Training For Trainers
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Training For Trainers
"Training is costly, but not to train is
costlier"
CONTENTS
Chapter No.
Topic Page Nos.
Synopsis
Objective
1 Ten Commandments of ToT 1
2 Understanding the Training Process 3 - 7
3 Systematic Training 9 – 25
4 Importance of Training 27 – 28
5 How to conduct Training Sessions 29 – 30
6 Causes for failure of Training 31
7 Training Methods 33 - 44
8 Training for maximum effectiveness 45 – 52
9 Four ways of learning 53 – 59
10 The Trainer and his/her Role 61 – 73
11 Experienetial Learning & How to run Group
Exercises
75 - 79
12 Using Group Exercises for Training 81 - 88
13 Concept of Feedback 89 - 94
14 How to prepare for & conduct an Interactive
Session
96 - 110
15 How to LEAD A DISCUSSION: Case Study as a
Tool
111 – 129
16 Do’s & Don’t for Trainers 131 – 132
Bibliography/Suggested Readings 133
SYNOPSIS
Training has been recognized as an integral component for facilitating the development process by creating awareness, improving skills, bringing change in attitudes and building confidence of the people so that they can be efficient in performing their work and responsibility. That is why training is considered to be one of the best means of improving performance.
Training objectives are two-fold. These are: immediate objective and ultimate objective. The immediate objective of training is to bring expected change in the knowledge, skills and attitude. The ultimate objective is to improve the job performance of the clientele groups.
To-day, there is hardly any government institution that does not see the importance of training in developing human resources. Defence Accounts Department, in this regard, is no exception. Since ages, D.A.D. has been imparting training through NADFM/RTCs to develop a cadre of skilled and capable human resources from among officials of different offices. These training centres, as it is believed, are the prime contributor to organizational effectiveness and productivity in the sphere of development. The RTCs follows a training policy to serve a wide range of clientele for the Department as well as the Services.
Training of Trainers is a form of training imparted to an individual with a view to preparing him/her for his/her future role as a trainer. This is a process which aims to develop his/her capabilities and capacities of imparting training to others as a skilled professional. Besides, ToT also aims to help organisations to build their own cadre of trainers. Thus ToT has a dual role to play: the individual growth and the organisational growth. The focus of ToT is not only to build a cadre of trainers, but also to develop necessary orientation, awareness and abilities to perform a catalytic role as facilitators of change. On the basis of its accumulated experience, RTCs offers a Training of Trainers (TOT) course for those officials who are supposed to be future trainers in their respective fields. ToT will enable the participants to develop a comprehensive notion about training programmes, materials and other resources. It would build up their confidence to make rapport with the training clients and to be successful trainers. Moreover, the TOT course will make them acquainted with the latest development of training policy and methodology.
“You have to ‘Be’ before you can ‘Do’ and ‘Do’ before you can ‘Have’.
- Zig Ziglar
OBJECTIVES
The general objective of the course is to develop
understanding of the participants on training cycle and to
enhance skills in designing, implementing, conducting and
evaluating training courses. On completion of the course, the
participants will be able to:
Describe the principles of training and adult learning;
Design and develop appropriate training courses to address
special needs of development programmes;
Select suitable methods and techniques for conducting
training sessions;
Develop skills in presentation and use of suitable audio-
visual aids; and
Manage and implement training courses efficiently.
Never make your opinion about a person based on his past because TIME has the power to change
ordinary COAL into a DIAMOND.
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CHAPTER 1
TEN COMMANDMENTS OF ToT 1 Share learning with the trainees, rather than imparting knowledge to them.
2 Be creative yourself and also encourage the trainees to be creative.
3 Supplement your talk by suitable illustrations with a view to make your presentations
more interesting by using different types of visuals like pictures, drawings, a flannel board,
flash cards, models, samples.
4 Start the talk by inculcating in the trainees an interest in the subject matter being covered
and end up by creating a curiosity to learn more about the topic in future.
5 Make maximum use of two-way communication by inviting comments and queries from
the trainees and sharing your views with them.
6 Remember, the job of a trainer in ToT is not only to build a potential cadre of trainers for
preparing functionaries for different development activities, but also to inspire, encourage and
enthuse them to be the facilitators of a self-sustaining growth process through participatory
approach.
7 Assess the impact of your role as a committed and competent trainer and do it as
objectively as you can. This can be done by constant monitoring of the extent to which the
trainees have been receptive, responsive and reinforced by the information input provided to
them.
8 Equip yourself with knowledge of recent developments in the materials and methods of
training skills. This can be done by keeping yourself in touch with the latest literature and
widening your knowledge by frequent interactions with those who have earned a ‗status‘ of a
successful professional in the field of training.
9 Inculcate a sense of ideal role performance while facilitating ToT. The success of such
efforts can be judged in terms of someone of your trainees following your example while
himself/herself practicing the same principle as a trainer.
10 Finally, continue to think and act on developing new tools and techniques which may
further enrich the exciting area of training. For this one needs not necessarily be highly
educated or enormously resourceful, as some of the most valuable inventions have been made
by persons and professionals of a very modest background. By doing this you will not only
share an experience of excitement and achievement, but also a feeling of pride and privilege.
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―Think like a man of action,
and act like a man of
thought.‖
- Henri L. Bergson
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CHAPTER 2
UNDERSTANDING THE TRAINING PROCESS
The Traditional Approach
Broadly speaking training as a concept is generally perceived as a learning process. However, traditionally the process refers to the transfer of knowledge from trainer to the trainee. The trainer in the traditional system generally decides on such issues as: Who are the persons to be trained? On what aspects is the training to be imparted? What methodology has to be followed for the training? What is the expected benefit of the training?
According to the traditional view the trainer was the dominant actor and the trainee the silent receiver of the message. The trainer-trainee relationship under the system was characterised by unquestionable ‗instructor‘ and obedient pupil. In this process no consideration was made for the training needs and the whole training activity was dominated by the sole decision making role of the trainer. This approach was quite similar to the one adopted for formal schooling.
Traditional approach of training methodology was based on certain pre-conceived notions like automatic transfer of knowledge from its ‗owner‘ - the trainer, to the ‗receiver‘ - the trainee. The effectiveness of any training activity largely depends on the capacity of the trainer to ‗instruct‘ or ‗teach‘, while the corresponding capacity of the learner depends on how to ‗learn‘ or to ‗perceive‘.
Thrust on User Need Basis and Participatory Approach
As different from the traditional approach to the process of training, where the thrust was on the transfer of knowledge/expertise from trainer to learner, the modern approach to training is characterised by a thrust on change and growth.
The emphasis of the training in the new approach is not so much on transfer of knowledge as on the process of growth, which aims at the desirable change of knowledge, attitude and practices. Here the process is characterised by promoting trainees‘ critical consciousness and value judgement. The process starts with ‗infreezing‘ the set notions, and the process of ‗de-learning to relearning‘. There is more realism in this type of training as this is a user need based learning process, whereby the structure and strategies of the training are designed in the light of a Training Needs Assessment (TNA).
Because of this guiding principle trainees are more responsive and receptive to such training. The undercurrent is an ongoing process of learning, whereby both the trainer and the trainees participate as learners. This training generates a sense of self-confidence.
The concept of participatory training has been evolved in the light of the new approach of training, where the trainees participate actively in the learning process. It has been found to
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be an effective instrument economic progress and ecological development programmes.
Participatory Training and Learning Process
The ways participatory training helps the learning process are:
♦ Trainees have to think.
♦ Defined learning result is achieved.
♦ Trainee attitudes and training approaches are influenced by peers and peer groups.
♦ Instructor inputs are examined and evaluated against existing learning and experience.
♦ Learning is translated into behavioural and skill changes of trainees and can be measured and assessed by the trainer.
♦ Thinking is stimulated towards job oriented action.
Training and Learning Strategies
The main purpose of the training is to facilitate learning the methods of training, to
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culminate in a good learning experience. Learning is a result of one‘s own experience consequently upon interaction with the environment. Learning is, therefore, an active and continuous process. Some of the fundamentals of learning are that it:
♦begins with pupil problem, not with the teacher;
♦grows out of the need and the interest of the pupil;
♦is an experience by the learner, as without experiencing there is no learning;
♦ varies with a group;
♦ takes directions from the elements and the factors upon which the learner places value;
♦ has been emphasized as a process of changing behaviour with experience.
Keeping in view the above mentioned fundamentals the role of trainers in developing a good learning experience becomes quite meaningful. In order to play such a role effectively
certain guidelines as depicted in the box below need to be followed:
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Knowledge of Learners
The trainer should first know his/her learners (the trainees) in order to ensure their fruitful involvement in the learning process. Basically most of these considerations are guided by the philosophy of participatory training, which advocates that training, unlike teaching, is more concerned with the overall development of the human personality. In addition to the desired changes in skills, an effort is also made to bring about the needed changes in attitude and behaviour of the target group (i.e. the trainees). Some of the major considerations are given below.
Learners are not ―taught‖. They become ―motivated‖ to seek new knowledge,
skills and behaviors.
Learners more readily accept and use concepts that have meaning to them and are relevant to their lives, work needs and problems.
As learning often requires giving up old comfortable ways of believing, thinking and acting, hence, it may not necessarily be a pleasant experience for a learner.
People become independent when they have experienced independence; trusting when they have experienced trust; responsible when they have experienced responsibility.
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Each learner develops his/her own way of learning and solving problems. As he/she becomes exposed to the methods of others he/she can refine his/her own in order to become more effective.
The learner‘s background of experiences provides a wealthy resource for problem solving and learning.
Learners have feelings as well as thoughts. Learning is maximized when learners understand and say both what they think and feel. Hence learning is both an emotional and an intellectual process.
Helping each other to learn requires interactive inter-dependence and, therefore, learning has to be treated as a co-operative and collaborative process.
The ability to be understanding, accepting, trusting, comforting, sharing, helping and evaluating requires a developing evolving process. It cannot be imposed and hence the learning process should be essentially perceived.
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Even if you‘re on the right
track, you‘ll get run over if
you just sit there‖
- Will Rogers
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CHAPTER 3
SYSTEMATIC TRAINING
Introduction
An inevitable consequence of change is the need to learn. Changes may be the result of the introduction of new technology, or new working practice, or of the general development and changing aspiration of people. Such changes often require people to learn new knowledge and skills, and accompany this with changes in attitudes. Also people often have to unlearn redundant knowledge, skills and attitudes which are inappropriate to the changed working environment. This might to be an unnerving experience for people accustomed to established practice learned over a working life.
Factors to be taken into consideration when using words such as changes and learning in relation to work include:
The kind of change(s) being introduced
The demands these change(s) will make on people's performance
The precise details of the knowledge, skills and attitudes people will need to learn to learn to enable them to cope with change(s)
The time needed for people to learn
The cost consequences of people failing to learn
The list uses the term ‗learning but not ‗training‘. Both are often used without any clear distinction being between. Is there any difference between training people, and helping them learn?
Every organisation needs to have well trained and experienced people to perform the activities required to be undertaken. It is necessary to raise the skill levels and increase the versatilities and adaptability of employees to the requirements of an organisation in the changing world. Inadequate job performance results in a decline in productivity of changes. Job redesigning or a technological break-through require some type of training and development effort. In a rapidly changing society, training and development is not only an activity that is desirable but also an activity that an organisation must commit resources for maintaining a viable and knowledgeable workforce.
All types of jobs require some sort of training for efficient performance. Therefore, all the employees, new and old, should be trained or retained. Every new employee regardless of his previous training and experience needs to be introduced to the work-environment of his new Job and taught how to perform specific tasks. Moreover, specific occasions for retraining arise
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when an employee is transferred or promoted or when jobs change. Training is valuable to the new comer in terms of better job security and greater opportunity for advancement. A skill thus, acquired by the new entrant through training is an asset to the organisation.
Definition of learning
We cut our finger and it hurts. A simple enough occurrence that can happen when we are at home preparing food, or when we are at work using plant and equipment. The pain provides a momentary learning opportunity – we may curse, identify the sources of the pain and the reason why it happened, and promise ourselves never to let it happen again. Learning is often like this as we acquired an extensive repertoire of ‗cut finger‘ experiences which influence and often determine how we do things.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines to learn as:
a) Get knowledge or skill, or ability to do – by study, experience or being taught.
b) Commit to memory
c) Become aware of information, or from observation
d) Receive instruction, get knowledge or skill, and become informed.
Learning can be based on formal study, or on everyday experiences at home or at work. The accumulation of these experiences enables us to carry out certain activities or tasks. So what is the difference between learning and training? Let us return to the cut finger.
Comparing ‗Learning‘ to ‗Training‘
The reason you cut your finger was because in some way, you made a mistake. You probably said ‗Ouch‘, or something stronger, when you learned you had cut your finger. Learning happens by chance – it happens to us all the time without necessarily being planned – you learn, this case painfully, to keep out of the way of the sharp cutting edge of a knife.
Training is different. It is done for a specific purpose; it is concerned with helping someone to learn – quickly and effectively. Training requires a clearly defined outcome – for example, being able to chop an onion using a sharp knife. It also requires that effective learning conditions are provided – for example, the task is demonstrated, an explanation is given of how it should be done and the standard of performance required, and the trainee is given an opportunity to practice under supervision.
Definition of training
Learning directed towards a specified performance is referred to as ‗training‘. Training is defined in the Glossary of Training Terms as:
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“A planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behavior through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. Its purpose in the work situation, is to develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy current and future manpower needs of the organization.”
The distinction between ‗learning‘ and ‗training‘ is that learning refers to a naturally occurring process which may, or may not, contribute to a person's job performance. Training is a planned process which directs learning towards achieving specific outcomes, leading to achieving performance objectives. Systematic training implies that training and therefore learning, is done in planned, systematic way, and that is directed towards improving job performance.
Training is the process through which employees are made capable of doing the jobs prescribed to them. According to Flippo, ―Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employer for doing a particular job‖.
According to Dale Yoder, ―Training is the process by which man-power is filled for the particular jobs it is to perform‖. Beach says, ―Training is the organised procedure by which people learn knowledge and skills for a definite purpose‖.
The trainee will acquire new manipulative skills, technical knowledge, problem-solving ability and or attitudes, etc. Training is not one-step process but it is a continuous or never-ending process. Training makes newly recruited workers fully productive in the minimum of time. Even for old workers training is necessary to refresh them and to be conversant with required techniques. In short, training is the act of improving or updating the knowledge and skills of an employee for performing a particular job.
TRAINING, DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION
―Training‖, ―education‖, and ―development‖ are the three terms frequently used. On the face of it, there might not be much difference between them, but when a deep thought is given, there appear some differences between them. In all ―training‖ there is some ―education‖ and in all ―education‖ there is some ―training‖. And the two processes cannot be separated from ―development‖. Precise definition is not possible and can be misleading but different persons have used these activities in different ways.
Training: It is a process of training, a sequence of programmed behaviour. It is application of knowledge. It gives people an awareness of the rules and procedures to guide their behaviour. It attempts to improve their performance on the current job or prepare them for an intended job.
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Development: It is a related process. It covers not only those activities which improve job performance but also those that bring about growth of the personality, help individuals in the progress towards maturity and actualization of their potential capacities so that they become not only good employees but better men or women.
In organisational terms, it is intended to equip persons to earn promotions and hold greater responsibility. Training a person for a higher job is development. It may well not only include imparting specific skills and knowledge but also inculcating certain personality and mental attitudes. In this sense, development is not much different from ―education‖.
Education: It is the understanding and interpretation of knowledge. It does not provide definite answers, but rather, it develops a logical and rational mind that can determine relationships among pertinent variables and thereby understand phenomena. Education must impart qualities of mind and character, understanding of basic principles, synthesis and objectivity. Usually, education involves a range of skills and expertise, which can be provided only by educational institutions. An organisation can and does make use of such institutions in order to support and supplement its internal training and development efforts.
Distinction between Training and Development
Training
It is a short-term process utilising a systematic and organised procedure by which non-managerial personnel have technical knowledge and skills for a definite purpose.
Development
It is a long-term educational process utilising a systematic and organised procedure by which managerial personnel learn conceptual and the theoretical knowledge for general purpose.
Training refers only to instruction in technical and mechanical operations while development refers to philosophical and theoretical educational concepts. It designed for non-managers, while development involves managerial personnel. Campbell has observed that training courses are typically designed for a short-term, while development involves a broader education for long-term purposes.
Need for Training
Training is the most important function that directly contributes to the development of human resources. This also happens to be a neglected function in most of the organisations. Recent surveys on the investments made by Indian organisations on training indicate that a
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large number of organisations do not even spend 0.1 per cent of their budget on training. Many organisations do not even have a training department. If human resources have to be developed, the organisation should create conditions in which people acquire new knowledge and skills and develop healthy patterns of behaviour and styles. One of the main mechanisms of achieving this environment is institutional training.
Training is essential because technology is developing continuously and at a fast rate.
Systems and practices get outdated soon due to new discoveries in technology, including technical, managerial and behavioural aspects. Organisations that do not develop mechanisms to catch up with and use the growing technology soon become stale. However, developing individuals in the organisation can contribute to its effectiveness of the organisation.
Such development, however, should be monitored so as to be purposeful. Without proper
monitoring, development is likely to increase the frustration of employees if when, once their skills are developed, and expectations raised, they are not given opportunities for the application of such skills. A good training sub-system would help greatly in monitoring the directions in which employees should develop in the best interest of the organisation. A good training system also ensures that employees develop in directions congruent with their career plans.
Reasons of Training
Why bother about training? Why not rely on people simply learning for themselves? Here are some reasons why training is to be preferred to a naturally occurring learning process:
People may never be able to perform the task properly
If they do learn, they will do so much more slowly without training
They are likely to learn a way that is wrong
The consequences of a wrong performance results in poor quality, equipment downtime, customer complaints, etc.
Once the task is learned wrongly it is very difficult to ‗unlearn‘ and then ‗relearn‘ correctly.
The final reason for training is the high hidden costs to the organisation. High scrap rates, customer complaints, failure to complete projects and errors in communications can be everyday occurrences in an organisation. Often they can be attributed to a lack of training (but there could be other causes).
The distinction is important for organisation because learning is a critical factor for success – whether it is learning how to develop a new product or service, or learning how an item of equipment should be used. However, if the organisation relies solely on the naturally occurring process of learning, it may never achieve success, because such learning may take too long, or be wrongly directed. This is where training becomes more appropriate; it is a systematic process directed at improving performance –through organised learning.
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The previous notes indicate that learning will occur as a natural phenomenon and that people can therefore learn how to do their jobs without necessarily receiving the benefit of organised learning – training. So why should an organisation bother to train its workforces? Why should it devote scarce resources to training, instead of using them on other activities? Some organisations do not ask the question and simply do training as an act of faith or to comply with legislation. Other organisations give some of the following benefits and examples of the returns that can be expected from an investment of resources in systematic training:
More rapid development to full job performance
Increased output
Improved quality
less waste of time, materials, manpower and money
better utilisation of equipment
better utilisation of personnel
fewer accidents
reduced costs
reduced need for supervision
better identification of employee potential
improved morale
Low productivity, poor quality, high costs, etc., are typical problems encountered by organisation. Some of these problems might be resolved if people learned how to do their jobs better – in other words, were trained in a systematic way.
Some of the significant principles and assumptions of learning include:
1) All human beings can learn
2) An individual must be motivated to learn
3) Learning is active and not passive
4) Learners may acquire knowledge more rapidly with guidance. Feedback ensures improvement in speed and accuracy of learning
5) Appropriate material (like case studies, tools, problems, readings, etc) should be provided
6) Time must be provided to practice learning
7) Learning methods should be varied. Variety of methods should be introduced to off-
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set fatigue and boredom
8) Learners need reinforcement of correct behaviour
9) Standards of performance should be set for the learner
10) Different levels of learning exists
11) Learning is an adjustment on the part of an individual
12) Individual differences play a large part in effectiveness of the learning process
13) Learning is a cumulative process
14) Ego factor is widely regarded as a major factor in learning
15) The rate of learning decreases when complex skills are involved.
16) Learning is closely related to attention and concentration
17) Learning involves long-run retention and immediate acquisition of knowledge
18) Accuracy deserves generally more emphasis than speed.
19) Learning should be relatively based
20) Learning should be a goal-oriented
Learning Patterns
Trainees need some understanding of the patterns in which new skills are adopted. The executive is likely to find himself unusually clumsy during the early stages of learning. This can be called discouraging stage. After the executive adjusts himself to the environment, he learns at a faster rate. A ―fatigue‖ develops after the lapse of more training time due to loss of motivation and lack of break in training schedule. The trainee reaches the next stage when he is motivated by the trainer and the training process restarts after some break. The trainee at this stage learns at a fast rate. Special repetition of the course leads the trainee to reach the stage of over-learning.
Learning Curve
-Learners Job Proficiency
-Discouraging first stage
-Increasing Returns
-Fast fatigue
-Peak Proficiency
-Over-learning period
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Thus, it is clear that learning partly takes place at a constant rate. It varies according to the difficulty of the task, ability of the individual and physical factors. However, the rate of learning varies from one individual to another.
Characteristics of Learning Process
Learning Process has the following characteristics
1) Learning is a continuous process
2) People learn through their actual personal experience, simulated experience and from others‘ experience
3) People learn step by step, from known to unknown and simple to complex
4) There is a need for repetition in teaching to inculcate skill and to learn perfectly
5) Practice makes man perfect. Hence, opportunity should be erected to use and transfer skills, knowledge and abilities acquired through learning. It gives satisfaction to the learner
6) Conflict in learning arises when the trainer knows or has developed some habits which are incorrect in terms of the method being learned.
Learning Problems
The trainer has to be familiar with the subject and its applied area. He should have the knowledge of the possible learning problems like:
1) Lack of knowledge, skill and favourable attitude
2) Knowledge and skill not being applied
3) Existence of anti-learning factors: Most operational situations contain a number of elements which will restrict the development of elements regardless the methods employed of learning
4) Psychological problems like fear end shyness
5) Durability to transfer of learning to operational situation
6) Heavy dependence on repetition, demonstration and practice
7) Unwilling to change
8) Lack of interest about the knowledge of results
9) Absence of self-motivation
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Teaching Principles
In addition to learning principles, teaching principles should also be taken care for effective training.
1) The executive must be taught to practice only the correct method of work
2) Job analysis and motion study techniques should be used
3) Job training under actual working conditions should be preferred to class room training
4) Emphasis should be given more on accuracy than speed
5) Teaching should be at different time intervals
6) It should be recognised that it is easier to train young workers than old workers due to their decreasing adaptability with the increase in age.
Principles of Training
A sound training programme should be based on the following principles
1) Designed to achieve pre-determined objectives
2) Less-expensive
3) Developed for all
4) Pre-planned and well organised
5) According to size, nature and financial position of the concern
6) Flexible
7) Conducted by an experienced supervisor
8) Coverage of theoretical as well as practical aspects
9) Interests of executives and employees
10) More than one method
11) Training followed by reward
12) Sufficient time for practice
Area of Training
Organisations provide training to their personnel in the following areas:
- Company policies and procedures
- Specific skills
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- Human relations
- Problem solving
- Managerial and supervisory skills and
- Apprentice training
A systematic approach to training
We have described the possible benefits of training fairly generally. Line management has, however, to contend with many problems every day, and training is only one of the option they may choose to use to solve these problems. Instead of the training option they could choose to send for work study experts, or systems analysts, or they might invest in new plant and machinery, or they may simply hire new fully trained staff. The training option and the four steps in the systematic approach to training must be closely associated with real and not imaginary performance problems. Figure below, illustrates the relationship.
Identify training needs
Performance problems may occur at organisational, departmental, or individual levels. The first stage on the systematic approach is therefore to use various types of analysis to
Performance
Problem
Identify Training
Needs
Assessment of
Results
Plan and
Design
Training
Implement
Training
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identify, as precisely as possible, the nature of the problem and the training needs of groups or individuals. Analytical techniques used range from the general to the specific in the following pattern:
a) Organisation Training Needs Analysis is used to consider such questions as productivity, new technology and project implementation. Rarely can these issues be dealt with in isolation and it is necessary to produce a broad picture of where problems exist and the contribution that training can make to overcoming them, together with any other action required to solve or reduce performance problems.
b) Job Analysis takes the analytical process a stage further by investigating in more detail the jobs people do. This will provide information for example, about tasks they perform, areas of responsibilities and relationships with other. Although job analysis is also used by other disciplines (e.g. job evaluation, and recruitment and selection), when it is used to identify training needs it directs attention to the competences required to do the job.
c) Task Analysis makes an in-depth investigation into the procedure, knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to ensure satisfactory performance of a job's key tasks. The products of this analysis provide the basis for training activities.
For systematic training to be effective in meeting performance problems, it is essential that all three types of analysis are either done or considered. It is equally important to use them with a degree of discretion, recognizing the contribution each can make, but balancing this against the time and costs incurred.
Plan and design training
Once the full extent of performance problems and training needs have been identified, appropriate training can be planned and designed. Some problems and needs may fall within existing training provision and can easily be attended to, others require special attention. This stage in the systematic approach is therefore concerned with planning the best use of available training resources, and the design of a wide range of training activities. These have to be planned within constraints such as budgets, operational demands, facilities, availability of personnel and so on.
A Training Programme takes account of the full extent of training that will be needed to help people solve their performance problem. These can be planned for groups or for individuals, and they can vary in duration from a few days to a year or more. All training programmes should have one feature in common, that is that they have not been computed until training needs have been attended to and satisfactory performance has been attained. Unfortunately, training is often, equated to courses, Courses are often principal features of a training programme, but differ in the following ways:
They are usually armed at a range of people with similar but not identical training needs.
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They are usually fairly general and are not necessarily related to specific performance problems, or job tasks.
They have a fixed time span within which people can learn.
A training progamme often includes courses but by themselves, courses rarely attend in full to training needs. They may include on the job training, distance learning computer based training etc., in addition to courses. Designing training refers to the application of appropriate training technology to devise learning opportunities suited to the needs of trainees.
The following sources can be used for identifying training needs.
Performance Review Reports
Performance review reports help in identifying directions in which the individuals should be trained and developed. On the basis of the annual appraisal reports, various dimensions of training can be identified. Training needs identified on the basis of performance appraisal, provide good information for organizing in-company training, and on-the-job training for a select group of employees.
Potential Appraisal
Training needs identified on the basis of potential appraisal, would become inputs for designing training programmes or work-out training strategies for developing the potential of a selected group of employees who are identified for performing future roles in the organisation.
Job Rotation
Working in the same job continuously for several years without much change may have demotivating effects. Some organisations plan job rotation as a mechanism of maintaining the motivation of people. Training is critical in preparing the employees before placing them in a new job.
Continuing Education
Besides these, most of the training programmes that are organised today, aim at equipping the managers with new technology. These training programmes attempt to help the managers raise their present level of effectiveness.
Implement training
Within the systematic approach to training this is the stage where people undertake learning activities. This requires the active, wholehearted participation of the trainee, supported
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by skilled instruction. The degree to which the trainee is willing to participate in training activities depends on such factors as whether:
The trainee recognises the need for training
The trainee is sufficiently motivated to want to learn and to participate willingly in learning events.
During implementation this motivation is maintained or increased
The design of learning events is realistic within the context of the organisation.
Clearly defined objectives are used to direct learning activities.
The trainers possess sufficient technical and instructional skill to enable them to cope with the trainees‘ learning needs.
Personnel in the organisation who are associated with the training activities, (management, supervisors and colleagues) support the application and development of newly acquired knowledge skills and attitudes.
The success of the implementation stage relies on these and many other factors. It is the often fragile process by which learning is organised and the means by which performance problems are resolved.
Assessment of results
Training is only as good as the result it achieves and the benefits derived from it by individuals and their organisations. The fourth and final stage is, therefore, to assess and evaluate the results obtained from training activities. The success or failure of this may depend upon the terms of reference and data being used for measurement and the extent to which this is common to the people involved – trainers, trainees, line management, general management, government training agencies, etc.
Assessment needs to answer three basic questions:
1) Did the training achieve what is tried to achieve (i.e. the objectives of the training)?
2) Did the training solve the problems it was intended to solve (i.e. is the trainee's performance after training satisfactory to line management)?
3) Was the training worthwhile (i.e. did it achieve its result at a reasonable cost)?
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Dimensions of Evaluation
Attention has been given to the main dimensions of training, and most of the suggested models are based on these. Four main dimensions have usually been suggested: contexts, inputs, outputs, and reaction. The last dimension is not in the same category as the other three. Reaction evaluation can be of contextual factors, training inputs, and outcomes of training.
In all discussions of training evaluation the most neglected aspect has been the training
process which cannot be covered by training inputs. The climate of the training organisation, the relationship between participants and trainers, the general attitudes and approaches of the trainers, training methods, etc., are very important aspects determining the effectiveness of training. Evaluation of the training process, therefore, should constitute an important element. We may thus have four main dimensions of evaluation: evaluation of contextual factors (C), evaluation of training inputs (I), evaluation of training process (P), and evaluation of training outcomes (O).
Areas of Evaluation
The various areas of training evaluation need more attention and elaboration. Seven main areas, with some sub-areas under each, are suggested below for consideration. These exhibit also shows the conceptual model of training, by relating the areas to the dimensions. 1. Pre-training Factors Context (a) Preparation (b) Learning Motivation (c) Expectations 2. Training Events (a) Curriculum Including (b) Specific Events (c) Specific Sessions 3. Training Management Context (a) Areas of Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction (b) Training Facilities (c) Other Facilities 4. Training Process (a) Learning Climate (b) Training Methods (Pedagogy) (c) Trainer Team Effectiveness 5. Participant Development Outcome (a) Conceptual Development (b) Learning of Skills (c) Change in Values/Attitudes (d) Change of Behaviour (e) Application 6. Organisational Development Outcome (a) Job Effectiveness
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(b) Team Effectiveness (c) Organisational Effectiveness 7. Post-training Factors Context (a) Cost (b) Organisational Support (c) Organisational Factors Hindering or Facilitating Use of Training
Effectiveness of training depends on the synergic relationship and collaborative working amongst the four major partners of training (participants, training organisation, trainers and client organisation). Hence evaluation should provide the necessary feedback to these for contributing to training effectiveness.
Training effectiveness depends not only on what happens during training, but also on what happens before the actual training (pre-training factors) and what happens after the training has formally ended (post-training factors). Evaluation cannot neglect these important contextual factors.
Various aspects of the training process that are not direct training inputs (for example also contribute to its effectiveness. Evaluation should, therefore, also focus on these factors.
The focus or the main task of evaluation should not only be in the nature of auditing (measuring training outcomes in terms of what has been achieved and how much), but should also be diagnostic (why the effectiveness has been low or high), and remedial (how effectiveness can be raised).
Some Issues in Training
Improvement of training in organisations requires paying attention to some critical
dimensions. The role of training for development of people and organisations has been discussed separately in detail, including pre-training work, curriculum development, selection of methods, building a training establishment and post-training support and follow-up. However, a few important dimensions which require special attention in organisations are discussed here.
1. Learning The main function of training is to facilitate learning. The most effective learning is self-initiated and self-managed learning. Training should help in developing a culture of self-managed learning. In general, learning by discovery is more internalised and is longer-lasting than didactic learning from others.
Below are suggested 15 different conditions to make learning effective. For this purpose,
learning has been defined as ―the process of acquiring, assimilating, and internalising cognitive, motor or behavioural inputs for their effective and varied use when required, and leading to enhanced capability of further self-monitored learning‖.
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1. Authentic and open system of training institution or the place of learning. 2. Non-threatening climate. 3. Challenging learning tasks. 4. Collaborative arrangements for mutual support of learners. 5. Organisation of graduated experiences of challenging successes. 6. Mechanisms for supportive and quick feedback. 7. Opportunities to practise the skills learnt. 8. Opportunities to apply learning. 9. Opportunities for and encouragement to self-learning. 10. Opportunities for and support to experimentation. 11. Emphasis on learning through discovery. 12. Indirect and liberating influence by trainer/teacher through minimum guidance. 13. Trainer‘s/teacher‘s human values and faith in man. 14. Trainer‘s/teacher‘s high expectations from learners, and openness to examine own needs. 15. Trainer‘s/teacher‘s competence.
2. Pre-training Work
Unless attention is paid to the following pre-training work, training cannot succeed in developing people, groups, and organisations: proper identification of training needs; developing a strategy of development of people through training, including the rationale and criteria of who (which role occupants) should be sent for training, how many at a time and, in what sequence; the process of helping people to volunteer, and the departments to ask for training; pre-training workshop in some cases to raise the level of motivation of participants and finalise the curriculum; building expectations of prospective participants from training, etc.
3. Post-training Work
Equally important is what is done after the training is over. The training section needs to help the concerned managers to plan to utilise the participants‘ training, and provide the needed support to them. Post-training work helps in building linkages between the training section and the line departments. Follow-up work by the training section is critical.
4. Expanding the Training Concept
The concept of training has to be widened and training should include not only programmes involving face-to-face classroom work, but should also include other ways of providing information and giving necessary skills to people in an organisation. In fact, getting people together in a group for giving information which can be given in some other form is a waste of resources. Moreover, the organisation cannot afford to provide the necessary information and skills on all aspects to all those who need it, by using the classroom model of training. Self-instructional packages and manuals of various kinds can be very rich and useful resources of training, even without collecting people at one site. For example, all those who join the organisation should know about the budgetary processes and the concept of transfer price.
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If a self-instructional book is prepared on this subject, this can be given to anyone who joins the organisation so that he gets familiar with this concept and can understand the whole process of all the negotiations taking place in the company. It may, therefore, be recommended that a list of areas in which such self-instructional material can be prepared should be developed. This may include the new sales tax rules, new environmental changes, basic financial problems, calculating contribution, etc. Similarly, manuals of simple office procedures, leave rules, various personnel practices, etc., may also be prepared. However, the immediate superior officer may help the employees by calling them for dialogue and further clarifications after the employees have learnt through such self-instructional books.
5. Preparation of Training Materials
There is a great need to develop more training materials. Unfortunately, most of the training programmes use only the lecture method. While the lecture method itself needs improvement through use of small group discussions, etc., new training materials need to be developed. These will include simulation exercises and games, role play cases and material, cases and incidents, practical work manuals, tests and instruments, and self-instructional materials. Preparation of such material involves large investment of money, time and energy. But it is still worthwhile, and will have much higher pay-off than the cost of the investment. In some cases an Organisation can get help from outside experts in the preparation of such material, especially simulation exercises and games, role plays, cases, and self-instructional material.
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'Live as if you were to die tomorrow.
Learn as if you were to live forever.'
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CHAPTER 4
IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING
Training enables the employees to get acquainted with jobs and increase their aptitudes, skills and knowledge. It helps the newly recruited to be productive in minimum amount of time. Even for the experienced workers, it is necessary to refresh them an enable them to keep up with new methods, techniques, new machines and equipments for doing the work. According to Dale S. Beach ―Training is vital and necessary to activity in all organisational and of plays a large part in determining the effectiveness and efficiency of the establishment‖. Training is advantageous not only to the organisation but also the employees.
Advantages to the Organisation
The major advantages of training to organisation could be referred to as:
1) Follow up of selection procedure: Training is a follow up of selection procedure. It helps in choosing the most appropriate individuals for different jobs. Training can be used in spotting out promising persons and in removing defects in selection process;
2) Better Performance: Training is about improvement of the quality of output by increasing the skill of the employee. This makes the fresh and old employee acquire more skills and thus, be accurate in performance of their work;
3) Reduction in Cost Production: Training personnel is to make better and economical use of materials and equipments besides decreasing wastage. In addition, the rate of accidents and damage to machinery and equipment is at the minimum by the well trained employees amounting to lesser cost of production per unit,
4) Reduced Supervision: If the employees are given proper training, the need of supervision gets lessened. A well trained employee is self-reliant in his work as he comes to know what is to be and how. Under such situations, close supervision is not much required. Leaving the scope for the management focus its attention on other basic and important functions;
5) Increased morale: The morale of the employee gets boosted, if they are given proper training. As a common objective of the organisation, training programme moulds its employees‘ attitude to achieve support for organisational activities and obtain better cooperation and greater loyalty. With the help of tiny dissatisfaction, complaints, absenteeism and turnover can also be reduced among the executives. Thus, training helps in building an efficient and cooperative work force; and
6) Organisational Stability and Flexibility: Training increases the stability and flexibility of the organisation. Creation of a reservoir of trained replacements increases the stability of the organisation that is; the organisation is able to sustain its effectiveness despite the loss of key personnel.
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Advantages to the Executive
The incumbents on executive position have advantages to their credit through training. It could be reflected as follows:
1) Increase in wage earning capacity: Training helps the executive in acquiring new knowledge and job skills. In this way, it increases their market value and wage earning power leading to increase in their pay and status.
2) Job Security: Training can help an executive to develop his ability to earn make the official adaptive to new work methods, besides learning to use new kinds of equipment and adjusting to major changes in job contents as well a work relationship; and
3) Chances of Promotion: Training also qualifies the executives for promotion to more responsible jobs.
Limitations of Training
Every coin has two sides. The other side of training, that is, its limitations is as such:
1. Training is a costly affair and expensive process making organisations to spend substantive amount, taken out of other organisational commitments.
2. Training may result in dislocation of work and loss of output because regular office work is likely to be interrupted or delayed because of the time of trainees spent in training;
3. Sometimes, it is difficult to obtain good training instructors and leaders; and
4. Self-reliance and capacity for new ideas might be stiffed.
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CHAPTER 5
HOW TO CONDUCT TRAINING SESSIONS
The success of a training programme cannot be ensured by the preparations alone, for ultimately it depends on the efficiency of the resource persons who impart training. The resource persons should have a thorough understanding about the different components of the training programme and their own role in conducting training.
The following check list would be useful for the trainers to play their role effectively:
i) Familiarity with the area choosen, i.e,. one's own understanding of the subject matter.
ii) Degree of appropriateness ,i.e., collection and arrangement of information to suit the audience.
iii) Presentation, i.e., interesting and clear presentation.
iv) Involving the audience in the activity, i.e., promoting activity or active interaction.
v) Management, i.e., handling of questions and discussions in an effective manner.
vi) Time budgeting.
vii) Resourcefulness ,i.e., tacticdpresence of mind, etc.
viii) Correct judgement of the prior knowledge of the audience on the topic under consideration.
ix) Choice of the right strategy which should work when new terms and concepts are introduced.
x) Establishing proper linkages between what is being imparted in the training sessions and the actual job situation of the trainees.
xi) Adequate treatment of the items listed for discussion.
xii) Use of proper techniques to begin and end the presentation.
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xiii) Being flexible and open to receive new ideas from peers and the trainees.
xiv) Avoiding mechanical approaches to concepts and strategies which do not convey the message to the trainees.
xv) Adopting a self-critical and reflective approach to one's own way(s) of conducting training.
The above check list can be helpful only when the trainers have adequate resources. They must have adequate time to collect the necessary information and they should anticipate the possibilities of changing or giving up some of their plans, if the course of the training takes such a turn. In any case, the achieving of the objectives must be treated as more important than sticking to the original plan, which, though meticulous, may not work in certain situations and with certain audiences.
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CHAPTER 6
CAUSES FOR FAILURE OF TRAINING
Training effort in most cases in many organisations becomes a failure due to weaknesses in policies, procedures, practices concerning training activities. Some such important causes for the failure of training, in general, are:
1) Top management does not have complete faith basically in HRD philosophy and has little confidence in training as an important method for ensuring development of human resources.
2) The training objectives or not clear, specific and not understood by all.
3) Training policy is not clear, lacks comprehensiveness and does not have proper linkage with other HRD policies.
4) Organisational arrangements, budgetary allocations, staff resources, aids, etc. are not adequate and properly placed
5) Training staff lacks coordination with other staff and personnel
6) In various aspects relating to training, such as identification of needs, selection of trainees, sponsoring candidates for training, using trainees on the job etc., there is not adequate seriousness to ensure effectiveness of training. It is felt that procedures are adopted as a mere formality
7) In conducting training activity, absence seriousness to involve the trainees in learning affects the training outcome. Besides, lack of expertise in using the methods, aids, resources, etc. hampers the expected results.
8) Lack of efforts to make better utilisation of the trainees and unfavourable environment to the trainees in applying their enhanced abilities and in rewarding their improved performance.
9) Lack of evaluation of training at various stages. The outcomes of training programmes are not monitored.
Efforts to overcome the weaknesses mentioned may help the organisation in improving the effectiveness of training.
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“Getting things done is not always what is most
important. There is value in allowing others to learn, even
if the task is not accomplished as quickly, efficiently or effectively.”
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CHAPTER 7
TRAINING METHODS
Importance
The use of proper training methods is a prerequisite condition of the effectiveness of conducting a training programme. The selection and use of such methods becomes all the more crucial as the participatory nature of the activity demands that the training should be not only be educative but equally stimulating. Use of single most effective method or combination of methods promotes greater interaction between the trainer and the trainees and, hence, creates a learning experience required for the fruitfulness of the activity.
Types
Although there are many methods used in different training programmes, those having particular relevance in training are:
(i) Lecture
(ii) Case study
(iii) Group discussion
(iv) Role playing
(v) Demonstration
(vi) Workshop method
(vii) Field trips
(viii) Study tours
None of the above mentioned methods is singularly suitable or sufficiently effective for
any training activity. Every method has its own advantage or disadvantage. It is from this angle that there is a need to make proper selection quite carefully, taking into account a number of factors and going for the most appropriate ones. However, each method can be used more effectively if the trainer is well versed with the related skills of the same.
A brief account of each method as given below, which will help the trainer to make the right selection.
(i) Lecture
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Traditionally this method has been accepted as the most widely used form of communication between the trainer and the trainees. It is also relatively easy to plan and deliver. The extent to which a lecture can be effective depends on the quality of the lesson plan and the efficiency of presentation. However, the success of the use of this method depends largely on the level of understanding of the trainees and their desire to learn the subject. The use of this method is constrained by the monotonous effect that a lecture produces. Also, there is only a limited scope for meaningful interaction between the trainer and the trainees. To overcome these limitations the trainer is advised to supplement the lecture by the use of suitable training aids.
Rating of the quality and contents of the lecture method is done in terms of the way it has been organised, presented, supplemented by other methods, benefited the trainees to the expected level and evaluated by outside agency in case the situation demands. Basic requirements of an effective lecture method are depicted in the box below:
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However, it is the total speaking ability that plays an important role in the quality presentation of a lecture.
There are some supplementary measures which add to the quality of a lecture. They are:
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♦ Use of proper teaching aids in order to sustain the interest of trainers;
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♦ Tactful handling of questions so as to avoid uncomfortable situations;
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♦ Proper classification of issues raised by the trainees;
♦ Effective organisation of discussion; ♦ Adequate provision of background notes and reference materials.
(ii) Case Study
The use of this method has the advantage of an opportunity being given to the learners to participate in free, frank and informal discussions. This method is of particular use when the target group is to be told about a field related problem and the way the solution has been made. The disadvantage of the use of this method is that the interest of the target group is difficult to sustain unless the case study is meaningful and interesting.
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(iii) Group Discussion
It is a method which helps an individual to learn about a subject through interpersonal exchange of information and ideas in a group situation, whereby ten or twelve persons participate. The method involves the group in active thinking process, which stimulates critical thinking amongst the members of the group.
The limitations of this method are that it is a relatively slow moving process and there is always a likelihood of the process being dominated by the talkers and those opting for less talk and more thinking may be sidetracked. Also in a large group an opportunity to express gets diluted. These limitations can, however, be overcome by reducing the size of the group or conducting the group discussion through buzz session. In any case the usefulness of group discussion is only when it is conducted in a guided manner and when the group leader ensures that the discussions do not deviate from the major theme.
(iv) Role Play
Role play is one of the most important training methods, where the trainees learn through their participation in an unrehearsed on-the-spot reaction to a perceived problem to seek a possible solution which their future role may demand. This method provides an
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opportunity to the trainees to demonstrate their attitude towards the problem and their willingness to solve the same.
This method has the advantage of being equally interesting both to the trainer and the trainees. It provides a good opportunity to the learners to express their feelings quite spontaneously. In addition, this method is an effective instrument to stimulate the participation of the trainees in the learning situation. For effective use of this method the trainer has first to plan the problem situation and then describe the characters to be involved and the roles to be assigned to every individual character. After giving some time to the trainees for their preparation, the role-play starts with the action and continues till every trainee has had his/her say in accordance to the assigned role. The process is then followed by discussions.
However, the method is restrained by the limitation of the lack of expected degree of participation of those trainees who may not be spontaneous in acting and those who fail to get into the spirit of role playing. On the other hand, the trainees being alert and articulate will find the method quite interesting and meaningful.
(v) Demonstration
The demonstration is a method based on presentation that shows how to perform an act or use a procedure. It is often followed by the activity under the guidance of the instructor. Sometimes this method is also used to demonstrate the impact of a new practice in contrast to the old one. The former type of demonstration is known as ‗method demonstration‘ while the latter is known as ‗result demonstration‘.
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This method has the advantage of greater impact on the learner in terms of adding to his existing level of knowledge and skills. This method is known to be based on the principles of ‗seeing is believing‘ and ‗learning by doing‘.
Of course, result demonstration cannot be conducted in a classroom situation. During field trips or study tours the trainees can be given some idea about result demonstration. For example, the trainees can be shown a plantation area where modern practices have been adopted. The comparison between the success and failure models can be used as a method of result demonstration.
However, for a real situation the result demonstration has to be conducted at a site where the impact of the use of improved technology can be demonstrated under a ‗controlled‘ situation and ‗experimental plots‘. This method is more relevant in relation to agricultural crops as compared to tree plantation, as in the latter case it takes more time to show the impact of the use of the technology being demonstrated.
(vi) Workshop Method
The ‗workshop‘ is one of the most effective methods of educational/training process, whereby a group consisting of 10 to 25 participants share their ideas on a common problem and reach a solution through consensus. This method provides an opportunity to the participants for their professional growth, particularly in relation to the community oriented role which they may be expected to play. Apart from an opportunity for deeper involvement in the learning experience, this method prepares the target group for the determination of their common goal and also to spell out the action strategy to arrive at a set goal.
The use of this method is, however, restrained by the limitations of requiring more of time and organisational resources. In addition, the success of the workshop method depends on competence of the training staff to conduct the workshop quite effectively and also the intellectual level of the trainee-participants to interact more meaningfully. With a view to ensuring fruitfulness of the exercise the participants are expected to be genuinely willing to share their ideas and information more freely and fruitfully.
For conducting training through workshop there should be a room large enough to provide accommodation for a group of 10 to 20 participants.
Learning on-the-job – Nine Training Requirements
a) Provide successive glimpses of the job in such dimensions that the skill required for each
can be grasped, practiced separately if necessary, and then put together with other parts when the time is ripe. That is the same as saying that what the programme puts forward for the attention of the participants at any time must be real for them.
b) Provide time and other resources, such as the trainer‘s knowledge and experience, in such measure that the participants can convert the training event into an experience for themselves.
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c) Protect the participants and their organisation against personal harm and expensive error arising from lack of knowledge and skill.
d) Make the learning process itself conscious for the participants so that they know how to deal with new situations as they arise and can go on learning.
e) Expose participants to ideas and methods beyond those now available within the organisation.
f) Provide opportunities for experiment beyond the tolerance of an operating organisation and for feedback of results.
g) Give participants the experience of belonging to groups beyond the organisation, particularly professional and organisational groups, which can foster continued exchange of ideas and the development of high standards in the profession.
h) Provide opportunities to step back from day-to-day tasks to think about one‘s job as a whole, analyze priorities and division of time and how the job fits into the participants‘ pattern of life.
i) Provide opportunities for very intensive experience through a high degree of consistency and training skill.
Selection of the Right Method depends on
♦ Learning objective
♦ Trainer
♦ Trainee
♦ Educational level
♦Age and experience
♦ Social/cultural environment
♦Learning environment
♦ Subject
♦Time and material factors
♦ Preparation time-cost
♦Length of course
♦ Course runs
♦Time of day
♦ Teaching facilities
♦ Thrust on collective and self-evaluation of participatory action.
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Opting for an Appropriate Method
For each situation there is a specific set of methods as depicted below.
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8.7 Measures to ensure fruitful outcome of the training
There are special measures to ensure that the outcome of the training is fruitful. Special mention may be made of some of them as depicted in the box on the next page.
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CHAPTER 8
TRAINING FOR MAXIMUM EFFECTIVENESS
How to Train:
To encompass the full field of training and development, there are four phases, which must be considered:
(a) Planning; (b) Preparation; (c) Instruction and (d) Evaluation.
Phase A:
Planning a Training program
While an old adage advises that ‗learning is caught, not taught‘, the learning effort will be largely wasted unless it is built upon a well-researched, well-thought-out training plan. This should contain all the items in the training specification and give details of the order in which they should be taught, the methods to be used, instructional staff, location and timetable. In planning the programme it is helpful to ask - and answer - the following questions:
Who is to be trained- number and type of employee?
Why are they to be trained – training objectives?
What should be taught – knowledge and skills?
How should training be done – methods?
Who should do the training – instructors?
When can it be done – length and frequency?
Where will it be done – location?
How will it be assessed – evaluation?
Four natural parts to be emphasized upon in planning shall be as follows:
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Step No. 1: Survey and analyze training needs like all plans, training plans, too, should be directed at specific needs, problems, and objectives. Employees, themselves, often have as good an idea as anyone as to where they need improvement, so they should be queried, by all means. The supervisor, too, should form his own thoughts about deficiencies and areas for improvement. Ultimately, the views of manager and not the employees ought to reach some common points of agreement.
With the training manager available to each office, he or she can provide an analysis of training needs in several different ways. He or she can conduct a sample survey by questionnaire, which asks employees to indicate (against a checklist of skill, knowledge and problems) those areas in which they feel sufficiently proficient and those in which they could benefit from additional training. Similar information can also be gathered from aptitude surveys - either by asking specific questions about training or, indirectly, from analysis of the survey replies. Attitude and skill tests can also segregate those who need and/or can benefit from training from those who don't need it or are unlikely to benefit from it.
Training records
Simple records can assist the Training Manager in deciding who needs training and when, and ensure that all staff are receiving the required training.
For this purpose, there should be an individual record for each trainee, giving name, date of joining, history of service and details of the training – i.e. dates (start and completion), objectives, methods, result of training, cost, further action, and a department record, giving names of trainee, type of training, dates, results of training, costs, further action, in respect of each training course conducted.
Step No. 2: Identify and analyze key points: Focus here is on the job to be performed, the problem to be solved, the information to be relayed, or the new responsibility to be understood. When this step is followed in complete details, it is usually preceded by a full-scale job-breakdown analysis. (In a job breakdown, the particular task to be studies is segmented into its basic steps, and them each step is broken down into sub steps. That way every element of the aggregate is scrutinized). The prime objectives of key-point analysis are two: first to identify those steps, or sub steps, that must be performed exactly right; and second, to pin down specifically how this is done, what kind of information the trainee would need to know to do it, plus guidelines to indicate whether it's been done correctly or not.
Training Methods
Step No. 3: Select the proper training methods: Judgment, as well as knowledge and experience, is a necessary guide here. Each method has its pros and cons. In many instances, two or more methods may be used in order to achieve results, or to achieve them more quickly. The table below provides some general rules of thumb to follow.
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Sl. No.
Method Use
1. Individual instruction Teach important or complicated skill. Change method of work or bad habit.
2. Group instruction Give basic or supplementary information on specific subject.
3. Lecture Give basic or supplementary information on specific subject.
4. Demonstration Clarify grasp of manual skills; highlight key problem or principle.
5. Conference/Seminars Solve problems; direct or change attitude.
6. Meeting Exchange information, get ideas of group, solve immediate problem.
7. Written instruction Give important information in permanent form for immediate or later use.
8. Oral directions Give information needed at once-in short form.
9. The Case Study Method A Record of a real situation, including the surrounding facts, opinions and prejudices, given to trainees to analyze & discuss.
10. Role – playing A form of 'learning by doing' but in a simulated situation.
11. Tele-training A trainee in a central location can train groups of employees at remote locations.
12. Video conferencing A means of joining two or distant groups using a combination of audio and visual equipment.
13. Computer Based Training Trainee uses a computer – based system to interactively increase his or her knowledge or skills.
14. Action Learning
15. Action Maze.
16. Brain Storming.
17. In basket/In tray exercise
18. Simulation
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19. Sensitivity Training
There must be a match between a training event and the method applied to implement it. In doing this, there is much room for permutation and combination of techniques available, improvisation and experimentation. The choice of methods and techniques, however, for all the courses meant for sharpening of skill, there should be room for ―doing a thing" and understanding the process of doing it.
Case Studies:
The case study method is one of the most effective and participative methods which can be used for the training of officers/staff. It is generally agreed that this methods is one of the most effective in building up decision making and problem solving competence of administration. The ultimate purpose of imparting training is to relate the newly acquired training knowledge by the trainees to their day to day work. In this regard case studies on various areas of work dealt with by the various PCsDA/CsDA can help an idea to the trainees on typical problems arising in day to day work.
Step No. 4: Develop the course plan: Information and conclusions from each of the previous three steps must be consolidated into a specific instruction plan that provided an optimum appeal to interest, the most effective learning methods, plus a sequence schedule and a time table. Typically, a training plan can range from the sketchy to the detailed and comprehensive. However, most of the following factors in Table below should be considered, even if they are not set down in writing in your plan.
Contents of a Course Plan
(a) Basic Information Who, how many, where, what subjects etc.
(b) Instructional materials For trainer, for trainee
(c) Visual aids Blackboard, charts, films, projectors, etc.
(d) Schedule of points to cover How many, how big a portion at a time sequence
(e) Instruction methods and activities What trainer will do, what trainee will do
(f) Time table For each point, for each session for entire course
(g) Evaluations Test, checkpoints, assessment criteria
(h) Summary points For review at the close of each session
(i) Suggested reading Books, manuals, catalogs, periodicals
(j) Auxiliary activities Field trips, seminars, conferences
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Phase B:
Preparation Phase
The development of related course material and identification of suitable faculty for various modules shall be given due priority.
Phase C:
Conducting a Training Program
One may encounter any number of ways in which to proceed with the actual training segment of a program.
Step No. 5: Capture interest and arouse initiative: The trainer's task here is to open the doors to greater personal fulfillment for the trainee's so much so that the trainee generates his own initiative. This can be approached in several ways: eg.
(a) Appeal to the positive side of his nature by relating the activity to the sphere of the trainer's interests and by providing goals which are relevant and achievable.
(b) Provide an immediate success. Professor Herzberg insists that it is not motivation that provides achievement; instead, it is achievement that provides motivations!
Step No. 6: Provide insights and know –how: This is the traditional ―tell, show and do" aspect of training. Emphasis should be heavy on the "show and do" portion, since about 80% of what we "see and do" is perceived by the mind compared with about 10% of what we ―hear‖. It has also become clear that mere presentations or lectures are rarely effective. It is the insight and know-how that go along with a demonstration and practical exercise that make or break a training session. Such valuable know-how can be approached in three ways, through:
(a) Intellectual insights, including: relationships to past experience or to existing knowledge; analogies with familiar objects, subjects or processes; explaining the meaning behind the technique; providing a view of the whole into which an operation fits; and showing how the process connects from start to finish.
(b) Sensory insights, where show and tell come strongly into play; especially those insights that give a feel for what is ''firm", "tight", "bright", etc. defining limits of what is all right and what is not; emphasizing key points with dramatic video impressions.
(c) Procedural insight that establish the necessary sequence for successful accomplishment of objectives; stress on accuracy rather than speed, etc.
In so far as the duration of the courses is concerned, this could be determined based on the Course design and requirements without losing sight of spar ability of the employees from the work post for long spells at a time.
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The duration of each session may be fixed as at 75 minutes to provide for logical build-up of the topic, recapitulation of the major learning points and answering the doubts of the Participants.
The Course should be conducted taking into account factors such as the climate of the centre so that the trainers especially the Guest Faculty and senior level participates from outside are not put to any inconvenience.
Step No. 7: Accelerate improvement: Once an acceptable level of accuracy has been attained, the objective is to pick up momentum and to lift the learning rate to its highest. There are three proven ways to achieve this:
(a) Repetition and exercise, until the trainee can do the job almost automatically. (b) Raising the difficulty levels by increasing the complexity of assignments; by elevating
output demands; and by simulating various interruptions typically encountered under "live" conditions.
(c) Accelerating the rate of training by introducing new techniques, variations, etc. at shorter and shorter time intervals, as well as by shortening the time allowed to accomplish each task.
Phase D: Completing the Training cycle
Evaluation
Time and money spent on training is only justified if the training contributes to the efficiency of the organization and improves the performance and prospects of employees. Evaluation – the assessment of the total value of any training activity - is therefore essential.
Immediate Supervisory Officer/Training Managers are well placed to do this, through various methods; Training Managers can identify the lack of the knowledge and skill which is needed to do a job to required standards, or those operational problems which training can solve. They can themselves plan out the training needed. After the training they should reassess the individual's performance or re-examine the problem area, to test what the training has achieved. The Supervisors/Training Manager should ask the following questions.
Did result meet the training objective? (E.g. what evidence of improved performance?-
What benefits accrued to the organization?
Were there any spin-offs directly related to the training objectives?
What was the cost?
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How will decisions about future training be affected ?
In addition to making their own assessments, managers should ask the trainees how they felt they benefited from the training, and get the views of other people who may have been involved, e.g. supervisors, instructional staff etc.
As the improvement cycle approaches its zenith, true progress must be measured. Result must be tested to see if they are real and permanent, rather than imaginary or transitory. Evaluation also heaps to anticipate the leveling out of learning curve and to alert you to the need for preparations to resume the improvement cycle at a later date.
Step No. 8: Review Progress and evaluate results: Interview the trainee to gain an estimate of his confidence in his acquired capabilities. Talk with the people who inspect (or work with) the Services he renders to determine how they rate his performance. If performance tests are available, check to see how the trainee shapes up against the norms for that skill.
Step No. 9: Re-plan the improvement cycle anew: Review individual and group training needs, performance, potential, opportunities, changes in technology, and responsibilities. Set fresh goals and conceive of new programs calculated to break existing performance barriers.
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CHAPTER 9
FOUR WAYS OF LEARNING
Introduction
The purpose of training is to help people develop knowledge, skills and attitudes to enable them to do their jobs. This requires the trainer to consider such questions as:
Is the aim of the training to develop knowledge, skills or attitudes?
What is the entry behavior of the trainees? What transferable skills do they already possess? Are they willing to learn?
Is the entry behaviour likely to vary within the learning group?
What is the learning style of the trainees? Are they accustomed to being told, or do they prefer to work things out for themselves?
Does what they are learning require them to make decisions?
What is the environment for the learning event? Is it under working conditions, or off-the-job?
What methods will be used to give trainees feedback on their performance?
In considering these questions, an important underlying consideration is the way in which people learn. There are a bewildering variety of approaches to the psychological theories of learning. This chapter attempts to present a basic, practical framework for applying learning theories to typical training situations. It considers four ways in which people learn:
TRIAL AND ERROR - by trying for oneself
BEING TOLD - by receiving direct instruction, either orally, or in writing
IMITATION - by copying the actions of another person, usually an instructor or a skilled person.
THINKING - by organising one's thoughts about a topic or problem to arrive at an explanation or solution.
TRIAL AND ERROR This is probably the simplest and the most traditional form of learning. Trainees try to do something and learning takes place when they review the success or failure of their attempt. Trial and error learning is essentially a practical activity and is therefore particularly suitable for learning skills.
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Trainees often like to learn by trial and error – ‗having a go‘. This is especially true when the trainee feels confident and able to participate in what will usually be practical, work-related situations.
Generally, younger people like to try themselves because learning activities are often introducing something new, challenging and of practical work-related significance. Older people like to learn by trial and error because they are able to build upon their existing repertoire of skills and to use their experience as the basis for learning.
One of the most important features of trial and error learning is knowledge of results. When a trainee tries to do something, the attempt has to be reinforced, either by praise, confirming that the attempt was correct (positive reinforcement), and only occasionally admonishment for making an incorrect attempt (negative reinforcement). This means that:
a) Trial and error learning situations should be so designed that the trainee has a good chance of making successful attempts, leading to positive reinforcement.
b) Learning events leading to probable failure should usually be avoided. Errors lead to a lowering of confident and reluctance to attempt further trial and error learning activities.
c) An exception to (b) above is when a failure attempt is used as the basis for further learning, allowing the trainee to reflect upon what went wrong (see Thinking)
d) The trainee should feel a sense of security. He or she should feel confident that if the attempt results in failure, it will lead to nothing other than friendly advice.
Opportunities for précising trial and error learning should be created around practical, realistic, activities. The learning opportunities should be events that are structured rather than unstructured. Structured learning events are those that the trainer has carefully planned, where the trainees is learning in a circulative way with each attempts leading to probable success and to further even more demanding learning opportunities.
An unstructured trial and error learning event is one where the trainer has made no plans. The trainee attempts to do something without proper supervision, and without knowing the likely outcome of the attempt. The results of such an unstructured learning event is likely to be failure, with the trainee becoming demotivated through loss of confidence, both in himself and in his trainer.
When properly planned, learning by trial and error can make a valuable contribution to training activities and is particularly useful for practical on-the-job training.
BEING TOLD
The basis of this way of learning is that the trainee receives some information from the trainer. The instruction can be in words, symbols, or figure. The entire content of what has to be learned is presented to the trainee in a final form. The task of learning does not require the trainee to make any independent discovery.
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When a trainee is told something he or she is being presented with a fleeting moment in which to understand and remember the information. How fleeting the moment and how much the trainee learns depend upon:
a) The amount of information to be remembered; if it is only a small amount the trainee can simply be told and be expected to remember. However, if there is a considerable amount of information, it is unreasonable to expect a trainee to remember it. The information should therefore be presented in written form to enable the trainee to refer to it when necessary.
b) The complexity of the information: the more complex the information the more it requires careful consideration of how it would be best presented and for this presentation to be supported by visual aids.
Being told something is not always an easy activity for either the trainee or the trainer. First of all there is the willingness of the trainee to listen and learn. Younger people find this easier to do than adults who may resent this essentially presumptive approach to learning.
The relationship between the trainer and the trainee is another. ‗Being told‘ implies that that the trainee does not know and the trainer does. In practical terms, this means that:
a) The trainee must want to learn the information and has to accept the trainer as a provider of it.
b) The trainer must know the information, be able to communicate it effectively, and be credible to the trainee.
c) An instructional success must be created which give the trainee the opportunity to learn. This requires preparation, effective presentation, and a sufficient amount of trainer learning to take place.
Being told is a useful way to provide learning, especially when used for imparting knowledge. This is particularly so for situations where there is a clear-cut body of knowledge with a minimum of ambiguity. The effectiveness of this way of learning depends largely upon the ability of the trainer to prepare and communicate the information.
IMITATION
In learning by imitation, an opportunity is created whereby a trainee can observe somebody performing a task. The trainee then attempts to imitate the performance he or she has observed. Essentially, learning by imitation is based upon what a trainee sees done, not on what he is told should be done.
A model which a trainee can imitate should be a positive influence because it should be a demonstration of the correct way to do something. It can equally be a negative influence because the trainee may see and imitate incorrect ways of doing something. In both cases, it is what the trainees sees being done that matters most and influences behaviour.
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Learning by imitation is an aspect of the learning process that requires very careful consideration by the trainer. For example, there might be a considerable difference between what a trainee has learned in, say, an off-the-job training centre, and what is seen being done on the job. The question to be asked then is, which ‗model‘ was the correct one - the one seen in the training centre, or the one seen on the job? Almost certainly the trainee will imitate the on-the-job model because of pressure to conform to group norms. The overpowering influence of the group will affect the trainee's behaviour; the trainee will almost certainly conform, irrespective of any off-the-job training he or she might have received to work-place norms.
On-the-job training can provide an excellent basis for learning by imitation. However, if on-the-job training is ill-prepared and unstructured, the trainee will be exposed to (and learn) probably as many bad working practices as good one. The trainer would be well advised to consider the following points:
a) A good ‗model performance‘ should be available so that it can be imitated by the trainee.
b) The learning event should permit accurate and complete observation by the trainee. This is sometimes difficult in that not everything in the performance will be observable. The stimuli the skilled worker takes in through his senses and uses for his skilled performance may not be immediately apparent, and reliance solely on imitation may lead the trainee to acquire the wrong behaviour.
c) As far as possible, trainees should not be exposed to bad models. If this cannot be avoided, then efforts must be made to positively reinforce good behaviour, and to highlight the consequences of bad behaviour. (See Thinking).
d) Trying to change the work behaviour of one member of a group is almost bound to end in failure. It is usually far more effective to train the whole group together.
THINKING Learning can occur when a trainees is encouraged to think about an experience and to reflect on it in learning terms. Using such questions as ‗Why do you think that happened?‘, ‗What would you do if you were to repeat it?‘, the trainer is able to create a learning event within which complex situations can be thought about and discussed. It might be that there is not a simple, clear-cut, answer; the trainee might be presented with a number of options, each one having some advantages to offer. Learning can take place when the trainee has to evaluate the options, draw conclusions, consider consequences, and generally ‗think through‘ the situation.
In practical, work-related, situations, particularly ones facing managers, technicians, and supervisors, there is rarely a simple solution. The learning event created for such situations must reflect and take account of the complexity of the situation, and the varied experiences, and opinions held by trainees on the subject. In such circumstances, the trainer has to encourage consideration of each situation; the reasons why it occurred and the consequences of pursuing a particular course of action. The fact that there is not necessarily one simple solution may need to be stressed. Each trainee may have his or her own interpretation of the situation and a valuable
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learning experience can occur when this interpretation is challenged and evaluated alongside those of other trainees.
Learning by thinking is a valuable way of providing a learning experience. Some factors to be taken into account include:
a) The maturity and experience of the trainees, relative to the thinking required. What is a complex, demanding, thinking experience for one trainee, becomes a simple situation all too easily resolved by another.
b) The trainer should adopt an advisory, counseling role. He or she must encourage trainee-centred learning and avoid imposing personal solutions to the problems posed by the situation.
c) The more complex the situation, the less likely it is for there to be a simple, definitive, answer. A trainee, having struggled through to a possible solution, claims ‗ownership‘ and is looking for support, critical appraisal, and, generally, positive reinforcement.
d) Thinking is a very personal activity and the time needed to reach a solution to a problem will vary considerably within a group of trainees. This means that sufficient time should be allowed within the learning event for each trainee to gain full benefit from the learning experience. Any attempt by the trainer to rush this sort of learning process will almost certainly result in a degree of learning failure.
e) If there is a straightforward, definitive, solution to a problem it is usually far more appropriate to simply tell the trainees.
Thinking is a valuable and rewarding learning experience. It provides an excellent basis for learning about complex situation. The role of the trainer is one of establishing the conditions for learning to take place and then acting coach and counselor.
APPLICATION OF THE FOUR WAYS OF LEARNING – SOME
EXAMPLES
1. WIRING A 13 amp PLUG
LEARNING EVENT WAYS OF LEANING
Explanation of the features of the 13 amp plug. Being told
Demonstration of wiring a plug. Imitation
Practice at wiring a plug. Trial and Error
Questions about safely. Thinking
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Comment: A fairly straightforward instructional session, with all four ways of learning being used.
2. FINDING A BOOK IN THE COLLEGE LIBRARY
LEARNING EVENT WAYS OF LEANING
Reading a copy of the booklet
‗Finding a Book in the college Library‘
Being told
Asked to find a selection of books. Trial and Error
Comment: Given the booklet, an example of a performance aid, it is only necessary to follow the instructions.
3. SERVING A CUSTOMER
LEARNING EVENT WAYS OF LEANING
Put on a service counter, told to get on with the job
Trial and Error
Comment: An all too frequent occurrence. There is nothing upon which the trainee can base his or her performance Let's try again.
4. SERVING A CUSTOMER
LEARNING EVENT WAYS OF LEANING
Put with an experienced sales person. Imitation
Given selling duties. Trial and Error
Comment: Certainly better than (3). At least the trainee can see how the job should be done. However, do we assume that the ‗experienced salesperson‘ is a good model to imitate? Equally, there is no guarantee that because the person is good at selling, he or she is equally
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good at instruction. Also, the learning events above do not actually provide for formal instruction, where emphasis is on ‗training‘ rather than on ‗selling‘. Let's try again.
5. SERVING A CUSTOMER
LEARNING EVENT WAYS OF LEANING
Key features of the task of selling are explained.
Being told
Put with an experienced sales-person. Imitation
Given selling duties, under simulated conditions, Activity recorded on CCTV.
Trial and Error
Playback of video recording.
Asked to identify what went right and what went wrong.
Asked to consider what changes could be made.
Thinking
Given Selling duties. Trial and Error
Comment: A far more successful attempt, mainly because advantage is taken of all our ways of leaning. Maybe the trainee learned more by watching, or maybe by being told, or maybe by having a go, probably a mixture of all of them. The thinking action is added to enable good behaviour to be reinforced, and not so good behaviour considered, faults identified and rectified.
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“Give the pupils something to do, not
something to learn; and the doing is of such a nature as to demand
thinking; learning naturally results.”
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CHAPTER 10
THE TRAINER AND HIS/HER ROLE
The Trainer and his/her Tasks
The trainer occupies a pivotal place in the whole process of training. Much of the success of a training programme depends on his/her competence and capabilities. He/she has multifarious roles to play during various phases of a training programme. The success of a trainer depends on his/her versatility in taking on a number of roles. However, at times taking on multifarious roles can cause some concern and anxiety and adversely affect the job efficiency of a trainer. It is, therefore, pertinent that the trainer should not only identify his/her roles very carefully, but also decide their sequencing as per the priority order of his/her short-term and long-term goals. This will help him/her to take up only those roles at a time, which need top priority. Such approach will not only help the trainer to reduce his/her workload but also add to his/her job efficiency.
As regards efficiency of the trainer, it has to be understood that irrespective of the quality and contents of the training imparted to a group of future trainers there will always be a interpersonal differences in their job performance efficiency as skilled trainers. Training can best be used for developing the required skills which a trainer is expected to be equipped with.
Basic Requirements for a Trainer
There are a number of personality traits that may help an individual to discharge his/her role as a trainer quite effectively. In case of those being trained to impart training in the particular field of human resource development, there is all the more a need to ensure that those selected for the job should essentially meet these basic requirements.
Some of the Basic Requirements for a Successful Trainer
(i) A Desire to take up the Job
The one who wishes to be an efficient trainer must have the ‗basic‘ desire to accept the assigned role as his/her natural choice. That way he/she will not only enjoy the work, but also be more committed to the entrusted responsibility. In addition, this will also help the process of achievement/motivation which is so crucial for the success of the assigned task.
(ii) Knowledge of the Subject Matter
In addition to the expertise relating to the techniques and tools of conducting training, the potential trainer needs to have adequate knowledge of the subject matter to be included in
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the future training activities. Such a knowledge will help the trainer to select those training methods and materials which suit a particular training course. It will be worthwhile to point out that not all training methods are applicable to all training courses.
(iii) Basic Understanding of Human Behaviour
A potential trainer should have the natural aptitude to understand human behaviour. This will help him/her to appreciate as to why a particular trainee or a group of trainees is responding or reacting to whatever subject matter is being discussed during the course of training One may find different levels of enthusiasm amongst the trainees. Or maybe the trainer finds the trainees indifferent to whatever is being told to them. In extreme cases there may be a situation when trainees or a group of them may create problems, raise voices of protest and make it difficult to let the training continue. A trainer who knows a bit of human psychology will be in position to know the real cause of such development and resolve the crisis skillfully. Similarly a basic knowledge of the attitude and aspirations and interests of individuals will help the trainer to design the training strategy which may ensure the active involvement of the trainees.
(iv) Knowing the Learners, their Background and Training Needs
An effective trainer is one who knows his/her trainees well. It is, therefore, essential for a trainer to have full understanding of the members of his/her target group in terms of their socio-economic-cultural background, professional competence and experience, interests, aspirations, achievement motivation, goal orientation, perceptional ability, needs and expectations and their future role assignments. All these aspects can be known, not necessarily through any formal academic exercise, but also through keen observation, informal group discussions and other ways of earning their confidence.
(v) Knowing Psychological Traits of the Learners An effective trainer has to ensure that there should be a proper environment in which a learner gets maximum opportunity to learn. In this context it has to be understood that the experience of learning is not limited to the process of thinking only. It is in fact an emotional process through which the learner is motivated to change attitude. Likewise, learning is also a psychological process which promotes the necessary aptitude for adopting a new practice. In a comprehensive sense a learning environment, therefore, relates to such mental, emotional and psychological factors that accelerate the desirable changes in the knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) of the learner.
(vi) Positive and Productive Learning Experience
The need for a positive and productive learning environment is quite evident. Learning environment is the process of training, which does not only relate to the trainees but also to the trainer. For example, it will be a futile effort to impart meaningful training to a group of
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unwilling trainees. Similarly no training can be fruitful if the trainer is not adequately skilled. Other important factors which have positive impact on the effectiveness of learning environment are subject matter, communication media and physical facilities available at the place of training.
It is important for a trainer to have sufficient knowledge about these factors. That is why these aspects need to be properly highlighted. A trainer must know that learning environment is not something that can be provided to him/her. In fact, it is for the trainer to create and sustain an environment, which can promote a learning experience that the trainees find useful. In doing so the trainer must be aware of the fact that the process of learning becomes easier when the contents of the training relate to the felt need of the trainees.
For creating a good learning environment it is important that the trainer follows certain steps as highlighted below in the box.
(vii) Creating Trainee Readiness to Learn
Another fact which a trainer has to keep in mind is that training, unlike formal schooling, involves sharing of experience by learners and the trainer. Having appreciated this fact an efficient trainer has the basic responsibility to create trainees‘ readiness to learn, with a view to helping them to use their experience to gain a deeper understanding of different tasks relating to their future role.
(viii) Linking Training and Extension Activities at the Field Level
Training and extension activities need a meaningful linkage base. Extension activities covering different aspects of information and communication systems are important elements of participatory approach. It is in this context that imparting training in communication methods and media use to some of the members of the project staff and training in the areas of leadership building and communication skills to the Workers become so useful.
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(ix) Seeking Co-ordination from Related Agencies
There must, however, be close coordination between all forms and levels of training to ensure that they serve common objectives. Responsibility for ensuring this coordination should be on senior staff members at higher level, who should establish effective channels of consultation and cooperation between different functionaries and agencies involved in extension education and training.
In the light of the fact that an effective information networking plays an important role of seeking co-ordination of all the extension agencies, there is considerable need to train grassroots functionaries, so that they can motivate others to carry out the entrusted tasks.
(x) Multi-dimensional Skills
An efficient trainer has to demonstrate his/her ability on many fronts of his/her job performance. He/she has to acquire sufficient competence for discharging his/her roles quite impressively. Although he/she is expected to be master of his/her major role, namely that of imparting training, yet, in other areas of training he/she has to equip himself/herself with basic understanding of the related skills. First and foremost of these skills is that of communication ability in terms of being equally effective as sender and receiver of the message. This means that a good communicator has to be a good speaker and at the same time a good listener also. It is also important that an effective trainer knows the skill to use training methods and materials, handle training equipment like audio-visual aids, conduct method demonstrations, organise field trips and study tours, make organisational arrangements for training, conduct training evaluations, and ensure follow-up action to judge the performance of those trained by him/her.
The Trainer as Change Agent
The competence of the change agent must encompass a wide range of knowledge, including: (i) conceptual diagnostic knowledge cutting across the entire sector of the behavioural sciences; (ii) theories and methods of organisational change; (iii) knowledge of sources of help; and (iv) orientation to the ethical and evaluative functions of the change agent‘s role. In addition to this intellectual grasp, the change agent must also possess (v) operational and relational skills: of listening, observing, identifying, and reporting, of ability to form relationship and trust, of a high degree of behavioural flexibility. The change agent must also (vi) be able to use himself/herself, to be in constant communication with himself/herself, and to recognize and come to terms with (as much as is humanly possible) his/her own motivations.
Particularly in the diagnostic stages of the work, the trainer as a change agent must observe how the target system deals with him/her. Quite often, as we mentioned earlier, the interface between the change agent and the target system is crucial for understanding and reaching a conclusion with respect to the state and readiness of the target system. In short, the change agent should be sensitive and mature. Finally, the change agent should (vii) act authentically in accordance with the values he/she is attempting to superimpose upon the target system‘s value system.
The trainer as a change agent must not impose democratic or humanistic values in an
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authoritarian or inhuman manner. If the change agent is concerned with creating more authenticity and collaboration, he/she must behave in ways that are in accord with these values. The fact of the matter is that so much of the change agent‘s influence grows out of his/her relationship with the target system and the extent to which he/she is emulated as a role model, that any significant discrepancies between the change agent‘s actions and his/her stated values cannot help but create resistance.
These are the requirements for the effective achievement of the change agent‘s role of a trainer. We would not expect to find many such supermen/ women among us, but we would expect this job description to be used as an aim.
Supplementary Role of Trainers
As facilitators of change the trainers should, by their own example of flexibility, try to bring about construction changes in the way people think and act.
(i) Initiative When a situation arises, trainers should try to take appropriate action on it, using their own resources. They should discuss all developmental problems with the local community concerned and encourage them to make an appropriate decision for themselves on the basis of existing knowledge and skills.
(ii) Organisational Ability
The work of the staff themselves must be well planned and organised. Good organisation leads to the most effective use of limited resources.
(iii) Problem Solving Ability
They should measure the problem against their won knowledge and experience and, if possible, suggest solutions to it.
(iv) Judgement
They should always consider the effect which their actions, general behaviour and the language they use will have on the community.
(v) Self-improvement
They must follow the principle that learning is a continuous process for all people and apply it conscientiously to their own activities.
(vi) Reliability
They must be aware of the importance of keeping any promises they may make to
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people and limit their commitments to what they can be sure of delivering.
(vii) Public speaking
They must expect to have to speak frequently to members of the public, formally and informally, either as individuals or groups. To carry out this function effectively they must acquire skills in speaking.
ROLE CONCEPT
The concept of the trainer's role can be represented by the two triangles shown in figure below:
One triangle represents the person who fulfills the role of trainer. The shape of the triangle is determined by the triangle's professional ability and style. The other triangle represents the shape of the organisation in which the trainer works, with its shape determined by policies, management style, etc. For the training function to achieve maximum effectiveness it is necessary for the two triangles to ‗fit‘ - the shape of the triangles should show congruency indicating a match between the person and the role he is expected to fulfill in the organisation.
It is worth noting that taken independently both triangles might appear to be ‗right‘ in terms of meeting the requirements of a training function. Put together, the extent of their congruency will determine how well their individual concept of the training function and trainer's role coincide; the better fit, the more harmonious and effective their professional relationship.
The concept of role and the extent of ‗fit‘ or ‗misfit‘ can be considered in relation to the role, the culture and the person, and to explore the consequences for the role-holder and the organisation of such congruence or incongruence.
Role refers to the repertoire of behaviors and attitudes generally expected of a person holding a positions in an organisation. These expectations may be generated both by the other people with whom he interacts or by the role-holder himself.
TRAINER ORGANISATION
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Culture refers broadly to the sort of organisation within which the role is located, its history, management styles, values, rituals and typical modes of behaviour. Of particular interest is the values and attitudes expressed towards staff specialist groups.
Person refers to the role occupant, his skills and aptitudes, hopes and aspirations and enthusiasms, knowledge and abilities, both with regard to training as such and to the management of the training position.
These factors may be congruent or incongruent. If they are congruent they may be seen to fit together harmoniously so that the role and person holding it may be described as legitimate, that is to say as an accepted and integral part of the organisation culture. On the other hand, there may be degrees of incongruence, when for example, a person lacks the necessary enthusiasm and ability for the job, or when the organisation fails to provide the necessary degree of authority or scope for action. This perspective of role – person – culture points to two major requirements for the successful training professional:
He must not only possess professional training skills but must also be able to manage a complex social role.
The socially skilful training professional is one who manages the issue of congruence rather than letting it get on top of him. He has effective approaches for the development of legitimacy and influence. He is able to fit into different cultures when necessary. He is sufficiently different from the organisation to have an impact but not so different that entry is impossible, and he finds ways of integrating the different aspects of his job. Nevertheless, the problem of managing congruence is likely to be a continuing one however skillfully managed. This is particularly true of jobs which are currently undergoing change, those where the Trainer is attempting to change his organisation and those in which there is a gross misfit between person, role and culture.
BOUNDARY MANAGEMENT AND THE TRAINER'S ROLE
A significant factor in the survival and flourishing of any system whether it be a total organization, a department within a company or a set of boundary activities within a function such as training, is how that system relates to its immediate and more distant environment. Boundary management refers to the system of exchanges a function, activity or a role has in its environment. These exchanges include how activity:
Acquires its inputs (resources) and disposes of its outputs (services);
How it exercises influence;
How it builds relationships and activates its image;
How it protects its integrity, territory and technological core from environmental pressure and threat;
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How it co-ordinates activities, with other departments roles and organisations.
Boundary management is an important consideration for all system, but it is particularly crucial for advisory service activities within organisations, such as, personnel training, or management and organisation development. Advisory functions do not by definition command line authority neither can they assume that their advice will always be listened to or their services needed. In this situation the legitimacy of the activity and the credibility of individual practitioners has to be developed and maintained over time if the activity is to flourish. The development of the resources which form the power base for carrying out the advisory activity, together with the stance any particular unit adopts, represent two of several areas of choice and action involved in this key activity of boundary management. The table below outlines some dimensions of boundary management:
High Awareness of Boundary Management Low Awareness of Boundary Management
Existence of an Activity/Strategy for Boundary Management
Non-existence of an Activity/Strategy for Boundary Management
Existence of a job Mission or Objectives Non- existence of a job or Objectives
Existence of Multiple Linkages and Networks Existence of Single Linkage and Limited Network
Existence of Multiple Transactions Existence of Singular or Limited Transactions
Active : Manager of His Environment Passive: Managed by His Environment
The first dimension which is relevant is the issue of awareness. Does there appear to be any tendency for one or other of the five role types to be more aware of the need for a strategy for boundary management?
The second dimension refers to the existence or non-existence of a general strategy for linking the training role to the rest of the organisation. Does, for example, the Trainer have an active stance for building his image in the company, identifying project work, securing resources of various kinds and protecting his task area?
A further important dimension is the existence or non-existence of a job mission or objectives. Often it is difficult for potential clients of a service to know how to respond to that service if it is not clear to them what the distinctive competence and objective are for those who offer the service. Has the Trainer set and communicated mission and operational objectives to all his potential clients?
All the above points are likely to be of little avail if they cannot be translated into tasks through a network of relationships. The fourth dimension in table above refers to the extent to which the trainer has built up multiple linkages; networks of relationships at various levels and across several functions, or whether his contacts are with one or two individuals.
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The fifth dimension, that of transactions, refers to the content and multiplicity of task areas that the trainer is involved with. The final dimension is a summary one, indicating whether the Trainer is actively trying to manage his environment or whether he is being managed by it.
When these dimensions are related to the five trainer roles it is evident that three of the roles tend to use multiple activities, making full use of the dimensions indicated in table above. On the other hand providers and passive providers show a tendency to relate to their environment along more limited lines. The table below outlines activities common to the Trainer role:
Providers and Passive Providers
Individual Training Needs Analysis.
Annual Training Needs Analysis.
Booking, Developing and Running Training Courses.
Writing Training Systems
Legislation Based Training
Safety Training
Implementing an Appraisal System
Implementing a Job Evaluation System
Responding to Environmental Requests.
Change Agents, Role in Transition, and Managers
Providing Training Services
Individual and Group Counseling.
Diagnosing and working on Organisation and Inter—Group Problems.
Acting as a Third Party
Acting as a Catalyst, Sounding Board or Co-ordinator.
Connecting themselves to 'Business' problems.
Running Management Workshop.
Policy Making in Human Resources area.
Image Building and Relationship Building for the Training Act.
Being an Ideas Man or Conceptualiser.
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Implementing a Management Development Scheme.
Liaising with Government Agencies.
The significance of table above is to illustrate the change from a 'provider' role to a 'manager' role. Manager often have to supervise providers, although more towards a problem-solving consultancy role can be done by ensuring that their conventional training work is done especially competently. The extent to which a Trainer can influence his environment depends upon his awareness, possession, control and tactical adroitness in using various power resources. The list below illustrates typical areas, they are of particular significance to Trainers operating as Change Agents, Roles in Transition and Managers:
- The political access provided by a well-developed network of relationships. - Cultural identification to understand, emphathise and influence different cultures. - Credibility and track record. - Positional power. - Top level political support. - Being perceived to be neutral, slightly outside the culture. - Having access to information. - Political support from immediate boss. - Technical competence as a trainer. - Using borrowed power from, for example, a government training agency. - By influencing or setting training policy and rules.
THE TRAINER AND HIS ROLE SET
The earlier sections dealt with concepts of the trainer role, activities he could pursue and how his role is related to that of the employing organisation. This section deal with how trainers can lock themselves into a role, and how the beliefs and actions of others as members of a ‗role set‘ and can provide conditions for that locking to occur. The understanding of these role-locking processes is a necessary preliminary to a soundly based attempt by a Trainer to examine and if necessary unlock his role. Defining and unravelling the alternative mechanism role set members use to influence and direct the Trainer, by constraining him provides an insight into the problem and indicates ways of unlocking his role. The following are examples of constraints:
1. Determining Legitimate Activities.
The most tangible and obvious form of constraint is when members of their role set stipulate what are and are not legitimate activities. Role set members, by virtue of their line authority and access to decision-making contrast of the organisation, may easily resist the attempts of the Trainer to encroach on their functional area, especially when this is seen as an attempt to build up a personal power base.
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2. Conferring or Withholding Support.
One way of managing the Trainer is to reinforce only those aspects of his performance which are geared to the particular role set members need. And one way of doing this is to confer or withhold positive feedback and support for the trainer's activities.
3. Not Having Any Clear Expectations/Aspirations of the Trainer.
The lack of a history of training in the organisation, or a history which has been composed mainly of routine, maintenance activities, curtails the possibilities of developing an active training role. One of the more subtle ways a set of people can help to constrain an evolving role is to leave expectations unclear, and to let the Trainer create his own boundaries. This leaves some of the more overt control strategies to reserve should the trainer in his search for clarity and direction overstep boundaries never yet specified.
4. By Having a Limited Concept of the Trainer Role.
An effective way of constraint is to give clear signals that a particular and limited role concept is preferred, sometimes by resisting the Trainer's broader interpretation of the situation.
5. By making Personal Acceptability a condition for an Activity in Training Being Legitimate.
In any role this is a difficult kind of constraining mechanism to deal with, especially if as is likely the role set members never own up that the real reason for their desire to limit the trainer, is his personal acceptability.
6. By Denying Significance to a training function.
One of the most inclusive ways to constrain any advisory activity is merely to deny the significance of the service which it is purporting to offer.
This last constraining mechanism, denying the training function's significance, is an important reminder that boundaries management refers not only to the credibility of the trainer, but also to the process by which legitimacy is or is not secured for functioning of training activities of which the individual trainer is part. It is plainly easier to generate and maintain credibility within a function which is perceived as being legitimate.
Broader Mechanisms of Role Locking
Thus for treatment of views from the role set has reflected constraints. However, it would be over simple to argue that the phenomenon of trainer role locking is just a product of the beliefs, behaviors, and pressures from role set members towards the Trainer. The discussion can be broadened by examining a number of factors related to the personal background, aspirations, awareness, and behaviors‘ of the Trainer; the structural location and history of
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training and trainer roles; and the relative stability or volatility of the business, technical and organisational background surrounding the trainer role.
1. Personal Background, Experience and Aspirations of the Trainers
This is a crucial mechanism by which individuals get locked into a particular interpretation of the training role all through which negative stereotypes of training as an activity are created and sustained. It is a clear example of a self-fulfilling and self-sealing process which on major destabilising forces in the environment of the role are likely to speak. So-called low-level activities are deemed appropriate for so-called low-capacity people, who in turn provide a low-level interpretation of their role.
2. Structural Factors
Potential structural reasons for role locking derive from the title given to the training role, its place in the organisation structure, its geographical location relative to key line units or related specialist activities, and the reporting relationship established for the trainer.
3. Historical Factors
A significant factor is the existing attitudes to training, and role set members experiences of previous trainers. This can have an effect on the environmental reception afforded by any subsequent entrant to the training role.
4. The Trainer's Own Behaviour, Attitudes and Skills.
Of crucial importance to the trainer is his personal management of the role. A trainer is not locked into a role just as a result of some pre-determined act that evolves from their role set, but as a result of a complicated set of forces and processes part of which derive from their environment, and part from their own responses to that environment. It is the interaction effects which are crucial.
Simplex and Simple Trainers Roles
A final analytical device to use in order to throw light both on the elements which make up trainer roles and how they are constructed and personally managed, is to consider the dimensions which characterize complex and simple roles. Below is a list of 10 descriptive dimensions which can be used to differentiate trainer jobs.
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Complex Roles Simple Roles
1. Many subcultures Few subcultures
2. Many Hierarchical Few Hierarchical Levels
3. Diverse Activities Singular Activities
4. Complex Activities Simple Activities
5. Plural Reporting Relationship Singular Reporting Relationships
6. Subordinates to Manage No Subordinate to Manage
7. Many Co-ordinative Peer Relationships No Co-ordinative peer Relationships
8. Hostile Training Environment Benign Training Environment
9. Rapidly Changing Organisational Environment
Relatively static Organisational Environment
10. Short Tenure in Role Long Tenure in Role
Lest any reader rushed to impute a normative pattern on these categories, none is intended. The list merely offers trainers, and others interested in training, a way of thinking about the way training jobs are loaded along the continuum from simple to complex. Some of these dimensions may be considered alterable and others, relatively speaking, unalterable either in the short term or through the intervention of the trainer himself. For example, dimensions 8 and 9 are likely to be unalterable by the trainer, although a change in the organisational environment surrounding a trainer role may afford, if the trainer is alive to the possibility, an opportunity to influence peoples' perception of the value of training. Dimension 1, the tendency of a trainer to cross horizontal boundaries (different departments) may also be easier to accomplish than finding new clients and more diverse activities at a level in the organisation where he has previously not worked.
The value of this framework lies, however, not just in assisting a trainer to place himself where he things he is, but also to confirm with key members of his role set where they think he is. Equally well, the framework may be used by the trainer and others to mutually examine where the trainer is and ought to be in the light of changing business, technical, and organisational circumstances. In other words, the dimensions offer an opportunity to examine the differing ways and differing degrees trainers' job are complex or simple, and the extent to which the trainers' management of that particular profile is congruent or incongruent with the needs and pressures of their environment.
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“Never regard study as a duty but as an enviable opportunity to learn to
know the liberating influence of beauty in the
realm of the spirit for your own personal joy and to the profit of the community to
which your later works belong.”
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CHAPTER 11
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING & HOW TO RUN GROUP EXERCISES
As individual human beings we experience our lives at three levels of existence. In simple
terms they can be described by the phrase ‗we think, we feel, we do.‘
The relationship between the levels
All the three levels are inter-related and interactive. This means that what we think is influenced by and in term influences what we feel and do, the same is true of each level in relation to the other two. For example what we do is influenced by and in turn influences what we think and what we feel. In the language of psychology these three levels are termed the cognitive domain, the affective domain and the action domain.
It is also true that we experience our existence at all three levels simultaneously and therefore cannot really disassociate one level from another. For instance, as you read these words you are doing, i.e. you are experiencing the action domain. This is because perception is an active process, physiologically and psychologically, which needs to be engaged in order to read. Reading is also a thinking process and therefore you are engaged in the cognitive domain. Finally, what you are reading and your thoughts concerning it have relationships with your existing beliefs about and attitudes towards the subject. Therefore your feelings are involved and you are also in the affective domain.
You are unlikely to be conscious of your experience of the affective domain in reading these words unless they explicitly contradict or actively re-affirm your current beliefs and related attitudes. Similarly, you will not be conscious of the action domain in consciously attempting to focus your eyes. At a conscious level you are only aware of the cognitive domain i.e. your thinking process. This does not mean that your experience of reading these words is confined to that level. Human existence is experienced at all three levels.
The three levels and learning
If that last statement is accepted, it follows that learning is experienced at all three levels. Since cognition, affection and action occur simultaneously learning both influences and is influenced by all three domains. What you learn from this manual will be the result of the interaction between the three domains as you read it. Any theory of learning therefore has to be able to explain the process in terms of the three levels of existence, and it has to be applicable in promoting learning through utilizing the cognitive, affective and action domains. These two points underpin important theories of learning.
It will be clear from the figure 1 that System Beta engages an individual learner in all three levels of existence. The process described involves the cognitive, affective and action domains.
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Two critical features
A critical feature of the process is the starting point of the hypothesis. The idea or concept in this stage is formulated by and belongs to the individuals. This means two possibilities in practice. The first is that it may be an original and unique idea that is formulated by the individual. The second is that the idea or concept is presented to the individual by someone else through, for example, a lecture, a book or a conversation. According to the model, however, the individual in both cases will need to complete all stages of the cycle in order for the learning to occur. In the latter case doing so will also probably have the effect of producing an individual interpretation of the concept, therefore each individuals learning remains unique. It also follows that in the case of a presented concept through, for example, a lecture, learning does not happen unless and until all stages of the process are completed. This point is obviously significant in the design of learning opportunities within training and development.
(1)
Formulate Hypothesis
(An idea or concept)
(2)
Design Experiment
(Consider ways of testing of
validity of ideas or concept)
(3) Apply in practice (Put into effect, test of validity
or truth)
(4) Observe Results(Collect and process data on
outcome of test)
(5)
Analyse Results
(Make sense of data collected
on
outcomes in relation to current
knowledge etc.)
(6) Compare Analysis (Relate analysis to original hypothesis)
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A second significant feature of the model is that because the process is cyclical the starting point does not have to be formulation of the hypothesis. Individuals can and do enter the cycle at different points in relation to separate pieces of learning. The stages in figure 1 are labelled with numbers in sequence for convenience rather than to represent reality. For instance, it is common for new ideas or concepts to suggest themselves in stages three, four and five.
The theory known as ‗experiential learning‘ was developed by the American psychologist David Kolb and his co-workers in the mid-1970s (Kolb et al, 1984). Since then it has become one of the most well known and widely applied theories in training and development, especially in term of managing organization change and in related adult learning. The theory is very similar to System Beta.
Rationale of experiential learning
The rationale of experiential learning is quite simple. It is that learning approximates the process of problem solving, and that therefore teaching or training which is designed to encourage, support and enable learning should be based on a problem solving approach. This basic idea is worth exploring in a little more detail.
Traditional teaching methods are based on ideas which have particular associations. These associations include:
The presence of and key role for a teacher or trainer A particular and specific place for learning to occur such as a classroom or training centre A focus on knowledge, ideas and concepts The use of learning materials such as textbooks and handouts. Such associations produce particular meanings that are attached to the learning process. These include the meaning that:
An individuals learning is the responsibility of some other person, e.g. the teacher That learning is a separate and discrete activity that occurs at particular time in a specific place That learning is essentially a passive process That learning is concerned with acquiring or understanding abstract information, ideas and concepts.
It can be argued with great justification that most individual‘s experience of formal learning leads to these associations and produces these meanings.
An alternative is to view learning as similar to problem solving. In this case the associations are that:
Problems are very specific They belong to the individual and are their responsibility to solve That they require experimentation as part of the process of reaching a solution. These associations produce a different set of meanings:
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Problems solving is a active process It is concerned with practical application and results The focus is real and concrete Problem solving is a continuous and natural part of living.
What this means in practice is that most individuals actually learn passivity and dependence in relation to learning through their experience of traditional methods. It also means that traditional methods do not actually reflect the reality of learning since they do not adopt a problem solving approach. Using problem solving as a basis for explaining the learning process leads to the theory of experiential learning.
It has been found, however, that learning that results in increased self-awareness, changed behaviour, and the acquisition of new skills must actively engage the individual in the learning process. In particular, adults have been found to learn more effectively by doing or experiencing.
Adult learning specialist David Kolb has described this learning process as a four phase cycle in which the learner; (1) does something concrete or has a specific experience which provides a basis for (2) the learners‘ observation and reflection on the experience and their own response to it. These observations are then (3) assimilated into a conceptual framework or related to other concepts in the learners past experience and knowledge from which implications for action can be derived; and (4) tested and applied in different situations.
The adult learner assimilated useful information into their personal ‗experience bank‖ against which future learning events will be compared and to which new concepts will be related. Unless what is learned can be applied to actual work or life situations the learning will not be effective or long lasting.
People responsible for designing, learning events should keep these phases in mind as they develop ways to help the learner understand and be able to use the new knowledge and/ or skill.
Learning
Experience
Observed and
Reflect
Generalize
and
Conceptualize
Experiment And Integrate
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Conclusion
In India even today, particularly in the Government Organisation, training is not
considered to be so important for improving performance. Primary reason for such a situation is that in many cases, training is not directly linked with the perceived need of the organisation owing to absence of TNA. Systematic Approach is not followed in organising the training. Most of the cases, training is supply driven. Another major weakness is the indiscriminate use of lecture method. On the other hand, on-job training is now being neglected. However, due to strong intervention of the Department of Personnel and Training, Government of India during the recent past the situation is improving. Direction has been changed. Training is becoming more and more trainee centred than the trainer-centred. Organisations are now sensitised and showing considerable interest on Systematic Approach to Training. Training institutes are trying hard to make training demand driven. If this process continues, there will be a virtual cycle and training will be used more systematically in improving performance. As a result, training will be considered as an important activity for the continuous improvement in the functioning of the organisation.
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―If you change the way you
look at things, the things
you look at change.‖
- Dr Wayne Dyer
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CHAPTER 12
USING GROUP EXERCISES FOR TRAINING
INTRODUCTION
Training activities are influenced to quite a dramatic extent by the entry behaviour of participants. This is especially true when the learning group consists of mature, experienced adults. Consider the effect these comments have on learning events:
"In my experience that won't work."
"My boss doesn't believe in that sort of delegation."
"How' can this fellow, Herzberg (an American isn't he?) help me do my job better."
"I've been sent on this supervisory course- after being a foreman for 20 years!"
"Why have I been put on the same course as these people – we've nothing in common? Often this is not said, but all too apparent.
This list could be much longer but illustrates the effects of entry behaviour to each participant of the learning event. The group lacks an experience, common to all members of the group, around which they can learn.
The pitfall awaiting the unwary trainer is therefore, example, to launch into a lecture on motivation with reference to the theories of Frederick Herzberg, or to expect trainees to participate in a discussion based on these theories. Some people will happily wallow in Herzberg's theories, willingly participating in heated discussions which may or may not be connected to their work; other people may find the whole session totally irrelevant and switch off or question the need for their presence. The group exercise, can establish the common ground around which trainees can learn about, in this case, motivation and the theories of Herzberg.
Each participant will bring his or her own mixture of status, knowledge, skills, attitudes, opinions, prejudices, motivation, good and bad experiences, and so on, to the learning event. What is missing is an experience common to all members of the group, around which they can learn.
A group exercise can establish the common ground around which trainees can learn. Instead of basing their thinking on an abstract theory‘, trainees can start from their experience in an exercise and build up to a principle or a theory.
A group exercise is a kind of simulation. It is a substitute task, one which is intended to simulate in a simplified form a situatioln which the trainees could face at work. A group exercise can be defined as a learning event in which selected parts of a physical and/or social situation are either reduced in size and complexity or are simulated, that essential elements can be recreated for learning purposes.
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Active learning is an important feature of good training, especially when dealing with an adult, mature and experienced learning group. The theories of Herzberg could be introduced by means of a group exercise and this common experience discussed its relation to work. Given the right choice of group exercise trainee are likely remember their experience doing it and the significant learning points, long after they have forgotten all about Herzberg and motivation. Does it matter; as long as the learning points help them to do their jobs better?
A group exercise makes provision for active participation because the group given a task to perform. This provides trainees with an opportunity to study and into practice the knowledge, skills and attitudes involved in the human aspects working a group. There is a task something to be done. But because the task normally made intentionally simple, the attention of the group is focused not on the task itself-the content of what is done – but on how is done, the process.
Group exercises should be used for training because they provide a common experience should be used for training because they provide a common experience active participation and practice. They should not be use merely provide variety or add interest.
Training activities are influenced to a quite marked extent by the entry behaviour of participants (The things they already know and can do and the attitudes they adopt). This is especially true when the learning group consists of mature, experienced, adults.
WHAT IS A GROUP EXERCISE?
A group of officials on a course is given the task of counting the number of pebbles in a square meter of beach; or to build a tall tower using only A4 sheets of paper and a stapler; or to invent a new game using a pack of playing cards. These are all examples of possible group exercises used in training mature and experienced officials. The purpose in the mind of the trainer might be to develop good group working relationships.
Clearly the approach is a very different one from starting with a lecture about the views of a distinguished theorist. The major differences are that:
a) The trainees are given something active to do, and
b) That their learning is developed from their experience in performing that activity.
GROUP EXERCISES AND LEARNING
Group exercises provide an opportunity for each member of the group to be involved in doing something and to learn from what he or she does. Trainees have an opportunity to try different ways of doing things without the risk involved if they tried the same things in a real working environment. The impact of this experience and the realism of the simulated situation can change behaviour and should help the process of transferring and applying what they have learnt to their work situations. We can represent the process in this way:
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EXPERIENCING
APPLYING DISCUSSING
GENERALISING
Experiencing
This process starts with experiencing something in the group exercise The trainee becomes involved in the group activity - for example doing, saying or observing something. This involvement becomes the basis of the whole process.
Discussing
The trainee discusses with other members of the group his or her reactions to and observations on the activity that they have also experienced or observed. We discuss what occurred in the exercise and group members assess its significance.
Generalizing
The group members need to do more than just discuss their specific experience in the exercise. They need to go on to develop general principles derived from the experience to their own work situation.
Applying
Finally the group members should plan how they can apply the general principles to the situations they face at work.
SOME SUBJECT AREAS FOR GROUP EXERCISES
Group exercises are generally used for studying and developing interpersonal skills. The
skills involved include the following:
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Leadership Communications
Motivation Negotiation
Problem-solving Decision-making
Working in groups Team building Contibuting to
Meetings
WHY USE GROUP EXERCISE FOR TRAINING
To those unaccustomed to training practices, group exercise may appear to be a curious method of training. It might will be asked why simple tasks should be used, or activities apparently unrelated to what people do at work. It might seem more appropriate, for example, to use a case study containing a description of a situation similar to one the trainees would face in their work, rather than ask them to participate in, for example, competition and paper folding tasks.
However, the main reasons for using group exercises are:
TO GIVE PRACTICE AND EXPERIENCE THROUGH SUBSTITUTE TASKS
Real life situation from the working environment are often too complex for the underlying principles about the behaviour used by participate to emerge clearly. In real life there are all kinds of procedures, practices, technical consideration etc. which effect what is done. Group exercise strip away most of these factors to enable trainees to see early the principles underlying their behaviour.
TO FOCUS ON PROCESS RATHER THAN CONTENT
The simpler the tasks is, (i.e. the content) t5he better. Because of the simplicity of the task attention can more easily be focussed on the behaviour of the participants the process. There is a danger that if the task is too closely related to real life, participants will give so much attention to its technical content that little learning about the process will take place.
TO RELATE THE GROUP 'S BEHAVIOUR TO GENERAL PRINCIPLE
The basis of the discussion that follows a group exercise is the behaviour of the group – what the participant said or did or the way it was said or done. This is then related to general principles. Such an approach generally makes a much greater impact, and more learning takes place than would occur if the alternative approach were adopted, i.e. explaining the general principles first, (for example motivation, and the theories of Herzberg) and then attempting to put them into practice.
TO REDUCE RISK AND SAVE FACE
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Experimenting with behaviour in the real life situation often involves an unacceptable degree of risk. Group exercise, on the other hand, enable the trainer to make use of what trainees actually say or do as the basis of discussion in a non- threatening situation. At the same time if trainees feel threatened by the situation they face in an exercise\, or their behaviour s shown up as inappropriate, they can "can face because the task is not a significant or real one in work terms.
SELECTING AND USING A GROUP EXERCISE
Some do‘s and don‘ts are suggested below to help in making group exercises as effective as possible.
As the trainer, you should:
* Make sure that you are thoroughly familiar with the subject matter. Flexibility is needed to adapt the discussion of the material to what actually happens in the exercise, while making sure that the main points it was intended to bring out are covered. * Make sure that the exercise is appropriate to the objectives of the learning unit and to the abilities and attitudes of the trainees. * Consider whether there is a need to adapt, restructure, rewrite or modify a generally suitable exercise, so that it fits the objectives or the needs of the particular group. * Make sure that you are thoroughly familiar with the procedure for conducting the exercise. * Consider the various possible outcomes and relate these to the subsequent discussion of what has been learnt. * Plan the discussion. We must allow time for a thorough analysis of what happened in the exercise and its implications. Remember that this is more important than the exercise itself. The exercise is only the means of producing the material to be analysed and discussed. It will have limited value unless the issues arising from it are fully explored with the group.
As the trainer you should not:
* Use group exercises merely – to fill in time – to provide variety – to ‗see what happens‘ – because you like using them
* Use an exercise in the same way for all groups and irrespective of the objectives of the training. * Structure the discussion in a pre-determined way, irrespective of what happened during the exercise.
CONDUCTING THE GROUP EXERCISE
You should consider the following points:
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Relate to Objectives
You should remember throughout the exercise what the objectives are in using it, and stick to them.
Plan and Prepare Thoroughly
Make sure that all the administrative details of the exercise are arranged beforehand.
Consider also a variety of possible outcomes of the exercise. How can you relate these to the purpose of the exercise and of the learning unit as a whole? All the points you wish to discuss may not emerge from a particular run-through of the exercise: you may need to discuss other possible outcomes. What lines will the discussion follow afterwards, to cover the learning points?
Plan for Contingencies
The exercise may take more or less time than anticipated or have a different outcome. Having alternative material or activities available and ready to be presented is prudent,
e.g. for groups that are more/less advanced than the average. Check where we can make changes to the timetable if that should be necessary.
Check Knowledge
As the use of group exercises becomes more common, it is possible that some trainees may already know or have done the exercise. Usually this does not matter, but with some exercises the impact can be ruined if someone in the group already knows how to solve the problem or analyze the situation.
Brief Participants
Explain the procedure and make sure that all participants understand their roles in the exercise before starting. This may involve:
– Stating the objectives clearly and concisely – In some cases giving an overview of the subject matter first – Describing the procedure for the exercise – Explaining the trainer‘s role during the exercise – Explaining why this method of training is being used.
In briefing the group, keep the desired outcomes in mind. However, we should not overload the participants with instructions. Where possible, giving instruction in small amounts at appropriate stages of the exercise is better. Check that the briefing is understood.
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Watch Observers
If the exercise involves some participants acting as observers rather than being directly involved in the task, make sure that they do not interfere with the process.
Keep Within Broad Guidelines
Exercises involve participants in performing a task in their own way; this is a major reason for using them. However, keeping the exercise within broad guidelines is necessary so that it achieves its objective; otherwise it may deteriorate into a ―fun‖ activity from which the participants learn nothing.
Collect Information
You should observe the process and make notes, even if we have appointed observers, so that comments afterwards can be related to what happened in the exercise. You can then add to the observers‘ comments if they have failed to observe some important points.
We should ask that the observers and participants comment on and discuss what happened before you make any comments. They will have comments to make and need to be given the opportunity. Also, you will need to concentrate on leading the discussion away from the specific outcomes of the exercise and on to general principles.
Discuss Issues
Participants should not be left to draw their own conclusions. The exercise should be the source of topics for discussion rather than the context of learning by itself.
Discussion of the issues should normally involve three stages:
1. Describe the experience
Get the group to discuss such questions as: What happened? What was said/ done? What did participants think/feel? What problems emerged? What courses of action were tried? To what extent were aims of the group achieved?
2. Analyze the experience Get the group to discuss such questions as:
Why did things happen? Why did problems arise? Why did the actions taken fail/succeed? What were the consequences of what was said or done?
3. Develop general concepts Get the group to relate their experience in the exercise to the work they do. Get them to
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consider such questions as: Do people say/do things in this way at work? What are the consequences?
Can success/failure in the exercise be related to success/failure in work situations? Can the group develop a plan of action or general principles for improved performance at work?
In short, the discussion should start with consideration of the details of what happened and should move on to consider the underlying principles that apply to work situations. Throughout the discussion, the participants should discuss what happened - the behaviour that they observed - not speculate on the underlying motives or personal attributes.
REVIEW THE EXERCISE
After the session has been completed, the trainer should review the exercise. Consider:
– Did it achieve the objective? – Does it need to be modified, revised or improved? – Was the exercise run in the most effective way? – Were the outcomes discussed adequately? ADVANTAGES OF GROUP EXERCISES
We can summarize the advantages of using group exercises in training as follows:
– They provide for trainee-centered learning – They provide a common experience, shared by all members of the learning group – Exercises can be designed/selected/modified to fit the objective of a learning unit and as a major contributor to a learning event – All participants can be actively involved and their attention and motivation are therefore more easily maintained – They minimize the effects of different entry behaviors‘ – The trainer acts as a coach/mentor. Freed from the role of a direct instructor, he or she can supervise, observe, question and provide feedback – Exercises enable complex interpersonal skills to be practiced – They can be used to modify attitudes and to develop knowledge and skills. 110 DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP EXERCISES
The main disadvantages of group exercises are that:
– They require careful preparation and planning to be effective – The outcome varies from one group to another and is difficult to predict – What individuals learn depends on their own level of involvement, their ability to relate what happens in the exercise to their existing knowledge, skills and attitudes and their ability to relate very specific experience to general principles – The success of group exercises is very dependent on the attitudes and expectations of trainees. They may expect the trainer to ―teach‖ them (i.e. to be the sole source of information and advice). Therefore, they may regard an exercise as light relief or fun, rather than as a serious method for helping them to learn.
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CHAPTER 13
CONCEPT OF FEEDBACK
Feedback is a very important concept. It is useful in your personal life, in our job
and in the training environment. Feedback provides you valuable information about your performance.
WHAT IS FEEDBACK?
The ―Glossary of Training Terms‖ defines Feedback as:
“The process by which information about the results of an action is communicated to the source of the action. It is argued for example, that learning takes place either through the informational characteristic or the reinforcing characteristic of the knowledge of results, or through a combination of both”.
“Feedback is what powers the system and permits individuals to continually improve their performance.” Clay Carr, Smart Training (1990)
You need feedback for improvement in your performance.
The source of feedback can be from your family members or other people as comments from other trainees, or from trainers as the case may be. However the performance of a task itself provides another source of feedback. You do not need a trainer to tell you that you have fallen off a bicycle, and you know from the taste whether you have put too much sugar in a cup of tea. The extent to which we received feedback is a significant factor in the standard of our performance.
Feedback helps us to learn about ourselves and the effect of our behaviour on others. However, feedback is only helpful when it is accepted and used by the recipient. It can take the form of either positive or negative feedback. Positive feedback confirms and praises acceptable performance. This builds confidence and motivates the receiver to repeat the performance. Negative feedback identifies areas where performance is inadequate. It can be of great value to the recipient if it creates an awareness of the need to change. The danger with negative feedback is that the recipient may reject it, as in many cases he may not be able to take in right spirit. So there are some golden rules of giving and receiving feedback.
VALUE OF FEEDBACK
Providing feedback, therefore, needs to be a constructive activity that should be helping to
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learn. It should not be destructive and critical. Equally important, the recipient should not interpret it as destructive and critical.
To be effective, feedback needs to be skillfully given and the receiver must hear, understand, accept and act upon it. How accurate the feedback, if the trainees reject it, the result will be no improvement in performance. Therefore, always consider the human element during feedback.
H -Hear
U -Understand
M -Motivate
A -Acceptable
N -Negotiate
The giving and receiving of feedback are skills which require very careful handling. They
require courage, tact, honesty, understanding and respect – both for yourself and for others. Like all other skills, they are developed only through practice. In providing feedback to others you will need to be sensitive to the feedback you will receive in response. The giving of feedback cannot be separated from receiving it in return.
GUIDELINES FOR GIVING FEEDBACK
You are giving a feedback to someone in his/her performance. Your intention must be to improve performance through your feedback.
You are teaching mathematics to your children. If he/she makes any mistakes our normal feedback is as ―you are an ass, you are useless‖. But think for a minute. What has he/she done? He/She has made some mistake in one or two steps in a particular sum, on the other hand, your intention is to improve his/her performance in doing sum. But unfortunately, you are focusing on ‗Personality‘ instead of ‗behaviour‘ which is comprised of knowledge, skill and attitude.
Focus Feedback on behaviour rather than on personality
Referring to what the person did is important so that feedback is descriptive rather than evaluative.
Changing behaviour is quite possible for an individual, but attempting to change personality is much more difficult, if not impossible. We create frustration if we give feedback on some shortcoming over which the trainee has no control – i.e. part of their personality.
Feedback should focus on observations rather than inferences.
Observations are what you can see and hear in a person‘s behaviour; inferences are the interpretation and conclusions you draw from the observations. Consequently they are open to dispute. The giver of feedback can accurately report what he or she observed as happened, but
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can only guess at the reason. To say, for example, ‗You have interrupted three people during the last half-hour‘, is more acceptable than saying ‗You are too fond of your own voice‘. You can observe or measure the amount of talking someone does and give accurate feedback on it. Nevertheless, it is dangerous and may be untrue to imply that someone who talks a lot is too fond of one‘s own voice. There could be other reasons why they say a lot.
Concentrate on change rather than make value judgements
Having identified an area for change you may hope the trainee explore how to do things differently in the future. Make positive suggestions about how things could be done differently. However, avoid being manipulative. Remember to leave the choice to the trainee about whether to accept or reject the feedback.
Feedback is most acceptable when it is describing specific rather than general patterns of behaviour.
In providing feedback you are seeking to help the trainee to change and improve performance. You need the trainee‘s commitment to change, not agreement with your views. So you identify the specific problem. Suggest the solutions. Do not confuse him by describing general patterns of behaviour.
Focus the feedback on the value it may have for the trainee
You should try to be impersonal, and show empathy by asking yourself: ‗Who is it I am trying to help?‘. It is tempting to give feedback about things of interest to you that are not strictly about the trainee‘s performance. Concentrate on those things that will help achieve the desired performance.
Focus feedback on the amount of information the trainee can use, rather than the amount you feel capable of giving.
Effective feedback requires you to select the relevant points that the trainee can cope with at once. This means you must select priorities in the feedback you can give. Concentrate on the major determinants of the performance you are assessing. Make the feedback learner centred.
Feedback should be well-timed
Generally, feedback is best given as soon as possible after the learning event. If we delay feedback, it is much more difficult for a person to learn which actions led to a successful (or unsuccessful) outcome. Delay in feedback may make the feedback ineffective. You should give it timely.
Check the accuracy of the feedback
Careful observation of the person‘s behaviour during his or her performance is essential. Some form of checklist would help. However, always remember that ticks in boxes are
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secondary to helping the trainee to learn. The checklist is a means to an end, not an end in itself.
In giving feedback you should be helping trainees explore the options open to them in deciding if and how to change. The trainees need to work out for themselves what they want to do rather than be given off-the-shelf solutions.
For successful learning to take place, by using feedback, there must be commitment to change, not compliance with the views expressed by the feedback giver. The feedback giver should be working to get that commitment. Compliance is unlikely to lead to action to improve performance.
Effective feedback resulting in commitment to change and the implementation of feedback requires skills in receiving feedback and also giving it. No matter how skilfully given, feedback that the trainee cannot be effective.
GUIDELINES FOR RECEIVING FEEDBACK
Be positive towards the feedback giver
Giving feedback on performance is a threatening activity, particularly for the less experienced. Recognizing the benefit to you of the feedback you will receive, and signaling your appreciation, will encourage the person giving it. Eye contact, nods and other nonverbal signals will encourage the feedback. Negative response or no response at all will reduce the feedback you get.
Listen to the feedback
This is easy to say but difficult to do because of the temptation to deny, argue for and justify what you have said and done.
Clarify and check understanding
Feedback givers may express themselves badly or you may not quite understand their points. Check out what feedback you are getting by paraphrasing back to them your understanding of the main points.
Check the feedback with others
Don‘t accept one individual‘s feedback as absolute. Check with others to see whether they agree on areas identified for change and the possible ways of implementing change.
Ask for feedback not volunteered
If areas of your performance concern you and you receive no feedback on them, ask. In some situations you can ask the feedback giver to pay special attention to particular points before observing your performance. There may be one aspect of your performance that you are concerned about and seeking information on it is quite legitimate.
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Describe how to use feedback.
It is up to you to decide whether you accept or reject the feedback. Whether the feedback is positive or negative, you must decide if you need to change your performance and how you might implement any change.
Explore Options
Having identified an area for change you should explore ways of bringing the change about. This may be done in consultation with the feedback giver, on your own or with someone else who can advise you. You must be committed to the decision you make for introducing change.
Thank the feedback giver
Even when you judge the feedback you have been given was unhelpful you should thank the person. For feedback to continue to be given the trainee needs to signal its value. The next time feedback is given it may be very helpful. Punishing the feedback giver or signalling your discontent will just reduce or eliminate feedback being given.
SUMMARY
Giving and receiving feedback is a demanding process that requires confidence and respect between the parties involved. The advice offered is necessarily broad and will vary between different individuals and activities. We cannot doubt the value of the feedback in learning. The provision of feedback is especially important for those process skills that occur during learning activities, particularly involving interpersonal skills.
GIVING FEEDBACK CHECKLIST
1 Must be acceptable to the receiver. 2 Focus on behaviour rather than on the person 3 Base feedback on facts and not on opinions 4 Should include observations not inferences 5 Concentrate on change rather than make value judgements 6 Most acceptable when describing specific rather than general patterns of behaviour 7 Focus feedback on the value to the receiver 8 Limit feedback to what the receiver can cope with 9 Timing of feedback is important 10 Check the accuracy of the feedback
RECEIVING FEEDBACK CHECKLIST
1 Be positive towards the feedback giver 2 Listen to the feedback 3 Clarify and check understanding 4 Check the feedback with others
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5 Ask for detail not volunteered 6 Decide how to use feedback received 7 Explore options 8 Thank the feedback giver
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Confucius said:—
― I hear and I forget,
I see and I remember
I do and I understand.‖
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CHAPTER 14
How to prepare for & conduct an Interactive Session
Lectures have been used since ancient times as a convenient method of communicating
information to a large number of people. Convenience, however, is different from efficiency. Lectures are somewhat like primitive steam engines in that they provide a means of delivery, but one that is not particularly efficient as it proceed on the assumption that the audiences are empty vessels to be filled up with knowledge. This is especially true when a lecture is being used to communicate information that people need for performing-on-the-job. With modern technology, we can improve the efficiency of a steam engine considerably to make it a viable option for motive power. The same applies to lectures, because they too can be transformed by making use of a better understanding of how adults learn and by using visual aids.
First we shall concentrate on how to prepare an interactive session. Then we shall discuss how to conduct an interactive session using lecture to initiate the session.
STAGES INVOLVED IN PREPARING AN INTERACTIVE SESSION
We list the process below which we shall follow. We recommend that you prepare the session by developing each of these stages in turn, although you may find that you have to go back to modify earlier stages as you work through the process.
Objective of a session
Entry Behaviour
The Learning Event
Deciding the Content
Planning the Sequence
Planning for Maximum Recall
Structuring the Session use of Visual Aids
Performance Assessment
Review
Feedback
THE OBJECTIVE OF AN INTERACTIVE SEESION
When you are organising an interactive session, your purpose is to enable trainees to utilise the knowledge you will share with them, which they require to perform on-the-job. The objective is a logical starting point for it. Use the session as a means of communicating information and to sharing knowledge only. This means that you need to specify two things in the objective – what the trainees can do after the session and how they are going to check that they can. In setting objective, you should phrase them in achievable and measurable terms, such as ‗state‘, ‗describe‘, ‗list‘, ‗explain‘ and so on.
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ENTRY BEHAVIOUR
Much of the success or failure of your session will depend on the trainees. Consideration of their entry behaviour will enable you to plan a session that is effective for them, enabling the trainees to achieve the objective and preparing them for further learning events. The following points about entry behaviour need to be considered:
— The trainees‘ existing knowledge and previous learning experience. Remember that no adult is an empty vessel to be passively filled up. Awareness of existing knowledge will help you decide where your session will start, and the assumptions you can make about previous learning. Awareness of previous learning experiences will also alert you to the trainees‘ likely attitude and willingness to learn. — Individual differences between trainees. If your session is to be given only to one trainee, you can match your session to the trainee. You would sense the trainee‘s response to your explanation and adjust accordingly. As the learning group grows in number and individual differences in entry behaviour arise, it becomes more difficult to adjust your session to suit everyone‘s entry behaviour. Prior knowledge of the trainees should enable you to
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prepare a suitable and, therefore, a more effective session.
Acceptability of the Information
Acceptance or rejection of the information you are providing in your session is likely to be between two extremes. The information may be accepted if you have explained to the trainees the reason why they need the information and it is new, interesting and does not conflict with their existing knowledge or opinion. Occasionally you may find yourself, possibly unwittingly, focussing more on trainees rejecting or questioning or not responding to your information. This is likely to occur when you are dealing with contentious information, going ‗over‘ or ‗under‘ their heads, or making the session difficult to understand by using a poor structure, inappropriate lecturing technique, or poor visual aids. The essential point to consider is that you are going to deal with a group of trainees, possibly unknown to you, whose approach to learning may not be in accord with your assumptions. The likelihood of acceptance or rejection may depend on your sensitivity to their entry behaviour.
The maturity of the trainees will affect the way you discuss the subject and may also influence how you assess achievement. An assessment measure for younger trainees might be by means of a written test; the same test given to older trainees might be threatening and harmful to their willingness to learn.
Your credibility to the trainees, or your perceived status as the provider of information. Are you likely to be accepted as an ‗expert‘? They might expose your credibility generally during a session and prior information about entry behaviour should enable you to avoid the worst of the pitfalls awaiting the unwary, insensitive session.
Flexibility
Try to build into your session some degree of flexibility. This is difficult with a large group of trainees, but often encouraging when some interaction is possible. Trainees appreciate relevant anecdotes and similar means of adding variety and interest. Mature trainees may want to participate by sharing experiences, discussing interesting points in relation to their work, and generally wishing to be treated as equals. The more formalised and structured the session becomes, the more difficult you will find it to adapt and cater for these situations, most of which you should encourage. Where possible allow time to check entry behaviour by encouraging trainees to participate and express themselves.
THE LEARNING EVENT
The learning event is the ‗live‘ occasion when you are conducting your session and communicating to your trainees. You will help their learning if they know:
– Where they are going – How they are going to get there. The first point has been covered because the objective of the session tells them where the
session is going and what they are expected to achieve when they get there. The second point, how they are going to get there, is dealt with by considering the following aspects of the learning event you are preparing:
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– Deciding the content – Planning the sequence – Planning for maximum recall – Structuring the Session – Use of Visual Aids – Preparing Session‘ Notes
DECIDING THE CONTENT
The objective for your session, should give a clear idea of information you need to communicate. However, in such a short statement it will have left unstated the many small items of information that might or might not be included. A useful technique to identify these items is the use of the ‗spray diagram‘. The diagram is started by stating the central theme of the objective. Around this central theme subsidiary elements are added in ‗balloons‘.
The diagram is far from complete and more subsidiary elements or ‗balloons‘ can be added, each adding a small contribution to the content that might or might not be included in a session. There is no real end to this process and the spray diagram can continue to be expanded until we have included all conceivable items of information. We can then edit the content shown on the spray diagram, by:
– Saying all the items on the diagram ‗possible‘ be included in your session. – Reducing these ‗could‘ be items to ones that ‗important‘ be included. – Reducing these ‗should‘ items still further to ones that ‗core‘ be included.
The ‗must‘ items form the content of your session and study of them may lead you to revise the draft objective. The process is illustrated as under:
Figure: Deciding Content
OBJECTIVE
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PLANNING THE SEQUENCE
Having a logical sequence is important, so we must be careful. What seems logical to the trainer may not seem so to the trainee.
Therefore, we need to consider what is logical from a trainee‘s point of view - not from the point of view of an expert, a theorist, a practitioner or a researcher. Some guidelines to bear in mind when planning is that people learn by progressing from the:
– Known to the unknown – Simple to the complex – Concrete to the abstract – Observation to the theory – General to the particular
So why not change the sequence? Start by looking at the situation from the trainees‘
point of view, find something to ‗switch them on‘, to justify learning the theory. The sequence shown in Figure below takes account of the trainees‘ entry behaviour and uses a logical build up, free from unnecessary detail.
Figure: Sequence
OUR ENERGY
WHAT IS OUR SOURCE?
HOW THEY HAVE BEEN PRODUCED
HOW DOES PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKE PLACE
PLANNING FOR MAXIMUM RECALL
The purpose of a session is to provide an opportunity for the trainees to acquire
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information. The objective defines what information they should acquire and later recall - the ‗core‘ items in the content. The problem is to relate the information to the capacity of the trainees to remember it, and to devise ways of helping them to recall it.
Figure 4: Planning for Recall
The communication process in the session uses the trainee‘s senses of sight and hearing. This input of information is then stored in the trainee‘s short-term memory, which has a limited capacity and can retain information for perhaps 5-30 seconds. Some information will be passed to the long-term memory, although most of it will be forgotten as illustrated in Figure above.
To increase the amount remembered, make full use of the trainee‘s sensory inputs by:
– Emphasizing major points, repeating where possible. – Using visual aids to provide the second medium of communication for the same points
Decide whether the recall of information can be achieved using:
– The trainee‘s long-term memory. This means that the trainee can recall from memory the information you provided. – Notes, handouts, and similar sources of information. The trainee can recall information by referring to handouts etc.
Notice how this might change the objective: in one instance we require that the trainee recall from memory, whereas in the other, they can refer to handouts.
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The trainee‘s capacity to recall major points of your session may depend upon when you present them. Figure below illustrates in a general way when the maximum level of recall occurs.
Figure : Period of Effectiveness
Period of maximum effectiveness : 20/30 minutes
From Figure above we can see that the maximum level of recall occurs after some 20 minutes and can be maintained for about 30 minutes. This suggests that:
– The earlier period is less effective because the trainee‘s mind has to adjust to possibly an unfamiliar environment. The more suitable this is, the easier it becomes to reach (A). – The period will be shortened if the trainees are in familiar surroundings. – The period length depends on how we introduce the session: The better this is, the shorter will be the time to reach full learning recall.
The middle period between (A) and (B) is when learning conditions are most favorable. This is when the major points should be presented. Also, we will lengthen the period if:
– active participation is encouraged. – Visual aids and demonstrations are used. – The trainees know that we will give them major points in some form of a handout. – The learning environment is suitable - at a reasonable temperature, with circulation of fresh air and out of direct sunlight.
Mental and physical fatigue affects the later stages of the session after (B). This result in a decline of information retained. (B) provides the time in the session when we should summarize
Level of
Recall
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the major points. Other points to note are:
– The session should be kept as short as possible after (B). – We can introduce another learning method (for example, a discussion or an exercise or a management game) after (B) to maintain active participation and internalize the learning.
If there are facts and explanations that they must remember, some form of a handout would help the trainees. We can regard this as ‗post-session‘ learning. The session starts the process, and subsequent study aids long term memory storage and recall.
STRUCTURING THE SESSION
The key to an effective session style is to break down the session into its component parts and use a variety of approaches within each component. This is especially critical when a group of trainees will be attending a series of sessions by the same trainer. The three main parts are the introduction, body and summary.
The purpose of the introduction is to capture the interest and attention of the trainees. It can also serve to make trainees aware of the trainer‘s expectations and encourage a positive learning climate. A good introduction is critical to the success of a session.
Trainer communication skills can be classified into three key types: verbal, listening, and motivating participants.
. The Communication Process: A Closed-Loop System
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Tips for Creating an Effective Introduction.
Review of the session objective. Ask rhetorical questions Ask for a show of hands in response to a general question. Ask a series of questions related to the session topic. Use an interesting or famous quotation. Relate the topic to previously covered content. Use a case study or problem-solving activity. Use a videotape or other media. Use a training film. Show an appropriate cartoon with the overhead or slide projector. Make a provocative statement to encourage discussion. Give a demonstration. Use a game or role play. Relate the topic to future work experiences. Share a personal experience. • Relate the topic to a real-life experience. The trainer can then make a smooth transition into the body of the discussion once the attention of the trainees has been captured with an interesting introduction. It contains the core of the information to be transferred to the trainees. The purpose of the summary is to draw together the critical information presented and ensure that trainees leave the session with a clear understanding of this information. The summary should be brief and address only main points. There are several techniques which can be used to summarize it:
Ask the trainees for questions. This gives trainees an opportunity to clarify their
understanding of the content. Ask the questions for the trainees. Several questions which focus on the main points of
the content may be used to summarize the content of the session. Use a transparency, slide or flipchart to review the summary points.
Delivering Interactive Session
An effective session can be one of the most exciting and rewarding aspects of a trainer‘s responsibilities. The trainer who is able to sustain participant‘s interest with an exciting, dynamic delivery using a variety of instructional methods is more likely to be successful in helping trainees reach the learning objectives. The time and effort invested in planning pay off as the trainer and trainees interact, discuss, question and work together.
Questioning Techniques
One of the most effective techniques a trainer can use during a session to help ensure interaction is to ask and encourage questions. Questions can be used to introduce sessions, stimulate interaction throughout the session and summarize content. Involving trainees through questioning helps to maintain their attention, which is critical when topics are complex
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and sessions are long. Suggestions for using questions include:
Ask questions for the entire group. Those who wish to volunteer may do so, although the trainer must guard against some trainees dominating the discussion.
Target a question to a specific trainee. When the audience is relatively small, this technique can be used to involve more of the trainees.
Use trainee‘s names when asking and answering questions – this recognition is a powerful motivator.
Provide positive reinforcement when trainees respond. This praise will help to create a very positive climate and will encourage more trainees to enter into the discussion.
Repeat trainee‘s questions and answers to ensure that all trainees hear the discussion. When a trainee asks a question, the trainer can answer the question directly, respond by
asking the trainees different, related questions or offer the question to the other trainees.
The key in asking and answering questions is to avoid a pattern. If the trainer always asks and answers questions using the same pattern, this critically important training skill will have limited impact.
Presentation Techniques
The skilled trainer uses a variety of approaches to involve trainees, maintain interest and avoid a repetitive lecturing style. A number of techniques can be used to make a session more interactive and effective:
Use the session notes prepared during the planning stage. The notes include reminders and key points in the session introduction, body and summary.
Open the session with a good introduction designed to capture the interest and attention of the trainees.
Communicate on a personal level. The trainer should attempt to relate to the trainees during the session.
Maintain eye contact with the trainees. Eye contact gives the trainer feedback on how well trainees understand the content and helps to communicate a caring attitude on the part of the trainer.
Exhibit enthusiasm about the topic. Smiling, moving around the room and gesturing with hands and arms project a feeling of energy and excitement.
Project the voice so that those in the back of the room can hear clearly. For large training halls, use a microphone if necessary, with a long cord that will permit movement around the room.
Avoid the use of slang or repetitive words, phrases or gestures that may become distracting with extended use. Avoid the use of fillers (e.g ―um‖, ―er‖, ―you know‖)
Use a variety of audiovisual media. Ask a number of questions and encourage trainees to ask questions. Provide positive feedback when trainees ask questions, answer questions or make
comments. Use trainee‘s names as often as possible. Display a positive use of humour (e.g., humorous transparencies or slides, topic-related
stories.) Make smooth transitions between parts of the session. These transitions should be
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highlighted in the sessions notes and might include: A brief overview of the next topic. A review of the agenda between topics A change of media An interim summary before a new topic An activity (case study or problem-solving activity)
Close the session with a brief but powerful summary.
Tips to Reduce Presentation Anxiety
Avoid eating a big meal before the session. Not only will a full stomach make you drowsy, but it makes it more difficult to move around the room with energy.
Arrive early to make sure that everything is ready before the first trainee arrives. Make sure all of the media equipment is working. Locate and check the lighting and temperature controls. Decide where the session notes will be placed (e.g on a lectern, desk, table) when they
are not being held. Have a glass of water available during the session. Go for a short walk just before the session. Look over your session notes one last time. Greet trainees as they enter the room. Welcome them to the session and talk to as many
of them as possible. Take a few deep breaths to relax before beginning the session.
USE OF VISUAL AIDS
Visual Aids are an essential feature of effective communication. Most sessions are improved by using visual aids that we develop as part of preparation for a session. Generally, they are worth using to help trainees learn the major points of the session; they should:
Attract and Hold Attention
When trainees are listening passively, their attention is easily distracted. An interesting visual aid can attract and hold attention.
Explain Words
If they do not understand a critical word in a sentence, or if it is misunderstood, not only does the sentence become useless, we weaken the trainee‘s belief in the prospect of success.
Illustrate Relationships/Concepts
The saying ‗A picture tells a thousand words‘ holds true.
Consolidate Learning
The key points of a session can be presented on an overhead projector or recorded on a
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flipchart or chalkboard. Research has shown that we take in more information from the sense of sight than we do
from listening, in the ratio of something like:
75% Sight
25% Hearing and other senses
Bearing this in mind, it is not surprising that other studies have shown that sessions using visual aids are far more effective for understanding and recall than sessions that do not use visual aids.
Some further observations about visual aids :
– They should be simple – Where possible use pictures and diagrams rather than many words. – Use colour to give contrast to different major points. – Where possible prepare visual aids before the session (e.g. overhead projector
transparencies and flipcharts) Do not waste valuable learning time during the session. – Use ‗formal‘ visuals (e.g. an overhead projector) for pre-prepared material, and use
chalkboards and flipcharts for ‗informal‘ visuals developed during the session. – Ensure all major points of the session are presented visually and orally.
PREPARING NOTES
There is no standard format for the notes needed to have a session. Some trainers rely on detailed notes and many rarely look at them. Some use papers or cards with lists of topic headings as prompts; others rely on their visual aids and use them as prompts; others do not use notes, and however well they conduct the session one might ask whether their session would have been better if they had used them. Some general observations about session notes:
– They are there to help you and are therefore personal to you. – They should be kept as simple as possible. – They should be easy to read - you might be some distance away from your notes. – Use colour to ensure we do not miss major points. – Use sketches to indicate where a visual aid is to be used – Include a time schedule.
Although your session notes are personal to you, there may be occasions when colleagues
have to conduct similar sessions and would probably appreciate reference to your notes.
SUMMARY
This is suggested that you use the following procedure to prepare the interactive session:
– Describe in general terms what you believe the trainees need to know. – Develop a ‗spray diagram‘ to show the possible extent of the content of the session. – Carefully edit the spray diagram to eliminate all points that are not essential to the
content of the session.
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– List the major points of the session - the points the trainees must be able to recall. – Alongside this list, note how you intend to assess whether they have learned the point. – Review the content, taking a critical look at your list of major points, particularly ones
that we cannot assess. Ask yourself whether we must include them. – Write the objective for the session. – Briefly describe the entry behaviour of your trainees. This might be based on precise
knowledge, or on certain assumptions that you must make. – Does the entry behaviour affect the objective? Review the objective, if necessary. – Decide the most appropriate structure for the session. Do this by relating the objective,
the content, the entry behaviour, and how you propose to assess attainment. – Structure the content of the session, taking into account the: – Objective – Analysis of the spray diagram – Likely entry behaviour – Session structure you consider the most suitable – Time available – Plan your visual aids in relation to the structure of the session. Decide the ‗formal‘ aids
you will prepare beforehand, and the ‗informal‘ ones that will be evolved during the session.
– Review the structure of the content to ensure that all main points are suitably presented in visual form.
– Prepare your session notes and visual aids. – Run through the session mentally to check sequence and logic. Adjust where necessary. – Check class room and the equipment you intend to use.
FEEDBACK
Trainers plan and implement sessions for the benefit of their trainees. However, the trainers themselves are also presented with a learning opportunity. At the end of a session you can ask yourself many questions, ponder over earlier decisions you made, and generally reflect on the changes you would make if asked to do the same session again.
The following questions suggest areas for you to consider:
– Was the objective appropriate? – Was the objective achieved? – Did you assess the entry behaviour of the trainees correctly? – How did the content relate to the objective and trainees‘ learning capabilities? – Was the sequence appropriate? – Did you choose the right structure? – Did you ask questions? – Were the questions of high or low order? – Did you allow sufficient time to answer questions? – Did you fit the major points of the session into the best learning period? – Did you communicate the major points of the session visually and orally? – Were your visual aids appropriate to emphasizing the major points of the session? – Did the trainees appear to learn from your visual aids?
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– Was your introduction appropriate? – Did you summarize the main points of the session? – How was your timing in relation to your planning? – Did you feel comfortable with the timing and content of the session? – Did the method of assessing performance suit the trainees? – Was the assessment of performance valid in relation to the purpose of the session? A
checklist is provided for as ready reference.
Planning – Identify topic – Prepare a spray diagram. – Edit spray diagram to identify ‗core‘ items – Express must items as an objective – Consider entry behaviour of trainees – Consider size of group – Decide structure to be used – Consider visual aid hardware available – Prepare formal visual presentation of major points – Consider informal visual aids – Decide when to invite questions – Decide timing – Decide how learning performance is to be assessed – Write session notes – Check timing – Check accommodation – Check equipment
Introduction
– Gain attention/rapport – Explain purpose/reason for learning about topic – State objective – Link to entry behaviour – State participation – Outline content and structure – State finish time
Development
– Modulate voice to suit size of group – Avoid reading session notes – Use language appropriate to trainees – Keep check of estimated timing – Give relevant examples to support major points – Maintain eye contact – Present visual aids only when needed – Avoid reading visual presentation word for word
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– Assess trainee‘s reaction and adjust if necessary – Assist learning by use of informal visual aids – Check trainee‘s understanding where appropriate – Where possible invite trainee‘s participation
Summary
– Restate purpose/reason for learning about topic – Restate objective – Review content and major points – Invite final questions – Can out performance assessment where appropriate – Give feedback – Close with thanks
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CHAPTER 15
HOW TO LEAD A DISCUSSION: CASE STUDY AS A TOOL
INTRODUCTION
As the trainer, responsible for helping others to learn, you may not always be the subject matter expert. Sometimes your learners may know as much as you, or have as much or more experience than you on certain topics. Often you will be helping highly experienced, mature, people who are more likely to respond to an organised exchange of ideas and opinions, rather than to ‗being told‘ or taught. In such a situation you may choose a method that facilitates learning by experience sharing and cross fertilization of ideas. The Glossary of Training Terms defines the discussion method as:
‗A training technique in which the learning derives principally from the participants themselves rather than from an instructor‘
Discussion as a method should not be used to ‗teach‘ knowledge new to the learners. It should be used more for sharing experience, encouraging and developing thinking, modifying attitudes and getting commitment. A discussion for training purposes allows individuals to express their concerns and ideas, and to build upon and develop the ideas of group members. We use the method to continue a learning process started by other training methods, such as case studies and group. The purpose of the discussion may be to:
Share views
* Collect and generate ideas
* Obtain reactions and agreement.
* Develop team work
* Solve problems
* Develop decision-making skills
* Change attitudes
* Consider practical application of theory
* Develop evaluative and synthesizing skills
* Stimulate motivation and commitment To be effective, discussions must allow every member of the group to contribute. This means that there is a limit to the number of people who can participate in a discussion. Between eight and twelve participants is about the optimum number for effective learning. If there are more members, a discussion may be unwieldy, and if there is less it may not stimulate sufficient ideas for a useful discussion.
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Figure 1: The Structure of A Discussion
INTRODUCTION
DISCUSSION
DISCUSSION
SUMMARY
To ensure a dynamic, stimulating and effective discussion you need to consider how we can structure a discussion. Figure 1 illustrates a model that has proved helpful in planning and running discussions.
The discussion begins with a brief introduction from the leader. This should settle the group, establish the topic for discussion, and stimulate interest and willingness to participate in
Key Question
Key Question Key Question Key Question
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the discussion. We should plan the introduction before the discussion.
After the introduction, the group needs a thought-provoking and demanding question that will make them think and want to contribute. We call such a question a Key Question. The first Key Question is critical to the success of the discussion. It needs to be considered beforehand and carefully prepared to:
* Introduce the subject. * Explain the purpose and reason for the discussion * Link the discussion to prior learning experiences * State the objective, if appropriate.
After the leader has posed the Key Question, discussion takes place within the group. You
will be involved in that discussion actively listening and occasionally making contributions, depending upon the needs of the group. When we have extracted the learning benefits from the first key question, the group moves on with another key question.
Additional Key Questions can be prepared in advance, at least in outline. The diagram shows that the sequence may vary depending upon the reaction of the group, and the direction in which they are going. The problem you may face is that this direction could be different from what you had planned. Prepare an outline sequence, but be flexible so that you meet the group‘s progress in the discussion. Remember that you are not in control of the content to the same extent as in a lecture or presentation. Because of this, the planned sequence may not make sense in the actual discussion. So, you may need to adapt to a different sequence as the discussion develops.
At the end of the discussion the discussion leader should summarize what has come out of the contributions and the conclusions reached, if any. Summarizing it between Key Questions to consolidate may also be helpful and clarify what has been said before you lead into the next Key Question. This is a matter of judgement and will depend on the circumstances. Sometimes, for example, a group member will make a statement that summarizes several earlier contributions: a summary from the leader is then unnecessary.
PREPARING TO LEAD A DISCUSSION
As with all learning events, preparation is important. The better the preparation the more confident you can feel as the discussion leader. Also, the more learning is likely to take place for your learners.
You should undertake the following in preparing for a discussion:
* Set an objective * Analyze the topic * Consider the group * Identify and prepare Key Questions * Prepare an introduction * Decide if any other resources would be helpful, eg. a flipchart * Organize physical arrangements
We should not take these activities in strict order because decisions about one of them may
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influence others.
Set an Objective
The objective should identify what they can do at the end of the discussion. This is often difficult to define with discussion leading where ideas, attitudes and motivation are usually involved.
Sometimes you can write the objective before you do anything else. Occasionally you may start with a topic you want discussed and only after analyzing the topic can you clarify the objective.
The discussion method is generally more appropriate for objectives that deal with feelings, opinions and attitudes. Of necessity these are less precise than objectives dealing with facts or skills. The outcome is less predictable and controllable than say, the outcome of a lecture. The details of the content come from the group and it is less easy to control than when using other methods. Success in achieving the objective is also less easy to measure.
Examples of objectives for discussion leading are:
1 ―………… group members can describe the role of a leader in a management role‖ 2 ―………… participants can analyze the difficulties in conducting audits‖ 3 ―………… group members will identify the impact of word processors on their jobs‖
Analyze the Topic
In preparing to lead a discussion you may start with an objective or just a topic heading. You yourself must know quite a lot about that topic – which may also apply to other participants in the discussion. Your job is to help the group to explore the topic and achieve the objective.
To help you lead the discussion, and to get the group‘s attention on useful areas of the topic, you need to analyze the topic. This process will enable you to identify the key areas for discussion.
One starting point is to think through the topic and its various aspects and implications. During this process there is a danger of forgetting useful thoughts and ideas that would stimulate discussion. It is worth recording your thoughts to help you review and organize them.
Starting with a blank sheet of paper, head it up with the topic title. Then jot down key points, words or questions you think should be discussed about the topic. When you have completed your lists of points, you may go back over what you have done, looking for patterns or groupings. This can help you identify areas that the discussion needs to cover. Key points may be questions to which there is no easy answer, or perhaps there is no answer. However, getting to an answer is not the point. The point is to generate learning through a discussion of the issues involved.
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The benefit of analysing the topic is that it can help you to decide: a) What knowledge input may be necessary in the introduction? b) What information the group may need c) What areas of the topic are irrelevant to the objective? d) Exactly what the objective is e) Key questions to be put to the group f) In what order you should discuss the various aspects of the topic
You are responsible for helping the group members to achieve the objective. This will require you to decide which contributions are relevant and are helping the group, which is side-tracking the group. The clearer you are before the discussion on where you want the discussion to go, the easier those decisions will be during the discussion.
Analysis of the topic may help you identify what may be a natural sequence of development for the discussion. This can give you a framework for planning and introducing the discussion. The discussion may develop in a very different way from your planned sequence. Because the group will talk about the topic as they see it, a new sequence may emerge. You must decide how important it is to follow one path rather than another. If you direct the discussion back to your planned sequence, you may take out some spontaneity and interest from the group members. This may make the discussion a harder work for you and less effective for the group members.
Consider the Group
A group discussion depends for success upon the participation and contributions of members. Each member of the group needs to recognize that he or she has something useful to contribute. They must also realize that they can learn from each other. It is the job of the discussion leader to identify the contributions that individuals can make and encourage them to make them.
In planning the discussion you need to consider:
* Size of the group. Less than 5 is too small to generate sufficient ideas and points of view. More than 12 is too large to keep them discussing as a single group in which everyone participates. You need to split into subgroups * What knowledge is shared by everyone in the group? * Breadth of experience in relation to the topic * Likely reactions to the topic * Your relationship with the group * Their position compared with yours
Finding out about the learners and planning the discussion around them should help you avoid unpleasant surprises during the discussion. It will also make it easier for the group members to achieve the objective.
Identify and Prepare Key Points/ Questions
Having analyzed the topic and considered the sequence you can probably identify most key points to be discussed. In a perfect discussion the leader would introduce each Key Point
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with a Key Question. The Key Question would then stimulate sufficient relevant discussion within the group to cover completely the Key Point. The discussion leader would not need to intervene to bring the discussion back because the question would succeed in focusing attention entirely upon the Key Point. Once the Key Point is covered, you can summarize and move on to another Key Point. This should be introduced with another Key Question.
This model of a perfect discussion infers that the Key Question has been effective in stimulating interest, focusing attention and encouraging everyone to contribute. Key Question need to be carefully thought out and planned. They must make the group think and use their experience. The wording of a question should not be threatening to individuals in the discussion group. There should not be any easy answer to a Key Question and answering it should raise other issues that will stimulate further discussion.
When you are planning Key Questions you need to consider:
* Objective of the discussion * Group Members * Time * Topic analysis
The Key Question to follow your introduction can be planned word for word. Later questions should be prepared in an outline so that they can be phrased to fit into the context of the preceding discussion. The number of Key Question required for a discussion will depend upon the complexity of the subject, the depth of discussion required, the experience of the group and the time available. Just one ‗good‘ key question might keep a group going for twenty minutes. After the first Key Question the group themselves may develop other questions that cover the points identified by the leader. This is good in that it reduces the need for intervention by the leader and increases the confidence and ownership of the group in what is happening. The sequence of Key Questions in a discussion should reflect the topic and the way the group have developed the discussion. This makes planning a sequence difficult in advance because imposing the leader‘s sequence may reduce the flow and sense of the discussion. When we have exhausted a key question, the next key question should be selected to link on to the previous discussion and phrased to reflect the way the group have been discussing the topic.
Time
This is a major constraint. Generally, highly effective discussions require a considerable amount of time. Failure to provide sufficient time or arbitrary closure of a discussion creates a major barrier to effective discussion. Unfortunately, discussion timing is extremely difficult to predict and depends upon:
* The interest and experience of group members. * The quality of key questions posed by the leader. * The way in which group behaviour helps or hinders development of discussions. * The complexity of the objective to be achieved. * The diversity of opinion within the group.
Prepare an Introduction
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An important role for a discussion leader is to get the discussion going by means of an introduction. We require a delicate balance between a comprehensive introduction that switches the group off and a short one that leaves them puzzled.
When preparing an introduction you should aim for brevity and consider covering the following:
* State the topic to be discussed * State the purpose of discussion * Outline limits to topic and timing * Set the scene * Establish links with the experience of the group * Bring everyone to a common starting point * Arouse interest * Prepare the group to contribute * Lead up to first Key Question.
While the list is long, many items can be included very briefly and often grouped together. The introduction should reassure group members that they have something to say, encourage them to say it and listen to what others have to say.
Decide Upon Visual Aids
You must decide whether visual aids are suitable and helpful for your learners in the discussions you lead.
Visual aids can promote learning and stimulate interest. Prepared visuals are not possible except for topic headings and the first key question. If you feel able to prepare visual aid material it suggests you are intending to give some form of presentation.
Where ideas are being sought, having a flipchart is very helpful. The flipchart seems the most appropriate visual aid for discussions. It can be used to present Key points for discussion and to record what is coming from the group. The flipchart can be used by group members other than the discussion leader. Use of the overhead projector (OHP) is less appropriate because it takes attention away from group members to the screen. While a flipchart can be left displaying a key point for discussion and not be intrusive, the OHP left on can be distracting to the discussion between group members.
Organised Physical Arrangements
Ideal accommodation is seldom available, but the discussion leader should make the best of what is available.
The room should be well lit and ventilated. Chairs should be comfortable to sit on for an hour or so, but not so comfortable that people fall asleep. If possible, we should provide tables – without them the atmosphere is apt to become too relaxed and to reduce active thought and participation.
The layout is extremely important because it can affect the discussion. The seating arrangements need to allow participants to see each other clearly and comfortably. Discussion is
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very difficult to maintain without eye contact between participants. The discussion leader needs to be seated as part of the group so as not to dominate the discussion and prevent interactions between other group members. The most participative arrangement is the circular table or square table, as shown in Figure below.
Figure : Physical Layout for Discussion
The ―U‖ formation shown in Figure below places the leader in a more obvious position of power but retains easy contact among all members of the group. It is also a convenient layout for other training methods, so can be used without major furniture shifting.
Figure : Physical Layout for Discussion
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In both layouts any visual aid can be put alongside the discussion leader. The circular arrangement can make it difficult for group members next to the leader to see the visual aid comfortably as they have to twist round to face it.
LEADING A GROUP DISCUSSION
Once the group has assembled and settled down you can present your prepared introduction. This should be brief but adequate to arouse interest and give guidelines to the discussion. Then the first, prepared, Key Question should be posed to the whole group rather than to a nominated person.
You should be prepared to sit quietly to give the group time for thought. By looking around the group you can identify those with something to say, those who are confused or uncertain and those who do not wish to contribute. You must use your judgement on whether your question has been successful in stimulating thought and desire to contribute, or if it needs some qualification or rephrasing. Often your silence will encourage someone to start the discussion by attempting to answer the question. If no-one is prepared to speak spontaneously, you may nominate someone who appears to have something to say or you know has something to contribute on the question.
During its early stages a discussion may go ‗through the chair‘ where ever: contribution is addressed to the leader. The leader responds and then someone else is brought into the discussion. This tends to reflect dominance by the discussion leader. It only takes a few questions nominating individuals to reply for the whole group to sit back and wait for ‗their turn‘. On occasions such discussions can suddenly take off, without warning group members that are talking directly to one another and exploring their views. Debate and disagreement between members is to be welcomed because, if well directed and controlled, it helps learning.
To avoid discussions ‗through the chair‘ you should address Key Questions to the whole group. Contributions addressed to you should be passed on immediately to another group member for elaboration or comment. Your physical presence should not dominate the group either through position or posture.
INCREASE EFFECTIVENESS OF A DISCUSSION
An important distinction between giving a lecture and leading a discussion is that careful preparation beforehand can work the content and framework of the lecture out in detail. The discussion, of course, also requires careful preparation beforehand. However, the framework cannot be imposed and the detailed content depends on interaction between group members, and with you, during the discussion. In an extreme case, it is possible to visualize a situation where a trainer prepares a lecture, which an actor then delivers; this simply could not happen with a discussion.
The skill of the discussion leader lies in stimulating a good exchange of opinions while keeping to themes.
During the discussion you should manage a fragile relationship between members of the group, and between them and you. The intention should be to generate effective learning, not conflict, dissent or alienation; Aim is to generate light rather than heat. We can identify two
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factors that, well managed, will significantly increase the effectiveness of a discussion; we will illustrate them in Figure below.
Figure: Effectiveness of Discussion.
Group Behaviour
Increasing Effectiveness
Quality of Questions
QUALITY OF QUESTIONS
A key factor in successful discussion leading is the use of questions. They provide two essential services:
1. They promote learning. Questions that are perceptive, challenging and appropriate create an environment where members of the discussion group can gain a deeper insight and understanding of the topic under discussion. We will call these questions learning questions.
2. They help in the general management and control of the discussion. By appropriate use of questions the discussion leader can control the discussion and provide opportunities for all members of the group to participate. We will call these questions Tactical questions.
To enable a group to obtain maximum value from a discussion, you must consider how to manage the event. You must promote learning by the sensitive use of learning questions and, also, control the discussion by using a variety of tactical questions.
An analogy can be drawn with building a wall - a wall of understanding. The bricks in the wall are the learning questions used to promote a better understanding of the topic. The mortar between the bricks is the tactical questioning, maintaining control of the discussion and generally directing its development towards achieving the objective.
LEARNING QUESTIONS
The technique of using questions to promote learning dates back to the days of Socrates in
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the fifth century B.C. The leader of a discussion uses the ―Socratic Approach‖, as it is now called, to challenge assumptions, compare opinions, and generally encourage the development or a deeper understanding of the topic under discussion. Learning questions can be considered to fall into two broad categories, low order questions and high order questions.
Low Order Questions
Essentially, these test existing knowledge. They make only a limited contribution to a discussion because they usually require a factual answer. Low order questions are of value in discussion to check understanding and to establish a common base of information. There are three main types of low order questions:
Recall Questions that ask group members to contribute facts.
e.g. ―How many…….. ?‖
Comprehension Questions that ask group members to describe or check understanding of something, to establish a common starting point for the discussion.
e.g. ―What do we understand by the term…..?‖
Application Questions that ask group members to relate an issue or a simple problem to their own situation and consider how they might apply a proposed solution.
e.g. ―How would that work in your department….?‖
High Order Questions
These provoke discussion because there is no clear-cut answer. Group members may interpret the question differently and apply their own experience, opinion and attitudes in their response. This leads to a wide diversity of views that can be used as the basis for discussion. Almost certainly, there will be no ‗right‘ or ‗wrong answer‘. It is exchange of a variety of comments that can lead to a much wider understanding of the topic or problem being discussed. The following are types of high order question:
Analysis Question asks group members to make deductions. They are encouraged to organize their thoughts and to look for evidence to interpret and to make generalizations. The value of these questions is that the leader can draw on the experience of members. The question can be illustrated by reference to similar situations that encourage members to express opinions.
e.g. ―So what does that mean for other section?‖
Synthesis Questions stimulate the group‘s creative potential. They require people to reflect and work together as a team, encouraging participants to develop ideas and suggestions.
e.g. ―Can we build on that idea somehow?‖
Evaluation Questions can be considered the highest level of thinking to be obtained from a discussion group. No matter how brilliantly a conclusion from other categories of
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questions, they must evaluate it and consider its worth. It encourages members to give reasons for their judgements and to assess different ideas and solutions.
e.g. ―Which of these possible approaches do you prefer, and why?‖
Application of Learning Questions
In planning the types of question to ask, you should consider:
1 The level of the questions. If too low, the group may see the discussion as a pointless recall of knowledge. If too high a level, the group may feel threatened and respond in a defensive manner. High order questions can make the group feel that they are being asked to contribute outside their level of expertise and experience. 2 What alternative questions to ask, either further up or lower down the order. This should provide a degree of flexibility and permit you to adapt to the learning needs of the group. 3 The time available. Low order questions require a relatively simple answer: they are less likely to provoke controversy and can be concluded quickly. High order questions are likely to do the opposite.
TACTICAL QUESTIONS
We need tactical questions when group behaviour is limiting the learning from the discussion. They may be necessary to bring some participants into the discussion, to acknowledge the contribution of others and to get the discussion to move on. Tactical questions are devices for directing the discussion and generally controlling the event. In themselves tactical questions do not promote much learning; their main purpose is to focus discussion on the high-order learning questions. They help the discussion leader to:
* Ensure that learning questions are fully understood, before the detailed discussion. * Manage the participation of group members. * Control the allocation of time to each aspect of the topic. * Summarise and check for understanding and agreement.
Tactical questions can be considered within three broad categories:
1 Open Questions 2 Probing Questions 3 Closed Questions 1. Open Questions
To establish rapport Introductory questions used to establish an initial relationship with the group. Examples:
– ‗Didn‘t you use to work in the audit department?‘ – ‗Have you met ?‘
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To explore the background Used to establish a common basis upon which to build the discussion. Examples: – ‗Please tell us about?‘ – ‗How does the (topic) affect your department?‘
To explore opinions or attitudes
Again, used to establish a common basis, but the emphasis is now on the individual member‘s opinion or attitude towards the topic. Examples:
– ‗To what extent do you feel...?‘ – ‗Just how far do you think?‘
2. Probing Questions to show interest or encouragement
Where the leader encourages a member of the group by making supportive statements, or repeating key words to encourage responses from others. Examples:
– ‗That‘s interesting…….?‘ -‗I see ……?‘ (Tell us more) To seek further information Used to develop a member‘s statement by promoting further comment. Examples: – Why? – What would you do if…..?‘
To explore in details
Where comments of potentially great significance are highlighted by seeking further opinions. Examples
– ‗Just how far do you think…..?‘ – ‗You feel that ……..?‘
To establish understanding Where the leader controls the discussion by summarizing a particular aspect of the topic. Example: – ‗As I understand it…….?‘ – ‗The consensus is …..?‘
3. Closed Questions
These are especially useful for establishing facts, or to control a discussion in danger of falling apart through lack of understanding. Examples:
– ‗Are you ….?‘ – ‗How often do you ….?‘
GROUP BEHAVIOUR
During a discussion you have the responsibility to control the group‘s participation. You
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have to:
* Understand the contribution of each member. * Help group members to understand each contribution. * Ensure that the contributions relate to the Key Question. * Summarize the contributions and record main points. * Summarize each aspect of the topic at an appropriate time * Encourage contributions from everyone in the group. * Limit contributions. * Keep to time constraints.
By improving the quality of group participation and planning high quality questions you can increase the effectiveness of the discussion. During the discussion you may be faced with group members who are either not helping or actively hindering the group. You may be faced with group members who talk too much. If you ‗shut them up‘ you may lose them for the rest of the session; if you let them go on for too long, you may lose the group who by that time get bored and have ‗switched off‘.
Supplementary questions and summaries can be useful to clarify and break into an individual‘s contribution. Asking another individual to comment upon what has been said can also help to widen the discussion.
Do not put too much pressure on ‗silent members‘. It may do more harm than good. Silence does not mean that they are not learning.
However, encouraging looks, or asking silent members to help with recording contributions can be useful to bring them into the body of the group.
You can use three major techniques to control the discussion:
Questions
The quality of the discussion is very dependent on the quality of questions. This applies to both key questions and supplementary questions. Good questions can help people to think, clarify understanding, and stimulate an active approach to the topic.
It is essential that you ask questions with a genuine desire to understand or clarify. We should frame questions in a way that avoids any member feeling attacked. Any attempt to make a member of the group look foolish, or to score off a member, will often lead to a breakdown of effective discussion.
Asking how one contribution relates to an earlier one will help to keep the discussion together and develop understanding of the topic.
Silence
Silence can be a most valuable contribution to a discussion. During silences, people can think. To use silence you should make sure that the groups have a good, challenging question to help them to think. Then remain seated and be silent yourself.
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Associated with silence is the art of listening. It can be helpful if you note down useful comments from members of the group and encourage them to do also. The skill of listening is one of the most demanding in discussion leading. As a discussion leader you should listen carefully to the contributions being made; decide whether you have understood; decide whether the rest of the group understood, and perhaps phrase a clarifying question and at some stage summarize the content. Doing all these things together is very difficult and very tiring. Your attention will almost slip from time to time, so note taking can be helpful in keeping concentration and providing a reminder to which you can refer for summarizing.
Summaries:
At certain points in the discussion you should gather related contributions together and summarize them. If this is a summary of Key Question, recording this in writing or the flipchart is useful. This gives you the opportunity to control the movement of the discussion and prevents the group from wandering from the topic; it consolidates what they have learned; and gives the group a sense of achievement.
The summary is useful to control the timing of the discussion. Providing a summary can round off a Key Question. It will normally close discussion on that aspect, and allow discussion to move on to the next.
By controlling the discussion in this way, you can apportion the time available.
Sometimes spending time on a deeper discussion of one aspect may be more useful for the group than move on to another. This is a matter of judgement, and will depend on the objectives, the learning value of the discussion, and other constraints. However, members of a discussion group will become extremely frustrated if the leader prematurely concludes their discussion.
The final summary of a discussion can be quiet brief and should round off the discussion into a coherent whole. Because the final summary must reflect the content of the discussion, we cannot plan it in advance. The use of the flipchart to record points arising and reference to notes made by the discussion leader can both be very helpful in doing the final summary.
During the final summary you should consider the following points:
* Review the points covered * Acknowledge specific contributions * Develop conclusions reached * Action to be followed - when and by whom * Reinforce understanding of the topic
THE ROLE OF THE LEADER
The primary purpose of the discussion is to enable participants to learn from each other. The discussion leader should be:
* Impartial in responding to group members.
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* Supportive to the group and encouraging contributions. * Managing the discussion within time constraints. * Not seen as the centre of attention. * A member of the group. * Prepared to learn as much as any other member of the group. * Stimulating the group to explore the topic in depth.
The essential feature of your role is to serve the learning needs of group members. You
can do this by asking questions to clarify members‘ understanding and to challenge assumptions, and by summarizing the contributions and conclusions reached in the group to help them achieve the learning objective.
This may appear to make the discussion leader‘s role more passive than the role of
presenting new information in a lecture. The role is in fact, very demanding and active; attentive listening and a quick grasp of what is being said are essential. In a discussion, differences in entry behaviour become far more apparent as the people in the group become equal partners; you have to create a learning event that will lead to a full discussion of the subject and the realization of the objective for the discussion.
LEADING A CASE IN A CLASS ROOM MAJ. GEN S.K. SEN (RETD)
Teaching through a case study is called case leading and the instructor is called a case leader. The implication is obvious. Case studies and normal teaching or pedagogy are two entirely different genre of teaching. In a case study the instructor merely leads, i.e., intervenes only when necessary, to lead the discussion and keep it on the right path.
A case leader keeps the proceedings orderly.
He guides the discussion on the right path by asking suggestive questions.
He controls speed, identifies and clears blocks in discussion and does time management.
He handles unpredictable developments and volatile reactions.
HE MUST KNOW HOW TO KEEP OUT OF THE WAY AND LEAVE THE TALKING TO THE TRAINEES.
He should also be a student and appear to be so to the trainees by
– listening intently – respecting students views – asking relevant questions to show his interest.
He should help in expressing a concept if he finds that the trainee is having difficulty in doing so.
He should supply additional information if there is a gap or a bottleneck.
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He should keep himself and his pedagogical tools in the background and make the
student feel free and encourage him to wade through his ignorance, perplexity, insecurity and loose thinking without the fear of the critical teacher.
He must refrain from using seven pedagogical sins of condescension, sarcasm, personal
cross-examination, discourtesy, self-approval, self-consciousness and talkativeness.
He should ensure that the understanding that student reaches is his own and not that of the instructor.
He must understand that when, the case is being discussed by different groups at
different times, and conclusions are likely to be different.
He may use three tools of infinite flexibility which promote productive discussion without diluting the students‘ learning responsibility
-ask questions: but only when necessary, preferably as response to what has just been said. These should be used as inconspicuous aids to advance the
x discussion. But these should be
very infrequent and to be used when absolutely necessary.
-restate and rethread what is said: This is a coordination function, restating what has been said by the student to bring it in line with the topic, confirm from the student whether what the instructor has said is what the student meant. This gives the student a chance to clarify his thoughts further.
-voice his opinion and interjection: The instructor can speak to firstly, regenerate the self-propulsive power of the class, secondly, clarify a difficulty surmountable only with technical knowledge and thirdly, to supply missing information. He speaks only when the class has need of it, is ready for it and can make use of the information in their discussion.
SUMMING UP
This is a very important function. The instructor needs to sum up at two stages. First, he should provide the class with a summary from time to time of what has gone on so far summarizing the views of the student. Secondly, at the end of the discussion, he should give a gist of the entire finding of the class. He may of course get this done by one of the students also. For this periodic and end of the class summing up he may either make use of the charts prepared by the subgroups or the chalkboard.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CASE METHOD (CM) AND TRADITIONAL TEACHING (TT)
1 Teacher is the sole performer, always in control. Students are passive, compliant and obligated to be attentive. In CM, students are in control whereas the teacher is just an observer and guide. 2 Teaching a case is an exercise in leadership. The teacher engages student participation in
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the collective exploration of a problem and the effort to reach a joint resolution. In TT, the teacher analyses the course material and conveys his interpretation to the class. 3 In TT, the teacher stands between the material and students. In CM, the students meet the material more directly, interacting with each other as well. 4 Teaching a case consists of managing those encounters toward purposeful ends and (as the two lines, < — >, suggest) of learning from them as well, about both the students and the case itself. While intellectual and procedural authority belongs to the teacher in TT, teacher and students share it in CM. both determine what is learnt. 5 In TT, knowledge flows unidirectionally, from teacher to students. In CM, both teacher and student assume responsibility of students‘ learning. Knowledge flows from student to student, student to teacher and teacher to student. 6 Learning being authoritarian in TT, the teacher often probes into or patronises the students‘ ignorance, exposes their fallacies and deficiencies and always appears to students as a critic. He sits in judgment over the acquisition of communicable wisdom. In CM, learning is participative. Here, since the acquisition of wisdom is mutually dependant, teacher is not viewed as a critic but a co-traveller.
1 In TT, teacher‘s goal is student mastery of teacher‘s truth, demonstrated through examinations and knowing the right answers to questions. In CM, teacher‘s goal is student mastery of student‘s truth demonstrated through intra-group discussion under the guidance of the teacher. 2 In TT, teacher is not worried about student contribution. In CM, teacher is genuinely interested in student contribution of ideas, analyses and conclusion. So he tries to awaken student interest and stimulate active engagement among students. 3 In CM, there is ―more work but more fun‖. But in TT, it is ―less work but less fun‖. In CM, there is a premium on skill in discussion, ability to analyze, dealing with the unexpected and experiments with ideas and solutions. The classroom experience is not ―cut and dried‖. It is fluid and exciting.
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4 In CM, no two case discussions are alike because participants are not the same. In TT, the passage of knowledge is uniform and repetitive. In CM, learning is the responsibility of the students. In TT, learning is the responsibility of the teacher. The author :
Major General S.K Sen retired as Additional Director General, Army Postal Service. He served also as Deputy Director (Sr) in Govt. of India‘s L.B.S. National Academy of Administration and is a trainer of repute.
- 130 -
―Your attitude,
not your aptitude,
determines your
altitude.‖
- Zig Ziglar
- 131 -
CHAPTER 16
Do‘s & Don‘t for Trainers
Do's and Don'ts for Trainers
Do
Speak clearly.
Make eye contact.
Get learners involved.
Use learners' names.
Keep interest up through changing your tone of voice.
Get, and give, constant feedback.
Be enthusiastic. If this is tough, take acting lessons.
Be prepared.
Use specific questions to determine if learning is taking place.
Observe breakout groups. They miss you when you don't and may do something else.
Be alert for those needing a little extra help and give it to them.
Move around.
Accommodate each individual to the greatest extent possible.
Use equipment and aids as if you've been doing this all your life even if it's the first time.
Set and observe time periods. The only acceptable time change is to end early.
Dress appropriately.
Don't
Mumble.
Waste words ("you know," "uh").
Read from notes.
Take part in private conversations during sessions.
Talk to visual aids.
Lecture or preach.
Ignore questions.
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Pace up and down.
Turn your back to the audience while speaking.
Stand in front of visual aids.
Forget to make eye contact.
Forget that there are people on both sides and in back of the room.
Chew gum or food during a session.
Give people busy-work in order to fill up the allotted time.
Stay in one position for long periods (including being glued to the podium).
Put your hands in your pockets or behind you, or use them excessively.
Wear distracting attire.
- 133 -
Bibliography/ Suggested Readings
Pettigrew, A.M. Jones, G.R. and Reason, P.W.
Training and Development Roles in their organisational setting.
Manpower Services Commission, Training Studies Paper, March 1983.
Training for Organisational Transformations by Rolf P. Lynton and Udai Pareek, New Delhi: Sage, 2000. A handbook of training strategy. by Martyn Sloman. Jaico, Bombay,1996. Training in Organisations: Needs Assessment, Development and Evaluation by Irwin L. Goldstein and J. Kevin Ford (4th edition, Wadsworth, 2002). Every Trainers‘ Handbook by Devendra Agochiya, Sage, New Delhi: 2002.
Training: The Competitive Edge by J.M. Rosow & R. Zager San Fracisco: Jossey Bass, 1988. Evaluation and Control of Training by A.C.Hamblin ,: McGraw-Hill, London, 1974. Evaluation of training by Udai Pareek , Vikalpa, 1978, 4(3), 289–99. Course Material of IGNOU, New Delhi. Training Material, D.T.S., ISTM, New Delhi.
Regional Training Centre, C. D. A. (Army),
Belvedere Complex, Ayudh Path, Meerut Cantt. - 250001 Tele. No. 0121-2647791
Fax No. 0121-2648388, 2666128 e-mail id:
R.T.C. HOSTEL
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