Track and Field Measurements

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Track and field

The track and field stadium is at the heart of the sport.

Track and field(also known as track and field sportsand track and field athletics) is a sportcomprising various competitiveathletic contests based around the activities ofrunning,jumpingand throwing. The name of the sport derives from the venue for thecompetitions: a stadiumwhich features an oval running track surrounding a grassy area. The throwing and jumping events generallytake place within the central enclosed area.

Track and field is one of the sports which (along with road running,cross country runningandrace walking) makes up the umbrellasport of athletics. It is under the banner of athletics that the two most prestigious international track field competitions are held: thethletics competition at the !lympic "amesand the I# $orld %hampionships in thletics. The International ssociation ofthletics #ederationsis the international governing bodyfor track and field.

Track and field events are generally individual sportswith athletes challenging each other to decide a single victor. The racing eventsare won by the athlete with the fastest time, while the jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who has achieved thegreatest distance or height in the contest. The running events are categorised as sprints,middleand long&distance events,relays, andhurdling. 'egular jumping events includelong jump,triple jump,high jumpandpole vault, while the most common throwing events

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are shot put,javelin, discusand hammer.There are also combined events, such as heptathlonand decathlon, in which athletes competein a number of the above events.

'ecords are kept of the best performances in specific events, at worldand nationallevels, right down to a personal level. owever, if

an athlete is deemed to have violated the events rules or regulations, they are dis*ualified from the competition and their marks areerased.

History

"reek vase from +-% depicting a running contest

The sportof track and field has its roots in humanprehistory. Track and field&style events are among the oldest of all sporting

competitionsas running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical epression. The first recordedeamples of organi/ed track and field events at a sports festivalare the ncient !lympic "ames. t the first "ames in 001 -% in!lympia, "reece, only one event was contested: thestadion footrace.234The scope of the "ames epanded in later years to includefurther running competitions but the introduction of the ncient !lympic pentathlonmarked a step towards track and field as it isrecognised today 5 it comprised a five&event competition of the long jump,javelin throw, discus throw, the stadion foot race, andwrestling.264274

Track and field events were also present at the 8anhellenic "amesin "reece around this period and they spread to 'omein Italyaround 6 -%.2942+4fter the period of%lassical anti*uity(in which the sport was largely "reco&'oman influenced) new track and

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field events began developing in parts oforthern ;uropein the owlandsin the 3?th century.

n early model of hurdlingat the@etroit thletic %lubin 3???.

@iscrete modern track and field competitions, separate from general sporting festivals, were first recorded in the late 3?s. Thesewere typically organised by educational institutions,military organisationsandsports clubsas competitions between rivalestablishments.214%ompetitive hurdlingfirst came into being around this point, with the advent of the steeplechasein ;nglandaround3?+.204Themateur thletic ssociationwas established in ;ngland in 3?? as the first national body for the sport of athleticsand,under this grouping, track and field became the focus of the annual %hampionships.The Anited =tatesalso began holding anannual national competition 5 theA= !utdoor Track and #ield %hampionships5 first held in 3?01 by theew Bork thletic %lub.2?4#ollowing the establishment of general sports governing bodies for the Anited =tates (themateur thletic Anionin 3???) and #rance(the Anion des sociCtCs franDaises de sports athlCti*uesin 3??E), track and field events began to be promoted and codified.

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Fim Thorpefell foul of the sports early amateur principles and lost his !lympic medals

The rebirth of the !lympic "amesat the end of the 3Eth century marked a new high for track and field. The!lympic athleticsprogramme,comprising track and field events plus amarathonrace, contained many of the foremost sporting competitions of the 3?E1=ummer !lympics. The !lympics also consolidated the use of metric measurementsin international track and field events, for racedistances as well as measuring jumps and throws. The !lympic athletics programme greatly epanded over the net decades and track

and field contests remained among the "ames most prominent. The !lympics was the elite competition for track and field and onlyamateur sportsmencould compete. Track and field would continue to be a largely amateur sport as this rule was strictly enforced: FimThorpewas stripped of his track and field medals from the 3E36 !lympicsafter it was revealed that he had playedbaseballprofessionally.2E4

That same year, theInternational mateur thletic #ederation(I#) was established, becoming the international governing bodyfortrack and field, and it enshrined amateurism as one of its founding principles for the sport. Theational %ollegiate thleticssociationheld their first

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first continental track and field competition was the 3E3E =outh merican %hampionships, which was followed by the ;uropeanthletics %hampionshipsin 3E79.2334Ap until the early 3E6s, track and field had been almost eclusively a male&only pursuit. Thewomens sportsmovement led to the introduction of five track and field events for women in the athletics at the 3E6? =ummer!lympicsand more womens events were gradually introduced as years progressed (although it was only towards the end of the

century that the mens and womens programmes approached parity of events). #urthermore, major track and field competitions fordisabled athleteswere first introduced at the 3E1 =ummer 8aralympics.

%arl >ewiswas among the athletes who helped increase track and fields profile

$ith the rise of numerous regional championships, as well as the growth in !lympic&style multi&sport events(such as the%ommonwealth "amesand the 8an&merican "ames), competitions between international track and field athletes becamewidespread. #rom the 3E1s onwards, the sport gained more eposure and commercial appeal through television coverageand theincreasing wealth of nations. fter over half a century of amateurism, the amateur status of the sport began to be displaced by growingprofessionalismin the late 3E0s.214s a result, the mateur thletic Anion was dissolved in the Anited =tates and it was replacedwith a non&amateur body solely focused on the sport of athletics: The thletics %ongress (later A= Track and #ield).2364The I#soon followed suit in 3E?6, abandoning amateurism, and later removing all references to it from its name by rebranding itself as theInternational ssociation of thletics #ederations.214The following year saw the establishment of the I# $orld %hampionships inthletics5 the first ever global competition for just athletics which became one of track and fields most prestigious competitionsalong with the !lympics.

The profile of the sport reached a new high in the 3E?s, with a number of athletes becoming household names(such as %arl >ewis,=ergey -ubka,=ebastian %oe, Gola -uddand #lorence "riffith&Foyner).

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political elementbetween competitors of the Anited =tates, ;ast "ermany,and the =oviet Anion, in reaction to the %old $aronlyserved to stoke the sports popularity. The increase in the commercial capacity of track and field was also met with developments inthe application of sports scienceand there were many changes to coaching methods, athletes diet regimes, training facilities and sportse*uipment. This was also accompanied by an increase in the use ofperformance&enhancing drugsand prominent cases, such as

!lympic gold medallists -en Fohnsonand

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track and field events 5 points are given for their performance in each event and the athlete with the greatest points total at the end ofall events is the winner.

Official world championship track and field events

Track Field Combined eventsSprints Middle-distance Lon-distance H!rdles "elays #!mps Throws

60 m

3 m6 m9 m

? m3+ m3000 m

+ m3, m

60 m hurdles

3 m hurdles33 m hurdles9 m hurdles

7 m steeplechase

93 m relay99 m relay

>ong jumpTriple jumpigh jump8ole vault

=hot put@iscus throw

ammer throwFavelin throw

Pentathlon

eptathlon@ecathlon

ote: ;vents in italicsare competed at indoor world championships only

Footraces

Sprints

Main article: Sprint (race)

The finish of a womens 3 m race

'aces over short distances, or sprints, are among the oldest running competitions. The first 37 editions of the ncient !lympic "amesfeatured only one event 5 thestadion race,which was literally a race from one end of the stadium to the other.234=printing events arefocused around athletes reaching and sustaining their *uickest possible running speed. There are three sprinting events which arecurrently held at the !lympics and outdoor $orld %hampionships: the 3 metres, 6 metres, and 9 metres. These events have

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their roots in races of imperial measurementswhich were later altered to metric: the 3 m evolved from the3 yard dash,2394the6 m distances came from thefurlong(or 3J?th of a mile),23+4and the 9 m was the successor to the99 yard dashor *uarter&milerace.2314

t the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in thestarting blocksbefore leaning forward andgradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained. 2304thletes remain in the same lane on therunning track throughout all sprinting events,23?4with the sole eception of the 9 m indoors. 'aces up to 3 m are largely focusedupon acceleration to an athletes maimum speed.23E4ll sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance.264uman physiologydictates that a runners near&top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so as lactic acidbuilds up and leg muscles begin to be deprived of oygen.23?4

The 1 metresis a common indoor event and it an indoor world championship event. !ther less&common events include the +metres, ++ metres, 7 metresand + metreswhich are used in some high schooland collegiatecompetitions in the Anited =tates.The 3+ metres, though rarely competed, has a star&studded history: 8ietro

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rne ndersson(left) and "under Kgg(right) broke a number of middle distance world records in the 3E9sFurther information:Middle distance track event

-eyond the short distances of sprinting events, factors such as an athletes reactions and top speed becomes less important, while*ualities such aspace, race tactics andendurancebecome more so.26742694The most common middle distance track events are the ?metres, 3+ metresand mile run, although the 7 metresmay also be classified as a middle distance event. 26+4The ?? yard run,orhalf mile, was the forebear to the ? m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the Anited Lingdom in the 3?7s. 2694The3+ m came about as a result of running three laps of a + m track, which was commonplace in continental ;urope in the 3Es. 2674

'unners start the race from a standing position along a curved starting line and after hearing the starters pistolthey head towards theinner&most track to follow the *uickest route to the finish. In ? m races athletes begin at a staggered starting point before the turn inthe track and they must remain in their lanes for the first 3 m of the race. 2614This rule was introduced in order to reduce the amountof physical jostling between runners in the early stages of the race. 26948hysiologically, these middle distance events demand thatathletes have good aerobicand anaerobic energy producing systems, and also that they have strongspeed endurance.2604

The 3+ m and mile run events have historically been some of the most prestigious track and field events. =wedish rivals "underKggand rne nderssonbroke each others 3+ m and mile world recordson a number of occasions in the 3E9s.26?426E4The

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prominence of the distances were maintained by 'oger -annister,who (in 3E+9) was the first to run the long&elusive four&minute mile,2742734andFim 'yuns eploits served to popularise interval training.2674'aces between -ritish rivals =ebastian %oe, =teve !vettand=teve %ramcharacterised middle distance running in 3E?s.2764#rom the 3EEs onwards,orth fricanssuch asoureddine

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The use ofpace&settersin long distance events is very common at the elite level, although they are not present at championship levelcompetitions as all *ualified competitors want to win.27+42704

The long distance track events gained popularity in the 3E6s by the achievements of the N #lying #innsN, such as multiple !lympic

champion 8aavo urmi. The successes of ;mil GOtopekin the 3E+s promoted intense interval training methods, but'on %larkesworld record&breaking feats established the importance of natural training and even&paced running. The 3EEs saw the rise of orthand ;ast frican runners in long distance events. Lenyan and ;thiopian athletes, in particular, have since remained dominant in theseevents.2774

"elays

'elay races are the only track and field event in which a team of runners directly compete against other teams. 27?4Typically, a team ismade up of four runners of the same se. ;ach runner completes their specified distance (referred to as a leg) before handing over abatonto a team mate, who then begins their leg upon receiving the baton. There is usually a designated area in which athletes muchechange the baton. Teams may be dis*ualified if they fail to complete the change within the area, or if the baton is dropped during therace. team may also be dis*ualified if its runners are deemed to have wilfully impeded other competitors.

"irls handing over the baton in a relay race in >eip/igin 3E+

'elay races emerged in the Anited =tatesin the 3??s as a variation on charity races betweenfiremen, who would hand a redpennanton to team mates every 7 yards. There are two very common relay events: the 93 metres relayand the 99 metres relay. -othevents entered the !lympic programme at the 3E36 =ummer "amesafter a one&off mens medley relayfeatured in 3E? !lympics.27E4The 93 m event is run strictly within the same lane on the track, meaning that the team collectively runs one complete circuit ofthe track. Teams in a 99 m event remain in their own lane until the runner of the second leg passes the first bend, at which point

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runners can leave their lanes and head towards the inner&most part of the circuit. #or the second and third baton change overs, teammates must align themselves in respect of their team position 5 leading teams take the inner lanes while team mates of the slowerteams must await the baton on outer lanes.27?4294

The I# keeps world records for five different types of track relays. s with 93 m and 99 m events, all races comprise teamsof four athletes running the same distances, with the less commonly contested distances being the 96 m,9? mand 93+ mrelays.2934!ther events include the distance medley relay(comprising legs of 36 m, 9 m, ? m, and 31 m) which is fre*uentlyheld in the Anited =tates, and a sprint relay 5 known as the =wedish medley relay5 which is popular in=candinaviaand is alsofeatured on the $orld Bouth %hampionships in thleticsprogramme.2964'elay events have significant participation in the Anited=tates, where a number of large meetings (or relay carnivals) are focused almost eclusively on relay events.2974

H!rdlin

womens 9 m hurdles race at the 60 @utch %hampionshipsMain articles:!urdlingandsteeplechase

'aces with hurdlesas obstacles were first popularised in the 3?s in ;ngland.2994The first known event, held in 3?7, was a variationof the 3&yard dash which included heavy wooden barriers as obstacles. competition between the !ford and %ambridge thletic%lubs in 3?19 refined thisP holding a 36&yard race (3E.06 m) which had ten hurdles of 7&foot and 1 inches (3.1 m) in height(eachplaced 3 yards (E.39 m) apart), with the first and final hurdles 3+ yards from the start and finish, respectively. #rench organisersadapted the race into metric (adding 6? cm) and the basics of this race, the mens 33 metres hurdles, has remained largely unchanged.29+4The origin of the 9 metres hurdlesalso lies in !ford, where (around 3?1) a competition was held over 99 yards and twelve3.1 m high wooden barriers were placed along the course. The modern regulations stem from the 3E =ummer !lympics: the

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distance was fied to 9 m while ten 7&foot (E3.99 cm) hurdles were placed 7+ m apart on the track, with the first and final hurdlesbeing 9+ m and 9 m away from the start and finish, respectively.2914$omens hurdles are slightly lower at ?9 cm for the 3 m eventand 01 cm (6ft 1in) for the 9 m event.29+42914

-y far the most common events are the 3 metres hurdlesfor women, 33 m hurdles for men and 9 m hurdles for both sees. Themens 33 m has been featured at every modern =ummer !lympics while the mens 9 m was introduced in the second edition of the"ames.29+42914$omens initially competed in the ? metres hurdlesevent, which entered the !lympic programme in 3E76.This wasetended to the 3 m hurdles at the 3E06 !lympics, 29+4but it was not until 3E?9 that a womens 9 m hurdles event took place at the!lympics (having been introduced at the3E?7 $orld %hampionships in thleticsthe previous year).2914

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aide "omesin the jumping phase of the event

The long jump is one of the oldest track and field events, having its roots as one of the events within the ancient "reek pentathloncontest. The athletes would take a short run up and jump into an area of dug up earth, with the winner being the one who jumpedfurthest.29E4=mall weights (alteres) were held in each hand during the jump then swung back and dropped near the end in order to

gain etra momentum and distance.2+4The modern long jump, standardised in ;ngland and the Anited =tates around 3?1, bearsresemblance to the ancient event although no weights are used. thletes sprint along a length of track which leads up to a jumpingboard and a sandpit.2+34The athletes must jump before a marked line and their achieved distance is measured from the nearest point ofsand which was disturbed by the athletes body.2+64

The athletics competition at the first !lympics featured a mens long jump competition and a womens competition was introduced atthe 3E9? =ummer !lympics.2+348rofessional long jumpers typically have strong acceleration and sprinting abilities. owever, athletesmust also have a consistent stride to allow them to take off near the board while still maintaining their maimum speed. 2+642+74Inaddition to the traditional long jump, a standing long jumpcontest eists in which athletes must leap from a static position without theaid of a run up. mens version of this event featured on the !lympic programme from 3E to 3E36.2+94

Triple $!mp

=imilar to the long jump, the triple jump takes place on a track heading towards a sandpit. !riginally, athletes would hop on the sameleg twice before jumping into the pit, but this was changed to the current Nhop, step and jumpN pattern from 3E onwards. 2++4There issome dispute over whether the triple jump was contested in ancient "reece: while some historians claim that a contest of three jumpsoccured at ncient "ames,2++4others such as =tephen ". einster,a 36th centuryIrish manuscript, records the eistence ofgealruith(triple jump) contests at the ancientTailteann "ames.2+04

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8hillips Idowuin the phases of the triple jump

The mens triple jump competition has been ever&present at the modern !lympics, but it was not until 3EE7 that a womens versiongained $orld %hampionship status and went on to have its first !lympic appearance three years later. 2++4 mens standing triple jumpevent featured at the 3E and 3E9 !lympics but such competitions have since become very uncommon, although it is still used as anon&competitive eercise drill.2+?4

Hih $!mp

n athlete using the #osbury #lopto jump over the bar

The first recorded instances of high jumping competitions were in =cotlandin the 3Eth century.2+E4#urther competitions wereorganised in 3?9 in ;ngland and in 3?1+ the basic rules of the modern event were standardised there. 214thletes have a short run up

and then take off from one foot to jump over a hori/ontal bar and fall back onto a cushioned landing area .2134The mens high jump wasincluded in the 3?E1 !lympics and a womens competition soon followed in 3E6?.

Fumping techni*ue has played a significant part in the history of the event. igh jumpers typically cleared the bar feet first in the late3Eth century, using either the=cissors, ;astern cut&offor $estern rolltechni*ue. The straddle techni*uebecame prominent in the mid&3Es, but @ick #osburyoverturned tradition by pioneering a backwards and head&first techni*ue in the late 3E1s 5 the #osbury #lop5 which won him the gold at the 3E1? !lympics. This techni*ue has became the overwhelming standard for the sport from the 3E?sonwards.2142164The standing high jumpwas contested at the !lympics from 3E to 3E36, but is now relatively uncommon outside ofits use as an eercise drill.

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%ole va!lt

nna "iordano -runoreleases the pole after clearing the bar

In terms of sport, the use of poles for vaulting distances was recorded in #ierljeppencontests in the #risianarea of ;urope, andvaulting for height was seen at gymnasticscompetitions in "ermanyin the 300s.2174!ne of the earliest recorded pole vaultcompetitions was in %umbria, ;ngland in 3?97.2194The basic rules and techni*ue of the event originated in the Anited =tates. The rulesre*uired that athletes do not move their hands along the pole and athletes began clearing the bar with their feet first and twisting sothat the stomach faces the bar.-amboopoles were introduced in the 3Es and a metal bo in the runway for planting the pole becamestandard. >anding matresses were introduced in the mid&3Es to protect the athletes who were clearing increasingly greater heights.2174

The modern event sees athletes run down a strip of track, plant the pole in the metal bo, and vault over the hori/ontal bar beforeletting go of the pole and falling backwards onto the landing matress.21+4$hile earlier versions used wooden, metal or bamboo,modern poles are generally made from artificial materials such as fibreglassor carbon fibre.2114The pole vault has been an !lympicevent since 3?E1 for men, but it was over 3 years later that the first womens world championship competition was held at the 3EE0I# $orld Indoor %hampionships. The first womens !lympic pole vaulting competition occured in 6.2174

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Throwin

Shot p!t

'emigius

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&isc!s throw

GoltOn LQvOgRpreparing to spin and throw the discusMain article:"iscus thro#

s one of the events within the ancient pentathlon, the history of the discus throw dates back to 0? -%. 2034In ancient times a heavycircular disc was thrown from a set standing position on a smallpedestal, and it was this style that was revived for the 3?E1 !lympics.

2064This continued until the 3E1 Intercalated "amesin thens, which featured both the ancient style and the increasingly popularmodern style of turning and throwing. -y the 3E36 !lympics, the ancient standing throw style had fallen into disuse and contestsstarting within a 6.+ m s*uared throwing area became the standard. 2074The discus implement was standardised to 6 kg (9.9 pounds) inweight and 66 cm (? inches) in diameter in 3E0.2064The womens discus was among the first womens events on the !lympicprogramme, being introduced in 3E6?. 2094

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#avelin throw

-regje %rollabeginning to throw the javelin

s an implement of war and hunting,javelinthrowing began in prehistoric times.20+4long with the discus, the javelin was the secondthrowing event in the ancient !lympic pentathlon. 'ecords from 0? -% show two javelin competition types co&eisting: throwing ata target and throwing the javelin for distance. It was the latter type from which the modern event was derived. 2014In ancientcompetitions, athletes would wrap an ank$le(thin leather strip) around the javelin which acted as a sling to gain etra distance. 2004Thejavelin throw gained much popularity in =candinaviain the late 3?th century and athletes from the region continue to be among themost dominant throwers in mens competitions.2014The modern event features a short run up on a track and then the thrower releasesthe javelin before the foul line.

The first !lympic mens javelin throw contest was held in 3E? and a womens competition was introduced in 3E76.20?420E4

The firstjavelins were made of various types of wood, but in the 3E+s, former athlete-ud eldintroduced a hollow javelin, then a metaljavelin, both of which increased throwers performances.2014nother former athlete,

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Hammer throw

Bury =hayunouspinning with the hammer within the circle

The earliest recorded precursors to the modern hammer throw stem from the Tailteann "ames around 3? -%, which featured eventssuch as throwing either a weight attached to a rope, a large rock on a wooden handle, or even a chariotwheel on a woodenale.2?64!ther ancient competitions included throwing a cast iron ball attached to a wooden handle 5 the root of the term Nhammer throwN dueto their resemblance to the tools.2?74In 31th century ;ngland, contests involving the throwing of actualblacksmiths =ledgehammerswere recorded.2?64The hammer implement was standardised in 3??0 and the competitions began to resemble the modern event. Theweight of the metal ball was set at 31 pounds (0.61 kg)while the attached wire had to measure between 3.30+ m and 3.63+ m. 2?74

The mens hammer throw became an !lympic event in 3E but the womens event 5 using a 9 kg (?.?6 lb) weight5 was not widelycompeted until much later, finally featuring on the womens !lympic programme a century later.2?94The distances thrown by maleathletes became greater from the 3E+s onwards as a result of improved e*uipment using the denser metals, a switch to concretethrowing areas, and more advanced training techni*ues. 2?+48rofessional hammer throwers as historically large, strong, sturdy athletes.owever, *ualities such as refined techni*ue, speed and fleibility have become increasingly important in the modern era as the legalthrowing area has been reduced from E to 79.E6 degrees and throwing techni*ue involves three to four controlled rotations .2?742?142?04

Combined events

%ombined (or multi&discipline) events are competitions in which athletes participate in a number of track and field events, earningpoints for their performance in each events which goes towards a total points score. !utdoors, the most common combined events are

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the mens decathlonand the womens heptathlon. @ue to stadium limitations, indoor combined events competition have a reducednumber of events, resulting in the mens heptathlonand thewomens pentathlon.thletes are allocated points based on aninternational&standard points scoring system, such as the decathlon scoring table.

The ncient !lympic pentathlon(comprising long jump,javelin, discus, thestadionrace and wrestling) was a precursor to the trackand field combined events and this ancient event was restored at the 3E1 =ummer !lympics(Intercalated "ames). mens decathlonwas held at the 3E9 =ummer !lympics, albeit contested between five merican and two -ritish athletes.

Composition of combined events

Event Track Field

Men's decathlon 3 m 9 m 3+ m 33 m hurdles >ong jump igh jump 8ole vault =hot put @iscus throw Favelin throw

(omen's heptathlon 6 m ? m 3 m hurdles >ong jump igh jump =hot put Favelin throw

Men's heptathlon 1 m 3 m 1 m hurdles >ong jump igh jump 8ole vault =hot put

(omen's pentathlon ? m 1 m hurdles >ong jump igh jump =hot put

Stadi!m

The 8anathinaiko =tadiumwas the one of the first modern track and field stadiums

O!tdoor

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The term track and field is intertwined with thestadiumswhich first hosted track and field competitions. The two basic features of atrack and field stadium are the outer oval&shaped running trackand an area of turfwithin this track 5 the field.In earlier competitionsthe lengths of the tracks varied: the8anathinaiko =tadiummeasured 777.77 metres at the3?E1 =ummer !lympics, while at the 3E9!lympicsthe distance was a third of amile(+71.9+ m) at #rancis #ield. s the sport developed, the I# standardised the length to9 m and stated that the tracks must be split into si to eight running lanes. 8recise widths for the lanes were established, as wereregulations regarding the curvature of the track. Tracks made of flattened cinderswere popular in the early 6th century but synthetictracks became standard in the late 3E1s. 7

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typical layout of an outdoor track and field stadium

The field of the stadium combines a number of elements for use in the jumping and throwing events. The long jumpand triple jumpareas comprise a straight, narrow 9&metre running track with a sandpitat each end. Fumps are measured from a take off board5typically a small strip of woodwith aplasticinemarker attached 5 which is used to ensure athletes jump from the same area. Thepolevaultarea is also a 9&metre running track and it has a metal indentation in the ground (the bo) in which poles are planted. thletesthen propel themselves over a crossbar before falling onto a cushioned area oflanding mats. Thehigh jumpis a stripped down versionof this, with an open area of track or field leading up to a crossbar with a s*uare area of crash mats behind it.

The four throwing events generally all begin on one side of the stadium. Thejavelin throwtypically takes place on a piece of track thatis central and parallel to the straightsof the main running track. The javelin throwing area is an inverted pyramidshape across themiddle of the stadium, ensuring that the javelin has minimal chance of causing damage or injury. The discus throwandhammer throwcontests begin in a tall metal cagewhich is situated in one of the corners of the field. The cage removes the danger of implementsbeing thrown out of the field of play and throws will travel diagonally across the field in the centre of the stadium. The shot puttakesplace in the other corner nearest the throwing cage and this event features a circular throwing area with a toe board at one end. Thethrowing area is an inverted trape/oidepanding towards the centre of the stadium. =ome stadia also have a water jumparea on oneside of the field specifically for steeplechaseraces.

)ndoor

The spire @omeduring the 63 $orld Indoor %hampionships

-asic indoor venues may be adaptedgymnasiums,which can easily accommodate high jump competitions and short track events.#ull&si/e indoor arenas (i.e. those fully e*uipped to host all events for the $orld Indoor %hampionships) bear similarities with their

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outdoor e*uivalents. Typically, a central area is surrounded by a 6&metre oval track with four to eight lanes. The track may bebanked at the turns to allow athletes to run around the radius more comfortably. There is also a second running track going straightacross the field area, parallel to the straights of the main circuit. This track is used for the 1 metresand 1 metres hurdlesevents 5competitions which are held almost eclusively indoors.

ll four of the common jumping events are held at indoor venues. The long and triple jump areas run alongside the central 1 m trackand are mostly identical in form to their outdoor counterparts. The pole vault track and landing area are also alongside the centralrunning track. =hot put (or weight throw) is the only throwing event held indoors due to si/e restrictions. The throwing area is similarto the outdoor event, but the landing sector is a rectangular section surrounded by netting or a stop barrier. 2??4

Oranisations

=ince its foundation in 3E36, the international governing bodyfor track and field has been the International ssociation of thletics#ederations(I#). It is the governing body for the sport of athletics and it has 637 member nations and territories, which are divided

into si continental areas (or area associations).2?E4

The si association areas are for sia,frica, ;urope,!ceania,orth mericaand=outh merica. t international, continental, and national level, track and field is governed under the wider classification of athletics.2E4

; 5 =outh merican thletics %onfederation

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%% 5orth merica, %entral merica and %aribbean thletic ssociation

; 5 ;uropean thletics ssociation

! 5 !ceania thletics ssociation

=ome national federations are named after the sport, including A= Track S #ieldand the8hilippine mateur Track S #ieldssociation, but these organisations govern more than just track and field and are in fact athletics governing bodies. 2E342E64Thesenational federations regulate sub&national and local track and field clubs, as well as other types of running clubs.2E4

Competitions

Olympics and (orld Championships

The 3 m final at the 6? =ummer !lympics

The major global track and field competitions are both held under the scope of athletics. Track and field contests make up the majorityof events on the !lympic athletics programmewhich occurs every four years. Track and field events have held a prominent position atthe =ummer !lympicssince its inception in 3?E1,2E74and the events are typically held in the main stadium of the !lympics. ;ventssuch as the 3 metresreceive some of the highest levels of media coverage of any !lympic sporting event.

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The other two major international competition for track and field are organised by the I#. The I# had selected the !lympiccompetition as its world championshipevent in 3E37, but a separate world championships for athletics alone was first held in 3E?7 5the I# $orld %hampionships in thletics. The championships comprised track and field competitions plus the marathonandracewalkingcompetitions. Initially, this worked on a *uadrennial basis but, after 3EE3, it changed to a biennial format. In terms ofindoor track and field, the I# $orld Indoor %hampionships in thleticshas been held every two years since 3E?+ and this is theonly world championships that consists of solely track and field events.

Other championships

The 61 ;uropean thletics %hampionshipsat the Allevi =tadium

=imilar to the event programmes at the !lympics and $orld %hampionships, track and field forms a significant part of continentalchampionships. The =outh merican %hampionships in thletics, created in 3E3E, was the first continental championships and the;uropean thletics %hampionshipsbecame the second championships of this type in 3E79. The sian thletics %hampionshipsandfrican %hampionships in thleticswere created in the 3E0s and !ceania started its championshipsin 3EE.

There are also indoor continental competitions in ;urope (;uropean thletics Indoor %hampionships) and sia (sian Indoorthletics %hampionships). There has not been a consistent championships for all of orth merica, which may be (in part) due to thesuccess of both the %entral merican and %aribbean %hampionshipsand the A= !utdoor Track and #ield %hampionships.

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%hampionshipin the Anited =tatesand the Famaican igh =chool %hampionships.2E94owever, the number and status of suchcompetitions significantly vary from country to country.

M!lti-sport events

The pole vault competition at the 60 8an merican "ames

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'unners competing at the 61 8refontaine %lassicmeeting

!ne&day track and field meetings form the most common and seasonal aspect of the sport 5 they are the most basic level of track and

field competition.

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t the professional level, meetings began to offer significant financial incentives for all athletes in the 3EEs in ;urope with thecreation of the N"olden #ourN competition, comprising meetings in Grich, -russels, -erlinand !slo. This epanded and receivedI# backing as the I# "olden >eaguein 3EE?,2EE4which was later supplemented by the branding of selected meetings worldwideas the I# $orld thletics Tour. In 63, the "olden >eague idea was epanded globally as the I# @iamond >eagueseries andthis now forms the top tier of professional one&day track and field meetings.234

"ecords

thletes performances are timed or measured at virtually all track and field competitions. @oing so can not only serve as a way ofdetermining the winner in an event, but it can also be used for historical comparison (i.e. a record). large variety of record typeseist and mens and womens performances are recorded separately. The foremost types of records are those which organise athletesperformances by the region which they are representing: beginning with national records, then continental records, up to the global orworld recordlevel. ational governing bodies control the national record lists, the area associations organise their respectivecontinental lists, and the I# is the body which ratifies world records.

graph of the world record progression in the mens 3 metres

The I# ratifies track and field world records if they meet their set criteria. The I# first published a world records list in 3E39,initially for mens events only. There were +7 recognised records in running, hurdling and relay, and 36 field records. $orld records inwomens events began in 3E71 as more events were gradually added to the list, but significant changes were made in the late 3E0s.#irst, all records in imperial measurements were abandoned in 3E01, with the sole eceptional being the mile run due to the prestigeand history of the event. The following year, all world records in sprint events would only be recognised if fully automatic electronictimingwas used (as opposed to the traditional hand&timingstopwatch method). In 3E?3, electronic timing was made compulsory forall world record runs in track and field with times being recorded to within 3J3th of a second. Two additional types of world recordwere introduced in 3E?0: world records for indoor competitions, and world records for junior athletes under 6 years old. 2334