many households in Kenya depend on streams, rivers, lakes and dams as far as their water supply is concerned. A significant percentage of the Kenyan population still has to draw water directly from shallow wells, windlass wells or hand dug yard wells. Table 7.1 shows that approximately half the Kenyan population (49.71%) still depends on sources of unsafe water. The fact that other households use sources of safe water (piped systems, springs and boreholes) does not mean, however, that their supply is adequate. The distance to the taps which is used by households, the tariff may prevent these households from fetching the required minimum quantities. Moreover, water fetched from springs and boreholes, especially in urban areas, often does not meet quality standards.

Among the provinces, Nairobi Province has the highest proportion of households with access to clean (safe) water, 94 percent, followed by Coast and Western

7 According to the 2003 KDHS Key Findings Report: “The level of under-five mortality was 114 deaths per 1,000 births during the five-year period before the 2003 KDHS survey, implying that 1 in every 9 children born in Kenya during the period died before reaching their fifth birthday. The infant mortality rate recorded in the survey was 78 deaths per 1,000 lives births.

Comparison of mortality rates recorded in 2003 KDHS with the earlier KDHS surveys shows an increase in both infant and under five mortality rates from 1989 to 2003. For example, the infant mortality rate increased by 30 percent from 60 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1989 to 78 in 2003. Similarly, under-five-mortality rate increased by 30 percent within the same period. The trend depicts continued deterioration in the quality of life amongst the Kenyan population over the last 20 years.” (KDHS 2003, Key Findings Report: 7)


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Provinces, 61 percent. North-Eastern Province clearly has the lowest percentage of households with access to safe sources of water (29%) (see also Table 7.2).

Table 7.2: Sources of water used by Kenyan Households (rural and urban) (Source: CBS, January 2001: 7-1)

7.3 Water Wastage and its Potential Impact upon Public Health The knowledge that many low income urban residents have no access to safe water becomes especially frustrating if one considers that a lot of treated water produced by the WSPs is wasted. In some towns water wastage ranges between 20 and 50% of the total volume of water produced. Water is wasted because there are leaks in the distribution network, but also because residents (especially residents who pay a flat rate or who receive water free of charge) are not motivated to replace broken taps or the pipes within their yard and do not see the need to close their taps, or to fix a leaking toilet.

In some low income urban areas residents, in their attempt to get access to clean water, have vandalised the rising main running through the compound and public taps are not maintained and often lack a closable tap.

Water wastage can have serious implications for low income residents and as a result it can have a negative impact upon public health8:

If water is wasted in one area, it often means that some other areas have insufficient pressure and residents are unable to fetch the quantities they require.

8 See the appendix for a definition and a detailed description of public health.


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If water is wasted, the resulting (mud) pools often represent a health hazard as they are a breeding place for worms, mosquito’s and disease causing bacteria.

In case water wastage is caused by a leak, polluted wasted water can also “contaminate” treated water in the distribution network, especially when the water pressure is low.

7.4 The Public Health Objectives of the Service ProviderOne of the objectives the WSPs should aim to achieve is to make a significant contribution to an improved public health situation in the low income urban areas. Improving water supply should help to improve living conditions and prevent water and sanitation-related diseases.

With the introduction of a kiosk system, the service provider should achieve a number of important health objectives:

In principle, every low income resident should have access to at least 20 litres of safe water a day, as recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO).

Residents use treated water for drinking and preparing meals. Water wastage is reduced. The public health situation in the low income areas is improved. Outbreaks of diseases such as typhoid and cholera can be prevented. Residents spend less on curative health measures treatment of water-related

diseases. Water is fetched in a clean environment. Residents are aware of the correlation between hygiene, health certain

diseases and the consumption of (polluted/contaminated) water. The quality of life in the area is improved through improved water supply and

water quality and through better health and hygiene practices.

It is important to emphasise, that the service provider also intends to achieve a financial/commercial objective, which is closely linked to the social/public health objective. If water supply is to become a sustainable activity, the service provider has to be able to cover its costs (personnel, chemicals, electricity, etc.). This implies that every client, including clients in the low income areas, have to pay for the water they consume. Instead of paying a flat rate, which results in water wastage, customers have to pay for every container or cubic metre they consume.


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8 Description of Some Water-Related DiseasesIn what follows a description is given of some of the main water-related diseases that occur or can occur in the low income areas of Kenya.

8.1 BacteriaMany water-related diseases, such as cholera and some forms of diarrhoea are caused by bacteria. According to the Encarta Encyclopedia (1996 edition) bacteria (Greek bakterion, “little staff”), constitute a:

“Large group of mostly microscopic, unicellular organisms that lack a distinct nucleus and that usually reproduce by cell division.Bacteria are tiny, most ranging from 1 to 10 micrometers (1 micrometer equals 1/25,000 in), and are extremely variable in the ways they obtain energy and nourishment. They can be found in nearly all environments—from air, soil, water, and ice to hot springs. even the hydrothermal vents on the deep ocean floor are the home of sulphur-metabolizing bacteria. Certain types are found in nearly all food products, and bacteria also occur in various forms of symbiosis with most plants and animals and other kinds of life. (Microsoft® Encarta® 96 Encyclopedia.9).

The Encyclopaedia Britannica provides the following description of Bacteria: “Bacteria can be found in all natural environments, often in extremely large numbers. As a group, they display exceedingly diverse metabolic capabilities and use almost any organic compound, and even some inorganic salts, as a food source. Some bacteria cause disease in humans, animals, or plants, but most are harmless or beneficial ecological agents whose metabolic activities sustain higher life forms. Without bacteria, soil would not be fertile, and dead organic material would decay much more slowly. Some bacteria are widely used in the preparation of foods, chemicals, and antibiotics.In a sense, bacteria are the dominant living creatures on Earth, having been present for perhaps three-quarters of Earth history and having adapted to almost all available ecological habitats. Studies of the relationships among different groups of bacteria continue to yield new insights into the origin of life on Earth and the directions of evolution.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, keyword: Bacteria).

8.2 DiarrhoeaDiarrhoea:

“Also spelled diarrhoea abnormally swift passage of waste material through the large intestine, with consequent discharge of loose faeces from the anus. Diarrhoea may be accompanied by cramping. The disorder has a wide range of causes. It may, for example, result from bacterial or viral infection, from dysentery, either amoebic or bacillary, from impaired absorption of nutrients,

9 © 1993-1995 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. © Funk & Wagnalls Corporation. All rights reserved.


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from eating coarse or highly seasoned foods or drinking large quantities of alcoholic beverages, from poisons such as arsenic or mercury bichloride or from drugs administered to reduce high blood pressure. Excessive amounts of thyroid hormones, parathyroid hormone deficiencies, irritable bowel syndrome, and uremia (an excess of nitrogenous wastes in the blood) all may cause diarrhoea. Most cases of diarrhoea are not serious and do not require treatment. Dehydration can be prevented by drinking plenty of clear liquids. Diarrhoea caused by an infection can often be treated with antibiotics.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, keyword: Diarrhoea).

8.3 CholeraCholera is an:

“Acute bacterial infection of the small intestine caused by Vibrio cholerae and characterized by massive diarrhoea with rapid and severe depletion of body fluids and salts. Cholera often rises to epidemic proportions in Southeast Asia, particularly in India and Pakistan, having been responsible for at least 370,000 deaths in India in the period from 1898 to 1907. In the 1980s and 1990s cholera spread among the crowded refugee camps and city slums of famine-stricken countries in Africa, particularly Ethiopia and The Sudan. Following a 70-year absence from the Western Hemisphere, there was a major outbreak of cholera in Peru in 1991.The vibrio enters the body via the mouth, usually in contaminated water or foods, and causes an infection in the mucous membranes lining the lumen of the small intestine. The diarrhoea is caused by the action of the Vibrio cholerae toxin in the intestine. This toxin combines with a substance in the cells of the intestinal wall, activating an enzyme system that causes the rapid excretion of body fluids containing bicarbonate and sodium.After an incubation period of 12 to 28 hours, the disease usually starts with abrupt, painless, watery diarrhoea that may amount to a volume of 15 to 20 litres or more in 24 hours. This purging diarrhoea is soon followed by vomiting, and the patient rapidly becomes dehydrated, the skin becomes cold and withered, and the face is drawn, the blood pressure falls, and the pulse becomes faint. Muscular cramps maybe severe, and thirst intense. As dehydration increases, the person becomes stuporous and comatose and may die in shock. The disease ordinarily runs its course in two to seven days.With prompt fluid and salt repletion, which is accomplished by the oral or intravenous administration of an alkaline solution of sodium chloride, recovery can be remarkably rapid, but if therapy is inadequate, the mortality rate is high. The administration of antibiotics during the first day of treatment usually shortens the period of diarrhoea and decreases the requirement for fluid replacement.The prevention of cholera outbreaks rests upon better sanitation, particularly the use of clean drinking water. Immunization with a vaccine of killed vibrio bacteria provides partial protection in individuals for a limited time, but its use on a massive scale does not prevent the spread of infection. This can be accomplished only by attacking the source of the infection, usually the water supply.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, keyword: Cholera).


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8.4 DysenteryDysentery is an:

“Infectious disorder characterized by inflammation of the intestine, abdominal pain and straining, and diarrhoea with stools that often contain blood and mucus.There are two major types of dysentery: bacillary and amoebic, caused, respectively, by bacteria and amoebas. Bacillary dysentery, or shigellosis, is caused by bacilli of the genus Shigella. Symptomatically, the disease ranges from a mild attack to a suddenly commencing severe course ending in death caused by dehydration and poisoning by the bacterial toxins. After an incubation period of one to six days, the disease has an abrupt onset with fever and the frequent production of watery stools that may contain blood. Straining and vomiting may also occur, and dehydration soon becomes obvious owing to the copious loss of body fluids. In advanced stages of the disease, chronic ulceration of the large intestine causes the production of bloody stools. The most severe bacillary infections are caused by Shigella shigae (also called S. dysenteriae type 1), which is found chiefly in tropical and subtropical regions. S. flexneri, S. sonnei, and S. boydii are other Shigella bacilli that cause dysentery. The treatment of bacillary dysentery is based on the use of such antibiotic drugs as tetracycline, oxytetracycline, and chlortetracycline. The copious administration of fluids and, in some cases, blood transfusions may be necessary in cases where the patient is severely dehydrated.Amoebic dysentery, or intestinal amoebiasis, is caused by the protozoan Entamoeba histolytica. This form of dysentery is usually much more chronic and insidious than is the bacillary disease and is more difficult to treat because the causative organism occurs in two forms, a motile one and a cyst, each of which produces a different disease course. The motile form causes acute dysentery, the symptoms of which resemble those of bacillary dysentery. The cyst form produces a chronic illness marked by intermittent episodes of diarrhoea and stomach cramps or other abdominal pains. Bloody stools occur in some patients. The chronic type is much the more common of the two and is marked by frequent remissions and exacerbations of symptoms. The chronic form may also produce ulcerations of the large intestine. Both forms of amoebic dysentery are treated with emetine, diodoquin, and other drugs that specifically kill the amoebic parasites that thrive in the intestines.The transmission of both bacterial and amoebic dysentery occurs through the ingestion of food or water that have been contaminated by the faeces of a human carrier of the infective organism. The transmission is often by infected individuals who handle food with unwashed hands. The spread of amoebic dysentery is often accomplished by people who are carriers of the disease but who currently show no symptoms. Dysentery is commonly found when people are crowded together and have access only to primitive sanitary facilities. It is one of the typical diseases found in prisoner-of-war camps, especially those in tropical climates.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, keyword: Dysentery).


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8.5 TyphoidTyphoid:

“Also called typhoid fever acute infectious disease of humans caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi. The bacterium usually enters the body through the mouth by the ingestion of contaminated food or water, penetrates the intestinal wall, and multiplies in lymphoid tissue there. it first enters into the bloodstream within 24 to 72 hours, causing septicemia (blood poisoning) and systemic infection.After an average 10–14 day incubation period, the early symptoms of typhoid appear: headache, lassitude, generalized aching, fever, and restlessness that may interfere with sleep. There may be loss of appetite, nosebleeds, cough, and diarrhoea or constipation. Persistent fever develops and gradually rises, usually in a stepwise fashion, reaching a peak of 103° or 104° F (39.4° or 40° C) after 7–10 days and continuing with only slight morning remissions for another 10–14 days. During the first few days of the disease the patient may remain ambulatory.During about the second week of fever, when typhoid bacilli are present in great numbers in the bloodstream, a rash of small, rose-coloured spots appears on the trunk, lasts four or five days, and then fades away. The lymph follicles (Peyer's patches) along the intestinal wall in which the typhoid bacilli have multiplied become inflamed and necrotic and may slough off, leaving ulcers in the walls of the bowel. The dead fragments of bowel tissue may erode blood vessels, causing a haemorrhage into the bowel, or they may perforate the bowel wall, allowing the bowel's contents to enter the peritoneal cavity (peritonitis). Other complications can include acute inflammation of the gall bladder, heart failure, pneumonia, osteomyelitis, encephalitis, and meningitis. With a continued high fever the symptoms usually increase in intensity, and mental confusion and delirium may appear.By the end of the third week the patient is prostrated and emaciated, his abdominal symptoms are marked, and mental disturbance is prominent. In favourable cases, during about the beginning of the fourth week, the fever begins to decline, the symptoms begin to abate, and the temperature gradually returns to normal. If untreated, typhoid proves fatal in up to 25 percent of all cases.Most major epidemics of typhoid have been caused by the pollution of public water supplies. Food and milk may be contaminated, however, by a carrier of the disease who is employed in handling and processing them, by flies or by the use of polluted water for cleaning purposes. Shellfish, particularly oysters, grown in polluted water and fresh vegetables grown on soil fertilized or contaminated by untreated sewage are dangerous. The prevention of typhoid fever depends mainly on proper sewage treatment, filtration and chlorination of water, and the exclusion of carriers from employment in food industries and restaurants. In the early part of the 20th century, prophylactic vaccination using killed typhoid organisms was introduced, mainly in military forces and institutions, and contributed to a lowering of the incidence of the disease.The treatment of typhoid formerly was entirely symptomatic and supportive. After 1948 treatment with antibiotics, particularly with chloramphenicol, proved to be effective. Chloramphenicol begins to lower the patient's fever within three or four days after beginning therapy, and there is progressive improvement


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thereafter. The drug treatment is continued for several weeks in order to prevent relapses. Ampicillin, often in combination with other drugs, is an effective alternate treatment.About 30 percent of typhoid cases become transient carriers of the disease, excreting the causative bacteria in the stool or urine for weeks or months. About 5 percent remain long-term carriers, harbouring the microorganisms and shedding them for years. In these carriers, who show no apparent ill effects, the bacilli are found mainly in the gallbladder and biliary passages. The bacteria may be excreted continuously or intermittently. One of the most famous instances of carrier-borne disease in medical history was the early 20th-century case of Typhoid Mary (q.v.).” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, and keyword: Typhoid).

8.6 Common Worm InfectionsThis section contains some information on common worm infections:

“The worm Ascaris lumbricoides causes one of the most prevalent infections in the world. It lives in the soil and its eggs are ingested with contaminated food. The eggs hatch in the human intestine and the worms then travel through the bloodstream to the liver, heart, and lungs. They can cause pneumonia, perforations of the intestine, or blockage of the bile ducts, but infected people usually have no symptoms beyond the passage of worms in the stool. Specific treatment is available and prognosis is excellent.Infections are also caused by whipworms, genus Trichuris, and pinworms, Enterobiusvermicularis, each popularly named for its shape. The former is parasitic in the human large intestine and may cause chronic diarrhea. The latter can be found throughout the gastrointestinal tract, especially in children, and can cause poor appetite, loss of weight, anemia, and itching in the anal area (where it lays its eggs). Both conditions are easily diagnosed and treated with drugs.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, keywords: Worm infections and infections).

8.7 Pollution of Water by Chemical Substances Consuming water that has been polluted by chemical substances, for instance, fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, oil-products, heavy metals (which can be found in batteries) can be harmful to a person’s health.


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9 Improving Public Health: the Contribution of the Kiosk Operators

9.1 Introduction When discussing the linkages between:

hardware, for instance a ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP) or a water supply facility such as a kiosk .

and software, for instance, a hygiene campaign aimed at changing existing practices.

Boot argues that: “To maximize potential benefits of water supply and sanitation projects, technical and behavioural measures must go hand in hand. Benefits of a safe water supply will easily be lost if water is not collected and handled in such a way as to prevent contamination before it is drunk. …. Hygiene education is meant to help establish the link between improved facilities and user practices. Table 2 presents a summary of basic measures, which help to prevent water and sanitation-related diseases. … Personal hygiene in Table 2 refers to water (and soap or substitute) used for cleaning the body, including bathing and washing the eyes, face, and hands. Domestic hygiene refers to the use of water in keeping the home clean, as well as cleansing those components of the home environment that are related to disease transmission (e.g. clothes, utensils, floors, counter tops, or towels). The category ‘personal and domestic hygiene’ also includes the safe collection transportation, storage and use of drinking water. In the case of schistosomiasis, water and domestic hygiene relates to reduced human contact with infected water and increased use of improved water supplies for bathing and washing.” (Esrey et al, 1990).” (Boot 1991: 3)

Table 9.1 shows the ways in which water and sanitation-related diseases can be prevented.

Table 9.1: Prevention of transmission of water and sanitation-related diseases (1)Disease Safe drinking

waterSafe excreta

disposalPersonal and

domestic hygiene (2)Food

hygieneWaste water disposal

and drainage

Diarrhoeas Poliomyelitis and Hepatitis A Worm infections: Ascaris, Trichuris

Hookworm Pinworm, Dwarf tape

worm

Other Tapeworms Schistosomiasis Guinea worm

Skin infections Eye infections Insect-transmitted diseases:

Malaria Urban Yellow fever,

dengue (3)

1): See Boot 1991: 3, Table 1), based upon WHO (1983), Esrey et al (1990) and Cairncross and Ouano (1991). 2): Personal and domestic hygiene often require the use of more water 3): Vectors breed in water storage containers Importance of preventing disease transmission: high, medium, low to negligible


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9.2 Keeping the Kiosk Clean: The Important Role of the Kiosk OperatorIt is very important that during the training programme the new Water Kiosk Operators become aware that they will play a crucial role in the achievement of the above-mentioned public health objectives of the service provider.

The Operators will play an important role in the prevention of water-related diseases and, consequently, in the improvement of public health situation (see the appendix of this handbook for a definition and description of public health) in the low income areas where the service provider has introduced or is planning to introduce a kiosk system. The contribution of the Operators can be divided into 3 tasks or responsibilities:

Keeping the kiosk and its surroundings clean. Sensitising the population and their clientele in particular on the way in which

the main product of the service provider has to be used. Assisting the service provider or the Public Health Officer in case of an

emergency (for instance an outbreak of cholera).

The objective of keeping the kiosk and its surrounding clean is twofold:

Preventing that water gets contaminated.

Preventing that the kiosk, its platform, the soakaway and the immediate surroundings of the kiosk become a “source” of diseases.

What should Operators do?:1) The Operator should, by keeping his or her kiosk and its surroundings clean

and (the platform) as dry as possible, prevent the contamination of the water which is sold. If a kiosk is dirty, it easily becomes a breeding place of bacteria and other pathogens (such as worms). These pathogens may contaminate the water which is being sold at the kiosk, if they get in contact with the containers customers use to fetch water. Water can be used to clean the platform and the kiosk, but pools of stagnant water should be prevented. Cleaning the kiosk and its surroundings is an important measure to prevent the contamination of water through organic materials such as mango peels, sugarcane chews, etc.

All these measures are aimed at preventing the bacteriological contamination of water. In addition to bacteriological pollution, the Operator should try to prevent the pollution of treated water by inorganic and organic chemical substances, such as oil products, fertilisers, pesticides, insecticides, heavy metals from batteries, and other substances that can cause diseases (in the long run or the short run).

2) The water kiosk, like a market, is a place where many people meet . A water kiosk, if not kept clean and dry, can become an environment where disease transmitting or causing insects (flies, mosquitoes and cockroaches), worms and even rats (during the night) spend time or lay their eggs (i.e. the insects and worms). In other words, a dirty kiosk, even if it does not pollute the water that is being sold, can act as a source of diseases or disease transmission. Many children in low income areas do not wear shoes. It is a known fact that infections are often caused when children with small wounds on their feet or other parts of their body, are infected at dirty water outlets and sources.


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Operators should clean their kiosk at least twice a day. Before they start selling water, and whenever the kiosk is becoming dirty. When they knock off, the kiosk should be clean. A clean kiosk is less likely to get polluted and vandalised . Kiosks should be washed with water and the service provider should allow for some “water wastage” so that Operator do not get the impression that they are being charged for the water they have to use for cleaning purposes. If necessary, the kiosk should be cleaned with soap.

During the training it is important to emphasise that Operators will have to purchase items such as brooms, brushes, shovels, gloves and soap themselves.10 However, in order to prevent water wastage, the service provider should purchase a:

Piece of hosepipe (approximately 1 metre). Funnel. Plastic cup (to be used by clients who want to drink at the kiosk) and “Standard” container (to be used to measure water if the Operator has doubts

regarding the volume of the containers used by his or her customers).

9.3 Sensitising Kiosk Clientele on Chains and Barriers

9.3.1 About ChainsCleaning is important, but preventing the kiosk from becoming dirty is equally important. One cannot prevent the kiosk from becoming dirty as a result of normal use, but the Operator can prevent “additional pollution” by sensitising his or her clients.

Operators should, for instance, explain to their clients that they cannot wash their motor bikes or laundry on the kiosk platform or next to the kiosk.

Clients should not bring dirty containers or wash dirty containers at the kiosk. The Operator should tell children not to eat at the kiosk and he or she should

also see to it that after closing hours the kiosk does not become a refuse dump or public toilet.

As in the case of vandalism, Operators should report deliberate pollution of the kiosk to the WSP. The point of departure of each health and hygiene education or sensitisation programme should be the conclusion that water supply and sanitation are in fact chains or sequences of activities , (movements, displacements) that involve various (infra-) structures (treatment works, the distribution network, kiosks, recipients, storage facilities, houses and yards, latrines, windlass wells, etc.), and objects (water, faeces, buckets, clay pots, etc.). To establish possible dangers for public health and the need for sensitisation and education, these sequences should be carefully analysed, in the field, by the sanitation expert and the staff of the service provider responsible for the kiosks. This should be done in order to identify moments or circumstances that may cause water and sanitation related diseases and that, therefore, represent a danger to public health. For example, one chain can be identified for each source of water and the first part of the chain is the quality of the water itself. Toilet facilities represent another

10 In Chipata, Zambia, the Chipata Water and Sewerage Company (CWSC) decided to stop buying these goods for its Operators, as they were often used for private purposes (cleaning the house and the yard of the Operator).


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chain, and faecal material may pollute other environments through being transported by insect, unwashed hands, etc.

9.3.2 BarriersDuring the analysis, barriers or factors to prevent the pollution from occurring will have to be identified. These barriers will have to be the main focus (message) of a health and hygiene programme but Operators, during their training workshop, have to be made aware of these chains and barriers so that they are motivated to clean their kiosks and are able to sensitise their clientele.

9.3.3 Transmission RoutesThere are many transmission routes of water and sanitation-related diseases and the hygiene education of Operators and low income communities should cover a number of these routes. Burgers (et al, 1988) made a shortlist of questions for identifying action points, from which the following has been adapted by Boot (1991: 15): Water source:

Do all children, women and men in the community use safe water sources for drinking, washing clothes and bathing?

Is water used efficiently (not wasted), and is wastewater properly drained? Are improved water sources used with care and well kept? Is there a risk of contamination of water sources from nearby latrines,

wastewater drainage, free ranging cattle or land cultivation?Water collection:

Is drinking water collected in clean recipients, without coming into contact with hands?

Is water transported in a covered container?Water storage:

Is water stored in clean recipients (containers), which are covered and regularly cleaned?

Is drinking water stored in a separate container, if possible?Water drinking:

Is drinking water fetched from a reliable source? Is drinking water taken from the storage vessel in such a way that hands, cups

or other objects cannot contaminate the water?Water use:

Are adequate amounts of water available, transported and used for personal and domestic hygiene? (It is estimated, that some 30 to 40 litres per person per day are needed for personal and domestic hygiene).

Food handling: Are hands washed with soap, before preparing and eating food? Do family members use the same bowl and the same water to wash their

hands? Are vegetables and fruits washed with safe water and is food properly

covered? Are kitchen utensils washed with safe water and left in a clean place?


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Excreta disposal: Do all men, women and children use hygienic means of excreta disposal at

home, at work and at school? Are stools of infants and young children safely disposed of? Do all family members throughout the year use household latrines and are

these regularly cleaned and maintained? Are latrines sited in such a way that the pit contents cannot wash into water

sources or enter the ground water table? Are hand washing facilities and soap available and are hands always

washed after defecation, and after helping babies and little children? Wastewater disposal:

Is household wastewater disposed of or re-used properly? Are measures taken to ensure that wastewater is not left to create breeding

places for mosquitoes and other disease transmission vectors, or to contaminate safe water?

Important: All these questions have to be asked and answered if the service provider intends to plan and implement a health education (HE) programme and some of them (especially the ones concerning the various aspects of water supply and consumption) should be explained in some detail to the Operators during the training programme. This will enable each Operator to sensitise his or her clients by informing them that:

Improved water and sanitation technologies will only lead to health impacts if linked with appropriate behaviour and proper use.

Drinking clean water protects family members from sickness. Protection of water sources and water containers safeguards health. The kiosk and its surroundings have to be kept clean. The kiosk platform should not be used as a public toilet. Women should not wash their laundry next to the kiosk, cars, trucks and

motorbikes should not be washed next to the kiosk, children should not eat at the kiosk and foodstuffs should not be prepared at the kiosk.

Cleanliness at home and in the compound, village or city prevents disease, loss of work days, loss of income, and heavy medical expenses.

Water is precious and sanitation facilities are necessary, and are worth paying for.

Protection of water sources and water containers safeguards health.

Kiosk Operators should also be able to: Show their customers how water has to be fetched, transported, stored and, if

necessary, treated. Explain the importance of treating water that is going to be stored within the

household (treating it with Water Guard11 or boiling it). Explain their clients that they have the right to complain to the service provider

when they consider the hygienic condition of the kiosk to be unsatisfactory.

11 Operators could contribute to a better public health by selling WaterGuard, but also by selling other products such as mosquito nets and condoms.


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The main aim of the sensitisation by Operators is to improve change practices such as drinking water from unsafe sources. The Operator should be aware that his or her effort will receive support from other initiatives such as HE programmes initiated by the service provider and by other organisations and institutions such as the Ministry of Health.

Operators should sensitise their clients, whenever they are being asked questions by clients, whenever they observe practices that represent a threat to public health and when they are asked by the service provider to transmit a certain message or to take part in a sensitisation campaign of health education programme.

According to Boot:

“Behavioural change can gain an important impetus through the support and example of respected persons. If a respected key person is setting the example and promoting certain behaviours, it is likely that more people will follow. The role models may be official leaders such as religious leaders and community representatives, but also individuals who are trusted and consulted for specific problems, or who live the life desired by many people. … The reverse is also true. When hygiene behaviour is promoted by people who have neither status nor influence, it is unlikely that the new behaviour will take root.” (Boot 1991: 13)

Operators in their effort to sensitise their clientele, should try to approach or seek the support of respected persons such as the Community Health Extension Worker (CHEW) members, the Chief or community/church leaders (assuming they are indeed respected by the population) or others. It is even more important that the Operator him- or herself, becomes such a respected person and is considered by his clientele and by the population at large a local expert on water and hygiene matters who is able to give valuable advice. Water is the main product of the service provider and the Operator should be able to, so to say, communicate the product manual and explain how it should be used and how it should not be used. (In addition to other sensitisation and health education efforts the service provider will be engaged in).

A central but also the most abstract part of health education is the germ theory. The service provider cannot expect the Operator to be a medical expert or a professional sensitizer. However, Operators should be able to explain to their clientele that the above-mentioned measures and behaviours are mainly aiming at preventing harmful bacteria from developing and transmitting diseases. Throughout the training workshop, the trainers have to emphasise that the Operators will play a crucial role in achieving the public health objectives of the service provider. Without their contribution the kiosk system cannot become a public health success story. By keeping their kiosk and its surrounding very clean, they should give a good example and by sensitising their clientele they should play a role in changing certain practices which have a negative impact upon the health of low income residents.

The trainers should add that sensitising customers on the advantages of using treated water for a variety of usages (drinking, preparing meals, washing baby nappies, brewing local beer, washing a patient, etc.), will have a positive impact upon water sales. In this context, sensitisation and marketing are compatible activities.


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9.4 The Operator and Public Health Emergency Situations During emergencies, such as a sudden outbreak of cholera, or in an attempt to prevent outbreaks of water-related diseases, the water kiosks of the service provider can play an important role. Within most low income areas, the water kiosks of the service provider can be considered to be the “official structure” with the highest density (a higher density compared to pharmacies, markets, health centres, community centres) and the largest clientele. As the kiosk is a reliable source of safe water, residents will continue to visit their kiosk, even- or especially during, outbreaks of water-related diseases such as cholera. The kiosk, therefore, can play an important role in diffusing information during a sensitisation/education campaign aimed at controlling or combating the outbreak. For instance, posters can be put up at the kiosk and Operators can be asked to sensitise their clientele or to distribute WaterGuard.12

However, the fact that water kiosks are likely to play an important role during outbreaks of water-related diseases (consumption levels are likely to be higher than usual), means that the kiosk itself, if not well managed, can become a “source” of cholera. Operators, therefore, will have to be given special instructions by the service provider and the Ministry of Health, with regard to kiosk cleanliness & hygiene and proper client behaviour. Clients should, for instance, be instructed to clean their recipients at home, instead of at the kiosk.

9.5 Inviting Local ExpertsAs we mentioned earlier, the training workshop for Operators can be improved and made more interesting, by inviting local health experts such as the Public Health Officer (PHO), the Community Health Extension Worker (CHEW) or staff members of local clinics and hospitals. These guest presenters can be asked to discuss issues such as the often complex relationships between health, hygiene and water. The following issues will have to be addressed:

The various water-borne, water-washed and water-related diseases. Why prevention is better than treatment as far as diseases are concerned. The importance of keeping kiosks clean. What to do about customers who want to draw water with dirty containers. How water should be handled and stored within the household What things can and what goods cannot be sold at the kiosk. How to sensitise and educate kiosk customers and other residents.

The local health experts are asked to use the PHAST method (See next paragraph).

9.6 Using the PHAST MethodTo train the Operators on:

The importance of keeping the kiosk clean.

12 In fact as we suggested earlier, the kiosks, as they will be used by Operators to sell other goods besides water, can also be used by other organisations, including NGOs, as distribution points or sales outlets for products such as mosquito nets, condoms, etc. Provided that the products involved do not appear on the list of prohibited goods mentioned in the Contract the Operators have signed with the service provider (goods such as insecticides, meat, fuel, etc.)


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The transmission routes of water and sanitation-related diseases.

The WSTF has adapted the PHAST Method (Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation) to suit the training of training of Operators of water kiosks and public sanitation facilities (See WHO/UNDP World Bank Water and Sanitation Programme: 1997).

The adapted PHAST tool is included in this Module of the Toolkit .


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10 Water Supply in Kenya: The Institutional Context

10.1 The Water Act of 2002In 2002 the Government of Kenya passed the Water Act 2002 (Date of Assent: 17th October, 2002). The objects of this Bill are (among others) to:

(a) Establish the Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) and define its functions (Sections 46-48).

(b) Specify the rights, responsibilities and duties of the Water Services Boards (WSBs) (Sections 51- 54) and of the Water Service providers (WSPs) (Section 55).

(c) Provide for the efficient and sustainable supply of water and sanitation services under the general regulation of WASREB.

(d) Establish the Water Services Trust Fund (WSTF, Section 83)

10.2 The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI)

The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) has its fundamental goal and purpose as conserving, managing and protecting water resources for socio-economic development.

Its aim is to improve the living standards of people by ensuring proper access to available water resources. The Ministry was created in 2003 following a separation from the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. The split was aimed at consolidating the responsibility for the management and development of water resources under a single Minister.

This Ministry is, therefore, also responsible for the provision of potable water to the low income areas. (See also: http://www.water.go.ke/aboutus.html ).

10.2.1 MWI’s Vision

MWI’s Vision: Assured water resources and availability and accessibility by all.

10.2.2 MWI’ s Mission

MWI’s Mission: Integrated Water Resources Management and Development through stakeholder participation to ensure water availability and accessibility to enhance National Development.

10.2.3 MWI’s Mandate

The Ministry's mandate is to contribute to national development through sustainable conservation, management and development of the available water and land resources and facilitate their planned exploitation.


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http://www.water.go.ke/aboutus.html

10.3 The Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB)The Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) is a non-commercial State Corporation established in March 2003 as part of the comprehensive reforms in the water sector. The mandate of the institution is to oversee the implementation of policies and strategies relating to provision of water and sewerage services. WASREB sets rules and enforces standards that guide the sector towards ensuring that consumers are protected and have access to efficient, adequate, affordable and sustainable services.

Key among the responsibilities of the Regulator is issuance of licences to Water Services Boards (WSBs). Through these licenses, WSBs become responsible for the efficient and economical provision of water services within their jurisdictions. Under the Water Act 2002, WSBs cannot provide services directly, so they have to enter Contract with Water Service Providers (WSPs) through signing Service Provision Agreements (SPAs). The Water Services Regulatory Board monitors the performance of WSBs and WSPs on a continuous basis (See also: http://www.wsrb.or.ke/ ).

10.3.1 WASREB’s Strategc ObjectivesThe strategic objectives of WASREB can be summed up as folows:

Develop and institutionalise effective mechanisms for regulation of water supply and sanitation services.

Establish effective information and communication systems to facilitate public awareness on water supply and sanitation services.

Improve capacity for effective regulation. Inform policy makers on water and sanitation issues. Facilitate interventions on cross-cutting issues such as mainstreaming gender,

HIV/AIDS and governance.

10.3.2 Main FunctionsThe main functions of WASREB can be summareised as follows:

Overseeing the implementation of policies and strategies relating to provision of water and sewerage services.

Regulating the provision of water and sewerage services. Licensing Water Service Boards and approving their appointed Water Service

Providers through SPAs. Setting rules, establishing standards and guidelines and ensuring that Water

Service Boards comply with the conditions stipulated in the licences. Developing guidelines on service provision agreements between WSBs and

WSPs. Developing operational standards for adoption relating to the whole process of

development of water services including design, construction, operations and maintenance of water and wastewater systems.

Developing standards on water quality and efficient disposal of waste water. Developing guidelines for setting of tariffs. Developing guidelines for dispute resolution. Determining technical, water quality and effluent disposal standards.


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http://www.wsrb.or.ke/

Monitoring and evaluating the performance of Water Service Boards and Water Service Providers.

Gathering and maintaining information on water services and publishing forecasts, projections and information on water services.

Advising the Minister on matters connected to water services.

10.4 The Water Services Trust Fund

10.4.1 HistoryThe Government of Kenya, through the Ministry Water and Irrigation established the Water Services Trust Fund (WSTF) as a corporate body under the Water Act 2002 to channel funding for its long-term objectives of developing water and sanitation services in areas of Kenya without adequate water. The WSTF was registered on the 10th May 2004 and consequently appointed and gazetted the Trustees of the Fund (see also: http://www.wstfkenya.org/ ).

10.4.2 Mandate of the WSTFThe Water Act 2002 mandates the Fund to assist in financing the provision of water services to rural and urban areas of Kenya without adequate water services with funds placed in the Fund either through:

Appropriation by Parliament i.e. through normal Government budgetary allocations.

Donations. Grants and bequests from whatever source. Any other monies payable to the Fund.

10.4.3 Core Objective of the WSTFThe core objective of the Fund is to assist in financing capital investment costs of providing water services to communities without adequate water services in the country priority being given to poor and disadvantaged groups. Other support includes capacity building activities and initiatives, which enable communities to plan, implement, manage, operate and sustain water services. This objective is supported by creation of awareness and dissemination of information regarding community management of water services and encouraging active community participation in the implementation and the sustainable management of water services.

The Fund operates within the new institutional framework for the Water Sector and therefore the planning process involves the regional Water Services Boards (WSBs) and other key stakeholders

10.5 The Water Services Boards

10.5.1 History The Water Services Boards (WSBs) were formed as part of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation reforms brought about by the Water Act 2002 enacted in 2003. The Boards were created under Section 51 of the Water Act 2002 to be responsible for the provision of water services in their jurisdiction area.


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http://www.wstfkenya.org/

10.5.2 Number of WSBsThere are 8 WSBs in Kenya:

Athi Water Services Board. Lake Victoria North Water Services Board. Lake Victoria South Water Services Board. Rift Valley Water services Board. Tana Water Services Board. Coast Water Services Board. Northern Water Services Board. Tanathi Water Services Board.

10.5.3 Main Functions of the WSBsThe WSBs were created to bring about efficiency, economy and sustainability in the provision of water and sewerage services in the country.

The following are the main functions: Ownership and holding of water and sewerage assets. Planning, development and expansion of water and sewerage. Contracting out water and sewerage services provision to water service

providers. Monitoring the water and sewerage services provision in its area of

jurisdiction.

For the reform programmes to succeed they need to be well understood and supported by stakeholders. The WSBs are expected to put in place mechanisms to secure political and social support amongst the stakeholders. These mechanisms include a strategic approach to all interested parties. The general lack of awareness and uncertainty on the implications of the changes necessitates the use of strategic communication to:

Raise the profile of water aspects of social economic development.

Develop effective means of building understanding and generating support for reform.

Provide a forum for the board to proactively take up leadership in water sector reforms through direct means to avoid misconceptions.

10.5.4 Mandate of the WSBsThe overall mandate of the WSBs is to ensure provision of clean, affordable water and efficient sewerage services in the area of our jurisdiction. A WSB has to:

Mobilise/secure resources for capital investments for water and sewerage services.

Ensure increased coverage of water service and efficient sewerage services provision.

Supervise the Water Service Providers. Oversee implementation of Government of Kenya policies with regards to

provision of efficient and effective water and sewerage services.


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Study tariffs and advise the Regulatory Board on changes required for effective implementation of water and sewerage sector reforms.

Build capacity of water service providers. Monitor and evaluate performance of Water Service Providers.

10.6 The Water Service Providers (WSPs)

10.6.1 Main responsibilities of WSPsThe Water Service Providers (WSPs):

Act as WSB’s water and sanitation provision agents. Are responsible for the maintenance, rehabilitation and development of water

and sanitation infrastructure.The WSPs have a primary responsibility of providing affordable water and sewerage services through efficient, effective, and sustainable utilisation of the available resources in an environmentally-friendly manner, and meet and exceed the expectations of our consumers and other stakeholders.

10.6.2 Operator Training Workshop: Presenting the WSP During the Operator training workshop, WSP staff should provide a detailed presentation of the Company. After all the operators will sign a Contract with the WSP and will work hand in hand to improve water supply and sanitation services in the low income areas. The presentation of the WSP should address the following topics:

History and achievements. Vision. Mission. Values. Objectives. Water and sewerage (sanitation) products and services. Customer care. Service area (towns and areas served). Pro-poor strategy. Water quality (control).

10.7 Sector OverviewTable 10.1 shows how the various organisations described in the previous paragraphs are linked.


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Table 10.1: Sector overview


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11 The Kiosk System

11.1 Using the Contract and Rules and Guidelines during the WorkshopImportant: The detailed discussion of the Contract and the appendix to the Contract is one of the main elements of the training workshop and trainers should give the participants ample opportunity to ask questions.

Important: The appendix to the Contract (“Rules and Guidelines for the Operator”, should be used as a training tool, when explaining the various elements of the kiosk system to the new Operators.

Also when providing on-the-job training, the appendix can be used as a training guide.

Important: The appendix has been designed in such a way, that the trainers can discuss the appendix chapter after chapter.

During this part of the training the trainers should be able to show how a water meter works and how the meter reading is going to record the meter readings. It is useful to have a water meter available.

During the training the trainers will have to provide a number of examples: How should customers pay for their water and how should payments be

recorded? How to create and control a new “Customer kiosk book”. How to calculate and keep track of the money collected from customers? How to calculate and record monthly consumption? How to interpret the different figures mentioned on the Water Bill? How to calculate the net revenue (the Operator’s remuneration)?

11.2 Why the Service Provider Decided to Introduce a Kiosk System The trainers should explain why the service provider has decided to introduce a kiosk system in the low income areas within its service area. After all there are alternatives. In other parts of Kenya projects and experiments have been carried out with communal or yard tap-based supply schemes and in some low income urban areas residents still fetch water free of charge at a public tap. In other words, why introducing a kiosk system? The trainers should describe the advantages and disadvantages of the various technical options.Trainers should explain why it is impossible to provide all low income households with individual house connections:

House connections are expensive (unaffordable for many households) and The layout of most low income areas do not allow for dense distribution

network. This does not mean that households that can afford a house connection will not be given the opportunity to acquire their own connection. Most WSTF-funded water supply projects will introduce mixed systems (which


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means network extensions will have pipe diameters which allows for the supply of water kiosks and private connections).

The disadvantages of a public tap, where water can be fetched free of charge are: Water wastage. Poor hygienic conditions.

The disadvantages of a hand pump are: Technology not suited for urban settings as aquifers get polluted by pit

latrines, solid waste dumpsites, etc. Poor hygienic conditions if users are not organised. Experience shows that maintenance and repair concepts that work in a rural

context are not successful in an urban setting characterised by low levels of social cohesion and high levels of vandalism.

11.3 What is a Kiosk System?With the introduction of the kiosk system, the service provider intends to achieve a number of important objectives. The main objectives of the kiosk system can be summed up as follows:

Contributing to an improved public health and better living conditions by providing the population of the low income areas with safe treated water.

Providing a good and affordable product and service to low income residents. Reducing water wastage as a result of negligence (taps left open after use),

leaking pipes, vandalism, etc. Increasing the percentage of paid-for water . This is necessary in order to have

a sustainable water supply system. Making sure that the Operators are able to earn an acceptable income.

T he basic elements of a standard kiosk system can be summarised as follows : Each water kiosk is managed by an Operator. The Operator receives training before and/or after signing a Contract with the

service provider. This Contract contains detailed information on the responsibilities and rights of all parties involved in low income water supply (authorities, service provider, residents and Operator).

The Operator sells water on behalf of the service provider, but is not an employee of the service provider. The Operator should consider the kiosk as his or her private business undertaking.

The Operator sells water for a fixed price per unit (for example KSh 2.00 for a full jerrycan of 20 litres or KSh 20.00 for an oil drum of 220 litres).

The Operator has to pay the service provider according to the monthly meter readings.

The Operator receives a commission for each cubic metre sold. The Operator may sell other goods at his or her kiosk with the exception of

such products as meat, fish, certain (specified in the Contract) chemicals, etc. The Operator is guided by the qualified staff members of the service provider:

the Kiosk Supervisor or Customer Services Assistant (CSA), the Public Relations Officer or the Manager of the Low Income Areas Unit).


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The Operator has to keep the kiosk clean and report damage to the service provider.

The Operator has to be present during the opening hours he has agreed upon with his or her customers and with the service provider.

Customers are allowed to fetch very small quantities of water free of charge in order to clean their buckets or containers. Very dirty containers must not be cleaned at the kiosk.

If customers have complaints they can address themselves to the local office of the service provider.

If the Operator does not work in accordance with his Contract, the service provider has the right to terminate the Contract with the Operator.

It is important to note that specific aspects of the kiosk system are also described in detail in Module 4 of this Toolkit (See: Module 4, Table of Contents).

11.4 The Tasks, Responsibilities and Status of the OperatorThe main responsibilities of the Operator can be summed up as follows:

Following the instructions as stated in the agreement signed between the Operator and the service provider.

Respecting the working hours that have been agreed upon with the customers of the kiosk.

Cleaning the kiosk (taps, building) and direct surroundings. Making sure that customers do not litter and pollute the kiosk and its

surroundings. Selling water to customers. Assisting customers (especially the aged and handicapped as well as

pregnant women). Following the customer-Operator payment and water fetching procedures. Following the cash handling and cash depositing procedures introduced by the

service provider. Paying the Water Bill on time. Reporting to the service provider: damage, low pressure, interruptions in

supply and poor water quality. Sensitising customers on the proper ways to fetch, store and use water.

The trainers will have to discuss the above-mentioned responsibilities in detail and answer all questions of the Operators.

11.5 Contract and Guidelines

11.5.1 The ContractThe rights and responsibilities of the Operator and the service provider are described in detail in the Contract that is signed by both parties. The Contract addresses issues such as:

Conditions that have to be met by the future Operator before he or she can sign the Contract (for example, possessing an Identification Card).

Terms and termination of the Contract.


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The status of the Operator. The rights, duties and responsibilities of the Operator vis-à-vis the service

provider the authorities and his or her clients. The rights, duties and responsibilities of the service provider vis-à-vis the

Operator. General information on the working conditions and concerning opening and

closing hours. Special circumstances (absence of the Operator, sickness). Force majeure (war, uprisings, natural disasters).

11.5.2 The Appendix to the ContractThe Contract has an appendix that specifies some of the rules and guidelines for the Operators. These rules and guidelines are meant to provide the Operators some guidance during their work, during their communication with their clientele and with the service provider, when special circumstances occur and in case of a dispute.

The appendix to the Contract covers the following subjects :

Duties, rights and working conditions: A detailed description of the work, duties, responsibilities and rights of the

Operator. Working conditions and working relationship between service provider staff

and the Operator. Procedure to determine the opening and closing hours of the kiosk.

The sale of water: Details concerning the sale of water, intervals between meter readings, how

and where cash has to be kept. The number of times the Operator has to report at the office of the service

provider (or at another location) to hand over the money that has been collected.

Detailed information on income and payment of the Operator. Guidelines and tools (checklists) that will help the Operator to countercheck

the records of the service provider. How the Operator has to organise the fetching of water at the kiosk, what the

Operator has to do in case of conflicts and fights at the kiosk and under which circumstances the Operator has to close the kiosk.

Kiosk hygiene and cleanliness: How the kiosk has to be maintained and kept clean (number of times the

kiosk has to be cleaned). Keeping the kiosk clean and in good technical condition is one of the most important responsibilities of the Operator.

The rules and guidelines concerning kiosk hygiene and cleanliness the Operator has to convey to his clients and if necessary to the other residents of the low income area. Rules and guidelines addressing issues such as preventing water wastage, the use of clean recipients, doing laundry at the kiosk, eating at the kiosk, etc.

Goods and products Operators are not allowed to sell at their kiosk (for instance insecticides, raw or prepared meat, etc.).


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Technical management of the kiosk: Guidelines and procedures concerning the reporting of low pressure, poor

water quality, damage (for instance as a result of vandalism) and leaks. What the Operator has to do if there is a sudden drop in water quality (for

example if water becomes muddy after the occurrence of a leak in the network).

Special circumstances: Under what conditions water can be fetched free of charge by clients (for

instance the small quantities fetched for cleaning recipients). Special circumstances that may force the Operator to supply water free of

charge (in case of fires or if persons with third-degree burns have to be assisted).

Special circumstances (such as a cholera outbreak) that oblige the Operator to follow the instructions and guidelines of the service provider, the local authorities or the Ministry of Health.

Goods the Operator receive from the service provider: A list of goods the Operator has been issued with.

Control procedures and measures: Control procedures, measures and instruments (check-lists, etc.) the Water

Service Provider has put in place to monitor the kiosks and the Operators (technical control, financial control, operational control).

Communication between the Operator and the WSP: Guidelines and procedures concerning the communication between the

service provider and the Operators (weekly visits, control procedures, meetings, written information on tariff changes, etc.)

Guidelines concerning the communication between the Operators on the one hand and the population, CBOs and the authorities on the other.

The Operator is expected to participate in sensitisation campaigns and programmes organised by the service provider or, if instructed by the service provider, campaigns organised by government organisations such as the Ministry of Health.

The procedure the Operator should follow in case he or she has complaints about the way in which he or she is treated by the service provider or by particular service provider personnel.

The procedure the Water Service Provider should follow in case clients, CBOs, or the authorities express their complaints about the Operator, the kiosk, water quality, the service provider, etc.

11.6 Operators: Addressing Their Interests, Complaints and SuggestionsOperators should be given the opportunity to express their concerns and complaints as well their proposals. Operators, in order to protect their interests, have the right to organise themselves and to appoint representatives who are asked to discuss and negotiate with the service provider. The service provider should be flexible and allow the Operators or their representatives to discuss all work-related problems and proposals.


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11.7 Introducing the Kiosk System: Step-by-StepModule 3 of the Toolkit discusses the various phases of the introduction and implementation of a kiosk system. As the Operators will play an important role in this process, the trainers should explain the various phases of the implementation process.

11.8 Community Participation and KiosksAlthough the service provider will introduce a kiosk system, which in principle can function without community participation, the service provider wishes to give a meaningful content to community participation during the project implementation phase as well as when it comes to the day-to-day operation of the kiosks:

11.8.1 Project ImplementationThe low income community, CBOs (such as water committees, neighbourhood health committees and local health centres) and the CHEW can play an active role during:

The design and implementation of sensitisation and information campaigns. For example, campaigns aimed at introducing the kiosk system, a new tariff, educating the population on health and hygiene matters.

The collection of data on the population, water supply and sanitation infrastructures (open wells, hand pumps, windlass wells, pit latrines, etc.).

The collection of data on water consumption levels, water-related diseases, the willingness and ability to pay.

The implementation and commissioning of the water supply project.

11.8.2 Daily Management of the Kiosk System The community and existing CBOs can play an important role during the operation of the low income water supply (management) system:

Prevention of vandalism (social control, reporting and sanctions). An active role should be given to Neighbourhood Watch Committees and the neighbourhood water committees. The service provider will have to sensitise the population.

Assuring cleanliness and hygiene at the kiosks . Reporting by residents of damage and leakages . Collecting and communicating complaints to the service provider in case of

poor service levels (for instance problems with pressure of water quality). Establishing efficient communications between users and the WSP (customer

complaints forms, organisation of feedback and quick response in case of reported damage or customer complaints).

Assisting in health and hygiene education or sensitisation campaigns (for instance the neighbourhood health committees and the neighbourhood water committees).

Participating in the identification and recruitment of new Kiosk Operators.By giving community participation a meaningful content and by assuring that the low income population identifies itself with “its kiosks”, the service provider can contribute, albeit in a modest way, to community building and the strengthening of the local civil society.


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Operator and WSPare responsible for the kiosk. However, each client and each low income resident has his or her responsibilities. For example, residents have to refrain from and report acts of vandalism and have to participate in the effort to keep the kiosks clean.


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12 Assisting Vulnerable Persons: The SWAS

12.1 Identifying Potential SWAS Beneficiaries The main components and objectives of the Social Welfare Assistance Scheme (SWAS) can be described as follows:

The main purpose of the scheme is to provide some assistance to the vulnerable (destitute) individuals within the low income communities. The programme aims to ensure that vulnerable people or sections within the population have access to clean water. The service provider can define the concept vulnerable group or people as follows:

The aged and the handicapped.

Indigent persons awaiting repatriation.

Persons who are victims of such disasters as fire, floods or droughts.

With these categories in mind, the major factor to consider is the ability of a particular person to pay for piped water. If, for instance, a person is aged and has no children or other close relatives who are in a position to take care of him or her, he or she duly qualifies to benefit from this scheme. The same applies to the disabled: If a person is disabled, the head of a household, has no sources of income and receives no assistance from relatives or others (organizations such as the Roman Catholic Church) that person also qualifies.

The amount of water to be provided per person per day is 20 litres. Normally only the disabled or aged person receives this quantity free of charge, albeit that in certain extreme cases (the household has no sources of income) also the other household members will be allowed to benefit from the scheme.

The persons benefiting from the programme should identify themselves at the kiosk by presenting the (laminated) SWAS card, which bears the person names and the daily amount he or she is allowed to fetch free of charge.

The service provider has the right to decide to stop providing water free of charge to individuals or households. The following reasons may influence the decision of the service provider to withdraw the SWAS card:

A marked improvement in the financial situation of the household.

Attempts to misuse the service provider card, etc.

It is not up to the service provider to go out in the low income areas in order to identify potential SWAS beneficiaries. Instead the service provider should work together with the Ministry of Special Programmes. It is important to establish if the records of this Ministry are up-to-date. If not, the WSP may decide to create its own file using the criteria of the Ministry.

If in a particular town, the files of the Ministry are out-dated, the service provider could create its own database by visiting the low income areas (walking around and asking), by contacting local grassroots organisations (local NGOs, CBOs, local clinics, etc.) and the churches. The Operators should also be asked if they know persons who should benefit from the programme.


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If necessary, Operators should provide assistance to SWAS beneficiaries, as well as to other handicapped and elderly persons (cleaning and lifting containers, etc.).

12.2 Timing of the Implementation of the SWAS ProgrammeBefore and during the introduction of a kiosk system in a low income area, the service provider will have to sensitise residents on the necessity to pay for water. Introducing the SWAS at this stage is not advisable. Residents could reject the idea that some have to pay, whereas other can fetch water free of charge. A SWAS programme should be introduced at least 6 months after the successful introduction of kiosks.


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13 Kiosk Hygiene and Poor Practices of Residents, Providers & Operators

13.1.1 IntroductionIn the following sections we described some of the difficulties faced by Operators when convincing their clientele to avoid “poor practices” that may have a negative impact upon public health and upon the sustainability of the kiosk system. In this section we provide a list, based upon experiences and data collected in Burkina Faso, Rwanda and Zambia, of the “poor practices” of low income residents, service providers and Operators.

Programmes and projects aimed at improving low income water supply should pay attention to such practices and prevent or combat them by developing and implementing rules and regulations, sensitisation campaigns, sanctions or incentives (for example, a bonus for the cleanest kiosk).

13.1.2 Poor Practices of Service ProvidersPoor practices by the service provider are often an indication of the fact that water supply in low income areas is not a priority. Poor practices often result in the gradual disintegration and degeneration of a kiosks scheme and in a neglect of the infrastructure (kiosks, meter chambers, the network, etc.). It should be noted that the list of poor practices is far from being exhaustive:

1. Poor management of Operators: Inadequate remuneration of Operators. No regular controls. Visits are carried out on an ad hoc basis and not based

upon detailed procedures and guidelines. Sanctions (disconnections, replacing the Operator) are not put into practice. Operators do not receive any training and many of them work without having

signed a Contract. Operators are not aware of their rights and responsibilities let alone of the

rights and responsibilities of the service provider and of their clients. Imposition of Operators on the community.

2. Poor technical management: Kiosks are not repaired after acts of vandalism. Taps and water meters are of poor quality and low water pressure often

leads to long waiting hours, discussions and conflicts among clients. Leaks and meters are not repaired. There are too many types of kiosks and a large number of kiosks are not well

constructed and maintained. Some kiosks are not well localised. As a result their accessibility is not good.

3. Poor communication between the service provider and the Operators:

The only contact between the service provider and the Operator, takes place when the water meter is read or and when the Operators visits the office of the WSP to pay his or her bill. There are no formal encounters (regular meetings) during which problems and propositions are being discussed.


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Operators do not know what to do when water quality drops as a result of leak repair works.

4. Poor communication and cooperation between WSP and residents: The service provider does not cooperate with CBOs. Residents are not involved in the programming of a project, the result being

the poor localisation of water points (in isolated areas with very low population densities or near major roads, bars, etc.), which makes them prone to vandalism.

The low income population is not aware of its rights and responsibilities. The service provider does not collect the necessary quantitative and

qualitative data on the low income areas. The service provider has no low income strategy and does not carry out any

sensitisation campaigns or programmes.

13.1.3 Poor Practices of OperatorsIt is important to note, that poor practices by Operators can often be attributed to the lack of a proper kiosk management approach. Poor practices of Operators:

The Operator does not respect the conditions, rules and guidelines mentioned in his or her Contract.

The Operator does not seek the advice of the service provider and does not inform the service provider in case of damage, leaks, a drop in water quality, etc.

The Operator does not respect the agreed opening and closing hours. The Operator does not clean his or her kiosk and its immediate surroundings. The Operator does not sensitise/inform his or her clientele on matters

pertaining to the kiosk system (for example, a new tariff). The Operator is not polite to his or her customers and does not help his or her

elderly customers.

13.1.4 Poor Practices of Customers and other ResidentsIn some low income areas, it is difficult to prevent acts of vandalism and theft and also difficult to make sure that residents observe certain rules and regulations. It is the responsibility of the service provider to make sure that the low income communities are informed, educated and sensitised.

Poor practices of clients and other residents are: Certain customers do not wash their containers before arriving at the kiosk.

Some insist on cleaning their containers at the kiosk. Customers (especially during the rainy season) approach the kiosks wearing

dirty shoes or boots and customers have dirty hands. Water is being wasted, because clients use leaking recipients resulting in

wastage. This leads to the pollution of the kiosk and its direct environments. The kiosk is used as a solid waste disposal site. Residents eat mangos, sugarcane and other foodstuffs at the kiosk and throw

leftovers on the kiosk platform or in the soak away. Customers drink directly from one of the taps or the hosepipe (used to fill

containers and oil-drums).


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Children and drunken residents use the kiosk (platform) as a public toilet. After closing hours the kiosk is used as a playground (by children). Cars or motorbikes are being washed next to the kiosk. Acts of vandalism jeopardise proper kiosk management. Women do their laundry next to the kiosk. Conflict and fights among clients or between clients and the Operator occur at

the kiosk. Taps and meters and iron roofing sheets are stolen and the kiosk is

vandalised.

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Washing hands after using the toilet: A must do! (Drawing by Charles Kut, 2008)


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List of Abbreviations AD: Anno DominiAIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency SyndromeBC: Before ChristCAAC: Catchment Area Advisory Committee CBO: Community-Based OrganisationCHEW: Community health Extension WorkerHE: Health EducationHIV: Human Immunodeficiency VirusNGO: Non-Governmental OrganisationONEA: Office National de l’Eau et l’Assainissement (Burkina Faso)PHAST: Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation PHO: Public Health OfficerSPA: Service Provision AgreementSWAS: Social Welfare Assistance SchemeVIP: Ventilated improved pit latrineWAB: Water Appeals BoardWASREB: Water Services Regulatory BoardWHO: World Health Organisation WRMA: Water Resources Management AuthorityWSB: Water Services BoardWSP: Water Service ProviderWSTF: Water Services Trust Fund

BibliographyThe water Crisis, a worldwide problem, in: Awake 22nd of August 1997, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. International Bible Students Association, Brooklyn, New York, USA

Boot, M.T. (1991) Just Stir Gently. The way to mix hygiene education with water supply and sanitation. Technical Paper Series, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, The Hague, The Netherlands

Boot, M.T. and Cairncross, S. (1993) The study of hygiene behaviour in water and sanitation projects, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, and London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, The Hague, The Netherlands

Burgers, L., Boot, M. and Wijk-Sijbesma, C. van (1988) Hygiene education in water supply and sanitation: Literature review with selected and annotated bibliography. (Technical papers series. No. 27). The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre

Cairncross, S. and Ouano, E.A.R. (1991) Surface water drainage for low-income communities. Geneva, Switzerland, World Health Organisation


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Central Bureau of Statistics/Ministry of Finance and Planning (January 2001) The 1999 Population and Housing Census, Volume I: Population Distribution by Administrative Areas and Urban Centres. Nairobi, Kenya

Central Bureau of Statistics/Ministry of Finance and Planning (January 2001) The 1999 Population and Housing Census, Volume II: Socio-Economic Profile of the Population. Nairobi, Kenya

Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Ministry of Health (MOH) and ORC Macro (December 2003). Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2003: Preliminary Report.Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Ministry of Health (MOH) and ORC Macro (2004). Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2003: Key Findings. Calverton, Maryland, USA: CBS, MOH and ORC MacroEncyclopaedia Britannica 2003 (Deluxe Edition CD-Rom)

Esrey, S. A., et al 1990. Health benefits from improvements in water supply and sanitation: survey and analysis of the literature on selected diseases. (WASH technical report. No. 66) Arlington, VA, USA, Water and Sanitation for Health Project

Government Printer (24th October 2002) Kenya gazette Supplement, Acts 2002, The Water Act. Nairobi, Kenya

WHO (1983a). Maximizing benefits to health: an appraisal methodology for water supply and sanitation projects. Geneva, Switzerland, World health Organization

WHO (1983b). Minimum evaluation procedures (MEP) for water supply and sanitation projects, Geneva, Switzerland, World health Organization

WHO/UNDP World Bank Water and Sanitation Programme (1997, reprinted in 2000) The PHAST Initiative: Participatory Health and Sanitation Transformation, Geneva Switzerland

Wijk-Sijbesma, C. van (1985) Participation of women in water supply and sanitation: roles and realities. (Technical paper series. no. 22) IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, The Hague, The Netherlands

Internet Sites:Ministry of Water and Irrigation (http://www.water.go.ke/aboutus.html )

Water Services Regulatory Board (http://www.wsrb.or.ke/ )

Water Services Trust Fund (http://www.wstfkenya.org/ )

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http://www.whosea.org/

http://www.wstfkenya.org/

http://www.wsrb.or.ke/

http://www.water.go.ke/aboutus.html

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