Page 1
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 259
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment
By
Ibimilua, Foyeke Omoboye
Department of Geography
College of Education
Ikere-Ekiti Ekiti State
[email protected]
Abstract
Tourism is one of the largest and first growing industries in the
world. Tourism as an industry is capable of improving socio-
economic and the environmental status of any nation of the world
at large. The quality of the natural and man-made environment
however is important to tourism. The relationship of tourism with
the environment is complex. It entails many activities that can have
adverse environmental effects. Many of these impacts are linked
with construction of infrastructures such as roads, airports and
tourists facilities like hotels, shops and restaurants. These can
gradually destroy the environmental resources on which tourism
depends. On the other hand, tourism impacts positively on the
environment by contributing to environmental protection and
conservation and even to the economic importance. In this paper, the
positive and the negative impacts of tourism are discussed and
preventive steps towards sustainable tourism are proposed.
Key words: Environment, Environmental Impacts, Sustainability and
Tourism.
Introduction
The roots of concern about the human impact on the environment
can be traced back to ancient civilization (Hardy, Beeton and Pearson, 2002).
Page 2
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 260
The philosophy of the earth being viewed as a living goddess was revealed
by Greek literature. However, the dominant view of the environment was
centered around human’s mastery of nature. It was believed that people
could conquer the environment and use its resources for human progress.
This is viewed as the imperial or anthropocentric perspective on the
environment and this has dominated human thinking to the present day.
The concern about the quality of the environment and the future of tourism
industry has increased as the impact of tourism becomes more glaring.
Tourism is seen as one of the world largest economic activities and the
environment on which much of it depends is an important economic asset.
Munt and Mowforth (2003) observed that the tourism industry
highly relies on the natural resources of the environment and this has
significant environmental, cultural, social and economic impacts, mostly in
an adverse manner. These negative impacts from tourism occur when the
level of visitor use is greater than environment’s ability to cope with this
use within acceptable limits of change. Uncontrolled conventional tourism
posses potential threats to many natural areas around the world. It can put
enormous pressure on an area and lead to impacts such as soil erosion,
increased pollution, discharge into the sea, natural habitat loss, increased
pressure on endangered species and heightened vulnerability to forest fires.
It often puts a strain on water resources and it can force local populations
to compete for the use of critical resources.
Jinwel and Xianrong (2018) examined the perceptions and attitudes
of local residents in china about tourism development. Their findings
shows that tourism development is a major pre-requisite to participation in
tourism. Hence, tourists form positive attitudes towards places with
tourism development. Similarly, Kobi, Alon and Noam (2018) perceived the
forest as a leisure, recreation and tourist space and part and parcel of
nature-based tourism. Using an Israeli case study, they found out that
spatial processes have transformed Israeli’s forest to larens of leisure,
recreation and tourism. They inferred that a cordial relationship exist
Page 3
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 261
between tourism and the environment. In essence, a conducive
environment is a requirement for sustainable tourism.
However, the need for sustainable tourism that can generate
substantial economic benefits without impacting the environment is very
paramount. On this Note, Schaffer, (2016) investigated the preparedness of
regional destinations for new and developing markets. He concluded that
ill-preparedness for markets can lead to low levels of tourist satisfaction,
reduced re-visitation, as well as fewer word – of – mouth recommendations.
He noted that all these can affect the growth and development of tourism
negatively. Hence, he recommended service provision and resource
allocation for existing markets as strategies for sustainable tourism.
Tourism Development and the Environment
One of the phrases most frequently used by tourism marketers to
describe a destination is 'un-spoilt'. The desire to escape to a seemingly
untouched environment is strong for many tourists and generally tourism
takes place in nature-based attractions and other attractive environments.
For instance, Unnur (2013) used the concepts of tourist gaze and the
romantic wilderness ideology to assess the historical development of
nature-based tourism in Iceland. He found out that the development of
nature-based attraction can create a widespread demand, interest,
patronage and participation in tourism. Similarly, using tourism
satisfaction index model and the expectancy – disconfirmation framework,
Elizabeth, Raymond, Alexandru and Amare (2016) found out tourism
development is required for the achievement of tourist satisfaction and
sustainable development. They identified a strong correlation between
satisfaction and loyalty.
Tourism development in many places has led to deterioration in
environmental quality. In many locations tourism development has taken
place with little regard for the natural environment, while it is recognized
that tourism is an important contributor to the economy, the growth of
tourism has prompted debate about environmental consequences and the
desirability of further development. The effects of mass tourism and
Page 4
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 262
increasing awareness of the human impact on environment in the 1960's led
to a general realization that nature is not an inexhaustible resource. In his
own assessment of the impacts of tourism, Young, (1973) identified that
tourism has contributed to the physical deterioration of natural and built
environment. Other studies such as Krippendorf (1987): The Holiday
makers, Wood and House (1991): The Good Tourist has pointed out the fact
that total international tourists numbers have risen rapidly at global and
regional scale and there has also been a switch to more environmentally
sensitive form of tourism such as wildlife tourism, and eco-tourism, which
brings with it major environmental concerns (see also Zurich, 1992;
Godwin, 1996; Ceballos-Lascurian, 1996; Fennel 1999; Weaver, 2002; Orams,
1995; Nepal, 1997; Murphree, 1993; Samndong, 2005; and Western, 1989).
In some destinations, the environmental effects of tourism however
have led to direct threats to the industry as the success in attracting tourists
leads to negative impacts on the attractiveness of the environment. On this
note, Gossling (2002) pointed out that tourism contributes to changes in the
land use, energy use, extinction of wild species, and the geographical
spread of diseases. In a related Study, Hassan, Lynn, Lim and Ryan (2019)
investigated the understanding of local stakeholders on their spending on
nature – based tourism as well as the availability of environmentally
friendly tourism attraction. Results from their study shows that ecotourism
has impact on the environment.
Mieczkowski (1985) viewed the environment as a combination of
biotic and abiotic components. Tourism and environment are closely
linked. Environmental conservation is at risk without tourism. Infact, a
symbiotic relationship exists between tourism and the environment i.e. if
the environment deteriorates it will directly impact on tourism. Also, in the
absence of an attractive environment, there would be little tourism. In a
related study, Maria, Pablo and Jose (2013) provided a thematic and
chronological analysis of issues surrounding tourism and economic
development. They found out among other factors, that the relationship
between tourism and growth depends on the country’s degree of
Page 5
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 263
specialization in tourism. Hence, they suggested the judicious use of
environmental resources for the attainment of sustainable tourism and
economic development.
The relationship between tourism and the environment is complex
but may be viewed from three perspectives i.e. tourist - environment
interactions, tourist-host interactions and host -environment interactions.
The major environmental impact of tourism however include inappropriate
development, pollution, wear and tear, overcrowding and traffic
congestion, loss of natural habitat and effects on wildlife. Positively too,
tourism has impact on the environment. These include conservation of
redundant or historic buildings for alternative uses, enhancement of local
environments and protection of wildlife.
Moreover, there is current and growing concern about the impact
that some forms of tourism developments are having on the environment.
There are examples from almost every country in the world, where tourism
development has been identified as being the main cause of environmental
degradation. In Spain, overbuilding of tourist accommodation in coastal
areas has caused water pollution. In India, Taj Mahal is suffering wear and
tear from visitors. It should be noted that it is not only tourism development
which degrades an environment. Poorly planned industrial and
agricultural expansions have also had disastrous consequences in some
locations.
It is now recognized that the world is facing major environmental
degradation (see Amir, 2013; Gosling, 2002; Williams and Shaw, 1991;
Baldus and Cauldwell, 2004; Bob, 1996; Brundtland, 1987; and Fatubarin,
2009). International attention is being given to acid rain, ozone layer
depletion and consequent global warming. Other problems include poor
agricultural practices and overpopulation which destroys fertile land, as
well as unwise use of chemical and fertilizers which pollutes water sources.
What was recognized as local problems are now attracting global attention
(Inskeep, 1991). Although, tourism is not responsible for all these problems,
however, it has become a major contributor in some countries and without
Page 6
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 264
a management scheme to control the problems, tourism will suffer.
Governments are making greater efforts to limit degradation through
encouraging ‘environmentally friendly’ practices. In relation to tourism,
researches have shown that large volumes of visitors tend to create
proportionally larger environmental impacts than smaller number of
visitors (Holden, 2000; Kramer, Van and Johnson, 1997; Leonard and
Carson, 2006; Lepp and Gibson, 2003; and Mieczkowski, 1985).
There is no doubt that the way in which tourists use the environment
today will have consequences for its future use – and perhaps availability.
More emphasis is being put on developing small-scale tourism as a more
‘environmentally friendly’ alternative to mass tourism. For example,
Rehema and Alexander (2013) noted that small-scale tourism can improve
the livelihood of tourists. Specifically, they acknowledged the role of
conservation of natural resources in the improvement of the local livelihood
of the host community. Using Amani Natural Reserve in Tanzania as a case
study, they examined the benefits of small-scale tourism resources on the
host community and they found out that tourism resources are beneficial
economically, psychologically and socially. Hence, they recommended
conservation and management of local resources in order to enhance
peoples’ participation in small-scale tourism.
Ibimilua (2005) identified poverty as the major hindrance to
environmental sustainability. He noted that the poor do more damages to
the environment and bear most of the negative consequences. Also, tourism
has negative impacts on the environment. Among them are ecological
disturbances, aesthetic pollution, noise pollution, air pollution as well as
damage to archaeological or historical sites. These problems are aggravated
by insecurity, low technological advancement, ignorance, as well as
inadequate infrastructural development at tourist attractions. These are the
major cogs in the wheels of sustainable tourism.
Price (1996) noted that as a consequence of global environmental
concerns, tourism planners are now more aware of their responsibilities to
future generations for the careful use of the environment. This is because
Page 7
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 265
of the very close relationship or link between the environment and tourism.
Many features of the environment are attractions for tourist and tourist
facilities and infrastructure comprise some aspects of the built
environment. Thus, tourism development and use of an area generate
environmental impacts. Hence, it is essential that these relationships be
understood in order to plan, develop and manage the resources concerned
properly. In a related study, Stuart, Jerry and Jennifer (2013) examined the
influence of environmental influence (among other factors) on the
prediction of resident satisfaction with sustainable tourism development.
They found out that a significant relationship exist between tourism
development and the environment. Consequently, they suggested that
environmental dimension should be included (among other
considerations) in the planning and monitoring of sustainable tourism
development.
The Self-Destruction Theory of Tourism
The need for environmentally friendly tourism due to the impact of
tourism is identified in the environment as self-destruction theory of
tourism. According to the theory, tourism in a given situation develops and
declines in a cycle manner in four (4) phases (Hall and Page, 2002). In the
first phase, a remote and exotic place provides a peaceful rest and relaxation
and offers an escape for the rich who would like to live in isolation from the
resident population. In second phase, tourism begins to develop in a way
that a middle class would get attracted for their visit. Tourism facilities are
developed in order to accommodate the influx of upper and middle class
visitors. Furthermore, the urban development accompanied with tourism
development transforms the original character of the place from escape
paradox into just another city visiting moderate number of tourists. With
the opportunity of earning more than ever before, the local residents
become tourism employees in many cases leaving agriculture and
traditional work culture. The inevitable interaction between the residents
Page 8
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 266
and increasing number of tourists leads to a variety of negative social
consequences.
Moreover, the excess of supply over demand due to increased tourist
accommodation capacity leads to deterioration in product and price and as
a consequence rich tourists divert elsewhere. In the third phase, man
tourism development occurs, attracting a crowd of lower standards of
social behavior and economic power, causing socio-environmental
problems and further degradation of the tourist destination.
Last at the fourth phase, all tourists exit as the place sinks under the
weight of social fiction and solid waste, leaving behind neglected tourism
facilities such as littered beaches and a resident population that cannot
return to its old way of life.
Towards Sustainable Tourism
Sustainable development is defined as “meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meeting
their own needs” (WCED, 1987).
The environmental impacts of tourism are becoming more obvious,
there is need for initiative to minimize impacts and foster the more
sustainable tourism at the same time. There is need for the government to
put in measures to conserve the resources of the environment through
various measures aimed at preventing biodiversity loss and deforestation.
There is need to regulate carrying capacity. It is the threshold of tourist
activity beyond which facilities are saturated (physical capacity), the
environment is degraded (environmental capacity) or visitor enjoyment is
diminished (perpetual and psychological capacity).
Oyetola (2008) identified some of the challenges of sustainable
development in Nigeria as destruction of the environment for economic,
industrial, military, petrochemical and infrastructural facilities. Also, he
posited the major constraints to sustainable funds, community
rehabilitation capacity, as well as inadequate enforcement and
implementation of environmental laws and regulations.
Page 9
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 267
Hassan et. Al. (2019) opined that tourism is a catalyst for sustainable
development. Hence, they emphasized the development of tourism
attractions for the benefit of sustainable development. Also, there is need to
recover tourism sites towards conservation. Significant planning should be
made towards resue of beaches, and other attractions. The awareness about
the environmental problems can be raised by bringing both the people and
tourists in a close contact with nature and the environment, it could be
enhanced by implementing sustainable tourism. Incorporation of the
principles and practices of sustainable consumption can promote the
conscious behavior and activities to preserve the environment. By
implementing this approach, tourism can generate substantial economic
benefits without creating any serious environmental or social problems.
Also, natural resources on which tourism is based will be conserved for
continuous use in the future.
Conclusion
The development of tourism resources at local, national, global level
is indeed a good one embraced by all. The main goal of revenue generation,
creation of jobs, increase in income and improvement of life condition
cannot be overemphasized. However, the overall development of tourism
has greatly affected the natural resources and has brought both positive,
negative, ecological and social consequences. The environmental impacts
of tourism sector is seen in depletion of natural resources, pollution,
deforestation, biodiversity loss, ozone layer depletion as well as climate
change.
Tourism has the potential to increase public application of the
environment at the same time bring about environmental problems.
Therefore, for tourism to be worthwhile, it must incorporate the principles
and practices of sustainability.
Page 10
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 268
References
Amir, S (2013) From Threat to Opportunity: The Free Market Approach
for Managing National Parks and Protected Areas. Current Issues in
Recreation Research 38 (3) 371-374.
Bob, D. (1996) The Human Environment. Oxford, Heinemann.
Brundtland, G. H. (1987) Our Common Future Oxford, University Press.
Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996) Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas.
Cambridge, IUCN.
Elizabeth, A., Raymond, A., Alexandru, D. and Amare, W. (2016). Make a
Customer, note a Sale: Tourism Satisfaction in Hong Kong. Tourism
management, 57 (1) 68 – 79.
Fatubarin, A. (2009) Our Environment, Our legacy. Ilesa, Keynotes
Publishers Limited.
Fennel, D.A. (1999) Ecotourism: An Introduction. New York, Routledge.
Gosling, S. (2002) Global Environmental Consequences of Tourism. Global
Environmental Change. 12(4) 283 -202.
Hall, C, M. and Page, S. (2002). The Geography of Tourism and Recreation.
London, Rutledge.
Hardy, A, Beeton, R. and Pearson, L. (2002) Sustainable Tourism: An
overview of the concept and its position in relation to
conceptualization of Tourism. Journal of sustainable Tourism 10 (6):
475-96.
Hassan, F. G., Lynn, W. L., LiM., A.L. and Ryan, J. (2019) Environmentally
Friendly Tourism and Spending on Nature – based Activities. Journal
of Education. 18 (2) 107 – 121.
Holden, A. (2000) Environment and Tourism. London, Routledge.
Inskeep, E. (1991) Tourism Planning: Tourism Planning: An Integrated and
Sustainable Development Approach. Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Jinwel, W. and Xianrong, L. (2018) Resident Perception of Dark Tourism
Impact: The case of Beichuan Country, China. Journal of Tourism and
Cultural change. 16 (5).
Page 11
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 269
Kiss, A. (1990) Living with Wildlife: Wildlife Resource Management with
Local Participation in Africa. Washington, D. C., World Bank.
Kobi, C., Alon, G. and Noam, S. (2018) from Ideological Space to
Recreational Tourism The Israel Forest. Journal of Tourism and
Cultural Change, 16 (5). 501 – 520.
Kramer, R.; Van, S. and Johnson, J. (1997) Last Stand: Protected Areas and
the Defence of Tropical Biodiversity. USA, Oxford University Press.
Krippendorf, J. (1987) The Holidaymakers. Oxford, Butterworth.
Leonard, J. L. and Carson, L. E. (2006) An Introduction to Tourism. Oxford,
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Lepp, A. and Gibson, H. (2003) Tourist Roles Perceived Risk and
International Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 30: 606-624.
Maria, P., Pablo, R. and Jose, A. M. (2013). Tourism and Economic
Development. Tourism Management perspectives. 8(1) 28-41.
Mieczkowski, Z. (1985) Environmental Issues of Tourism and Recreation.
Lanham, University Press.
Mowforth, M. and Munt, I. (2003) Tourism and Sustainability. Routledge,
London.
Murphree, M. W. (1993) Communities as Resources Management
Institutions. Gatekeeper Series no 36. London International Institute
for Environment and Development.
Nepal, S. (1997) Sustainable Tourism, Protected Areas and Livelihood
Needs of Local Communities in Developing Countries. The
International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 4,
123-135.
Orams, M. B. (1995) Towards a More Desirable Form of Ecotourism.
Tourism Management. 16 (1) 3-8.
Price, M (1996) People and Tourism in Fragile Environments, John Wiley,
Chichester, UK.
Rehema, A. S. and Alexander, N. S. (2013) Contributions of Eco-tourism to
Nature Conservation and Improvement of Livelihoods Around
Amani Nature Reserve, Tanzania Journal of Ecotourism 12(2) 78-89.
Page 12
Icheke Journal of the Faculty of Humanities Vol.17. No.3 October, 2019 www.ichekejournal.com
Tourism Development in Nigeria: Implications on the Environment 270
Samndong, R. (2005) Bushmeat Hunting and Wildlife Management in the
Rain Forest of Cameroon. Tropical Ecology and Management 7: 1-7
Schaffer, V. (2016). Satisfying Service Needs without Compromising
Culture. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
Research 10 (3) 283 – 295.
Stuart, P. C., Jerry, J. V. and Jennifer, M. R. (2013) Resident satisfaction with
sustainable tourism: The case of Frankenwald Nature Park,
Germany. Tourism Management Perspectives 8(1) 42-48.
Unnur, B.K. (2013) Nature Worth Seeing! The Tourist Gaze as a Factor in
Shaping Views on Nature in Iceland. Tourist Studies 13(1) 139-155.
Weaver, D. (2002) Ecotourism. London, Wiley.
Western, D. (1989) Conservation Without Parks: Wildlife in the Rural
Landscape. In Western, D. and Pearl, M. (eds.) Conservation for the
Twenty-first Century. Oxford, University Press.
Williams, A. M. and Shaw, G. J. (1991) Tourism and Economic
Development: Western European Experiences. London, Belhaven.
Wood, S. and House, K. (1991) The Good Tourist. London: Mandarin.
Young, G. (1973). Tourism: Blessing or Blight? London, Penguin.
Zurich, D. (1992) Adventure Travel and Sustainable Tourism in the
Peripheral Economy of Nepal. Annals of the Association of American
Geographers 82 (4) 608-628.