TOPICS IN (NANO) BIOTECHNOLOGY Lecture I 2nd October, 2006 PhD Course
Jan 02, 2016
TOPICS IN (NANO) BIOTECHNOLOGY
Lecture I
2nd October, 2006
PhD Course
1. What is Biotechnology? •Definitions of Biotechnology •Timeline of Biotechnology •Techniques used in Biotechnology •Who's Who in Biotechnology
2. How is Biotechnology being used? •Applications of Biotechnology •Medicines on the market today •Agriculture - GM Foods and Animals •DNA fingerprinting and forensic science•Gene Therapy and Transgenic Animals •Human Embryonic Stem Cells and Cloning
3. What are some of the societal issues Biotechnology raises? •Bioethics / "Genethics" •Public attitudes to biotechnology - safety, awareness •Therapeutic uses of human genes and tissues
Overview
What is biotechnology? • Biotechnology = bios (life) + logos (study of or essence)
– Literally ‘the study of tools from living things’
• CLASSIC: The word "biotechnology" was first used in 1917 to describe processes using living organisms to make a product or run a process, such as industrial fermentations. (Robert Bud, The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology)
• LAYMAN: Biotechnology began when humans began to plant their own crops, domesticate animals, ferment juice into wine, make cheese, and leaven bread (AccesExcellence)
What is biotechnology? • GENENTECH: Biotechnology is the process of
harnessing 'nature's own' biochemical tools to make possible new products and processes and provide solutions to society's ills (G. Kirk Raab, Former President and CEO of Genentech)
• WEBSTER’S: The aspect of technology concerned with the application of living organisms to meet the needs and ends of man.
• WALL STREET: Biotechnology is the application of genetic engineering and DNA technology to produce therapeutic and medical diagnostic products and processes. Biotech companies have one thing in common - the use of genetic engineering and manipulation of organisms at a molecular level.
What is biotechnology?
• Using scientific methods with organisms to produce new products or new forms of organisms
• Any technique that uses living organisms or substances from those organisms or substances from those organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific uses
What is biotechnology?
• Biotechnology is a multidisciplinarian in nature, involving input from
• Engineering• Computer Science• Cell and Molecular Biology• Microbiology• Genetics• Physiology• Biochemistry• Immunology• Virology• Recombinant DNA Technology Genetic manipulation
of bacteria, viruses, fungi, plants and animals, often for the development of specific products
What are the stages of biotechnology?
• Ancient Biotechnology• early history as related to food and shelter,
including domestication
• Classical Biotechnology• built on ancient biotechnology• fermentation promoted food production• medicine
• Modern Biotechnology• manipulates genetic information in organism• genetic engineering
Ancient biotechnology
• Paleolithic society – Hunter-gatherers Nomadic lifestyle due to migratory animals and edible plant distribution (wild wheat and barley) (~2 x 106 yrs.)
• Followed by domestication of plants and animals (artificial selection) People settled, sedentary lifestyles evolved (~10,000 yrs. ago)• Cultivation of wheat, barley and rye (seed
collections)• Sheep and goats milk, cheese, button and
meat• Grinding stones for food preparation• New technology Origins of Biotechnology
Agrarian Societies
• History of domestication and agriculture History of domestication and agriculture History of domestication and agriculture
History of domestication and agriculture
• Long history of fermented foods since people began to settle (9000 BC) (fervere –to boil)
• Often discovered by accident!
• Improved flavor and texture
• Deliberate contamination with bacteria or fungi (molds)
• Examples:•Bread•Yogurt•Sour cream•Cheese•Wine•Beer•Sauerkraut
Ancient biotechnology
Fermented foods and beverages
• Dough not baked immediately would undergo spontaneous fermentation would rise Eureka!!
• Uncooked fermented dough could be used to ferment a new batch no longer reliant on “chance fermentation”
• 1866 – Louis Pasteur published his findings on the direct link between yeast and sugars CO2 + ethanol (anaerobic process)
• 1915 – Production of baker’s yeast – Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Ancient biotechnology
Fermented foods and beverages
• Different types of beer• Vinegar• Glycerol• Acetone• Butanol• Lactic acid• Citric acid• Antibiotics – WWII (Bioreactor developed for large scale production, e.g. penicilin made by fermentation of penicillium)
•Today many different antibiotics are produced by microorganisms•Cephalosporins, bacitracin, neomycin, tetracycline……..)
Classical biotechnology
Industry today exploits early discoveries of the fermentation process for production of huge numbers of products
• Substrate + Microbial Enzyme Product
• Examples:• Cholesterol Steroids (cortisone, estrogen, progesterone) (hydroxylation reaction -OH group added to cholesterol ring)
Classical biotechnology
Chemical transformations to produce therapeutic products
• Amino acids to improve food taste, quality or preservation
• Enzymes (cellulase, collagenase, diastase, glucose isomerase, invertase, lipase, pectinase, protease)
• Vitamins
• Pigments
Classical biotechnology
Microbial synthesis of other commercially valuable products
• Cell biology• Structure, organization and reproduction
• Biochemistry• Synthesis of organic compounds• Cell extracts for fermentation (enzymes versus whole cells)
• Genetics• Resurrection of Gregor Mendel’s findings 1866 1900s
• Theory of Inheritance (ratios dependent on traits of parents)• Theory of Transmission factors
• W.H. Sutton – 1902• Chromosomes = inheritance factors
• T.H. Morgan – Drosophila melanogaster
Modern biotechnology
Molecular Biology
• Beadle and Tatum (Neurospora crassa)• One gene, one enzyme hypothesis
• Charles Yanofsky colinearity between mutations in genes and amino
acid sequence (E. coli)• Genes determine structure of proteins
• Hershey and Chase – 1952 • T2 bacteriophage – 32P DNA, not 35S protein
is the material that encodes genetic information
Modern biotechnology
• Watson, Crick, Franklin and Wilkins (1953)
• X-ray crystallography • 1962 – Nobel Prize awarded to three men• Chargaff – DNA base ratios• Structural model of DNA developed
• DNA Revolution – Promise and Controversy!!!
• Scientific foundation of modern biotechnology • based on knowledge of DNA, its replication, repair and use of enzymes to carry out in vitro splicing DNA fragments
Modern biotechnology
• Breaking the Genetic Code – Finding the Central Dogma
• An “RNA Club” organized by George Gamow (1954) assembled to determine the role of RNA in protein synthesis
• Vernon Ingram’s research on sickle cell anemia (1956) tied together inheritable diseases with protein structure
• Link made between amino acids and DNA
• Radioactive tagging experiments demonstrate intermediate between DNA and protein = RNA
• RNA movement tracked from nucleus to cytoplasm site of protein synthesis
Modern biotechnology
• DNA RNA Protein Transcription Translation
Genetic code determined for all 20 amino acids by Marshal Nirenberg and Heinrich Matthaei and Gobind Khorana – Nobel Prize – 1968
• 3 base sequence = codon
Modern biotechnology
What are the areas of biotechnology?
• Organismic biotechnology• uses intact organisms and does not alter genetic
material
• Molecular Biotechnology• alters genetic makeup to achieve specific goals
Transgenic organism: an organism with artificially altered genetic material
What are the benefits of biotechnology?
• Medicine• human• veterinary• biopharming
• Environment• Agriculture• Food products• Industry and manufacturing
What are the applications of biotechnology?
• Production of new and improved crops/foods, industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals and livestock
• Diagnostics for detecting genetic diseases• Gene therapy (e.g. ADA, CF)• Vaccine development (recombinant vaccines)• Environmental restoration• Protection of endangered species• Conservation biology• Bioremediation• Forensic applications• Food processing (cheese, beer)
Monoclonal Antibodies
Molecular Biology
CellCulture
Genetic Engineering
Anti-cancer drugs
DiagnosticsCulture of plants from single cells
Transfer of new genes into animal
organisms
Synthesis of specific DNA
probes
Localisation of genetic disorders
Tracers
Cloning
Gene therapy
Mass prodn. of human proteins
Resource bank for rare human chemicals
Synthesis of new proteins
New antibiotics
New types of plants and animals
New types of food
DNA technology
Crime solving
Banks of DNA, RNA and proteins
Complete map of the human genome
Biotechnology Timeline
1750 BC The Sumerians brew beer.
500 BC Chinese use moldy soybean curds as an antibiotic to treat boils
1590 Janssen invents the microscope
1675 Leeuwenhoek discovers cells (bacteria, red blood cells)
1830 Proteins are discovered
1833 The first enzymes are isolated
1855 The Eschirium coli bacterium is discovered
Biotechnology Timeline
1859 Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species
1864 Louis Pasteur shows all living things are produced by other living things
1865 The age of genetics begins
1902 Walter Sutton coins the term ‘gene’ - proposed that chromosomes carry genes
Biotechnology Timeline
1910 Chromosomal theory of inheritance proved
1928 Fleming discovers antibiotic properties of certain molds
1941 George Beadle and Edward Tatum propose that one gene makes one protein
1949 Sickle cell anaemia demonstrated to be molecular disease
Biotechnology Timeline 1952 The ‘Waring Blender’
experiment
1953 The double helix is unravelled
1967 The genetic code is cracked
1973 Recombinant DNA technology begins
1975 First international conference on recombinant DNA technology
Biotechnology Timeline
1975 Monoclonal antibody technology introduced
1975 DNA sequencing discovered
1978 Genentech Inc. established
1978 Genentech use genetic engineering to produce human insulin in E.coli - 1980 IPO of $89
1978 Kary Mullis discovers PCR
Biotechnology Timeline 1989 The Human Genome Project begins
1990 First use of gene therapy
1990 First product of recombinant DNA technology introduced into US food chain
1993 FDA announces that transgenic food is safe
1994 The FLAVRSAVR tomato - first genetically engineered whole food
Biotechnology Timeline
1996 First mammal cloned from adult cells
1990s First conviction using genetic fingerprinting
1996 Development of AffymetrixGeneChip
1997 First artificial chromosome
History of Biotechnology 1998 Human embryonic stem cells
grown
1999 Celera announces completion of Drosophilia genome sequence
2000 90% of Human Genome sequence published on web
2003 Human genome project complete
Biotechnology Industry
Biotechnology Industry
Biotechnology Industry
Useful Resources
• http://www.geocities.com/cwfennhcc/bi200/intro.html
• http://www.geocities.com/cwfennhcc/bi200/quiz1.htm
• http://www.accessexcellence.org/
• The Uses Of Life – A History of Biotechnology (Robert Bud)