Topic 8: Energy, power and climate change Can you read through the syllabus that Mr Porter is giving you?
Dec 19, 2015
Topic 8: Energy, power and climate change
Can you read through the syllabus that Mr Porter is
giving you?
Types of Energy
Heat Chemical
Light Gravitational
Sound Elastic/strain
Kinetic Nuclear
Electric
Stored/potential
The Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy can be changed (transformed) from one type to another, but it can never be made or destroyed.
Energy Flow diagrams
We can write energy flow diagrams to show the energy changes that occur in a given situation.For example, when a car brakes, its kinetic energy is transformed into heat energy in the brakes.
Kinetic heat
sound
Energy degradation!
In any process that involves energy transformations, the energy that is transferred to the surroundings (thermal energy) is no longer available to perform useful work.
Topic 8 – Lesson 2
• Workings of a generator
• Energy sources
• Renewable and non-renewable
• Energy density
Electromagnetic induction
If a magnet is moved inside a coil an electric current is induced (produced)
Electromagnetic induction
A electric current is induced because the magnetic field around the coil is changing.
Generator/dynamo
A generator works in this way by rotating a coil in a magnetic field (or rotating a magnet in a coil)
Non-renewable
• Finite (being depleted – will run out)
• In general from a form of potential energy released by human action
• Coal, oil, gas (fossil fuels), Uranium.
Renewable
• Mostly directly or indirectly linked with the sun
• The exception is tidal energy
• Photovoltaic cells, active solar devices, wind, wave, tidal, biomass.
World energy production
Fuel % total energy production
CO2 emission g.MJ-1
Oil 40 70
Natural gas 23 50
Coal 23 90
Nuclear 7 -
Hydroelectric 7 -
Others < 1 -
Energy Density
• The energy that can be obtained from a unit mass of the fuel
• J.kg-1
• If the fuel is burnt the energy density is simply the heat of combustion
Energy density
• Coal - 30 MJ.kg-1
• Wood - 16 MJ.kg-1
• Gasoline – 47 MJ.kg-1
• Uranium – 7 x 104 GJ.kg-1 (70000000 MJ.kg-1)
Hydroelectric energy density?
• Imagine 1 kg falling 100m.
• Energy loss = mgh = 1x10x100 = 103 J
• If all of this is turned into electrical energy it gives an “energy density” of the “fuel” of 103 J.kg-1
Electricity production
Generally (except for solar cells) a turbine is turned, which turns a generator, which makes electricity.
Fossil fuels
In electricity production they are burned, the heat is used to heat water to make steam, the moving steam turns a turbine etc.
Fossil fuels - Advantages
• Relatively cheap
• High energy density
• Variety of engines and devices use them directly and easily
• Extensive distribution network in place
Fossil fuels - Disadvantages
• Will run out
• Pollute the environment (during mining sulphur and heavy metal content can be washed by rain into the environment)
• Oil spillages etc.
• Contribute to the greenhouse effect by releasing greenhouse gases
Example question
• A coal powered power plant has a power output of 400 MW and operates with an overall efficiency of 35%
A coal powered power plant has a power output of 400 MW and operates with an overall efficiency of 35%
• Calculate the rate at which thermal energy is provided by the coal
A coal powered power plant has a power output of 400 MW and operates with an overall efficiency of 35%
• Calculate the rate at which thermal energy is provided by the coal
Efficiency = useful power output/power input
Power input = output/efficiency
Power input = 400/0.35 = 1.1 x 103 MW
A coal powered power plant has a power output of 400 MW and operates with an overall efficiency of 35%
• Calculate the rate at which coal is burned (Coal energy density = 30 MJ.kg-1)
A coal powered power plant has a power output of 400 MW and operates with an overall efficiency of 35%
• Calculate the rate at which coal is burned (Coal energy density = 30 MJ.kg-1)
1 kg of coal burned per second would produce 30 MJ. The power station needs 1.1 x 103 MJ per second. So
Mass burned per second = 1.1 x 103/30 = 37 kg.s-1
Mass per year = 37x60x60x24x365 = 1.2 x 109 kg.yr-1
A coal powered power plant has a power output of 400 MW and operates with an overall efficiency of 35%
• The thermal energy produced by the power plant is removed by water. The temperature of the water must not increase by more than 5 °C. Calculate the rate of flow of water.
A coal powered power plant has a power output of 400 MW and operates with an overall efficiency of 35%
• The thermal energy produced by the power plant is removed by water. The temperature of the water must not increase by moe than 5 °C. Calculate the rate of flow of water.
Rate of heat loss = 1.1 x 103 – 0.400 x 103 = 740 MWIn one second, Q = mcΔT
740 x 106 = m x 4200 x 5m = 35 x 103 kg
So flow needs to be 35 x 103 kg.s-1
Controlled fission (see topic 7)
The chain reaction can be controlled using control rods and a moderator. The energy can then be used (normally to generate electricity).
Moderator
This slows the free neutrons down, making them easier to absorb by the uranium 235 nuclei. Graphite or water is normally used.
1 eV neutrons are ideal)
Control rods
These absorb excess neutrons,making sure that the reaction does not get out of control. Boron is normally used.
HeatThis heat is used to heat water, to make steam, which turns a turbine, which turns a generator, which makes electricity.
Useful by-products
Uranium 238 can also absorb neutrons to produce plutonium 239 which is itself is highly useful as a nuclear fuel.
It makes more fuel!!!
Nuclear power - Advantages
• High power output
• Large reserves of nuclear fuels
• No greenhouse gases
Nuclear power - disadvantages
• Waste products dangerous and difficult to dispose of
• Major health hazard if there is an accident
• Problems associated with uranium mining
• Nuclear weapons
The solar constant
The sun’s total power output is 3.9 x 1026 W!
Only a fraction of this power actually reaches the earth, given by the formula I (Power per unit area) = P/4πr2
For the earth this is 1400 W.m-2 and is called the solar constant
The solar constant
For the earth this is 1400 W.m-2 and is called the solar constant
This varies according to the power output of the sun (± 1.5%), distance from sun (± 4%), and angle of earth’s surface (tilt)
Solar power - disadvantages
• Only works during the day
• Affected by cloudy weather
• Low power output
• Requires large areas
• Initial costs are high
Pumped storage
• Excess electricity can be used to pump water up into a reservoir. It acts like a giant battery.
Hydroelectric - disadvantages
• Very dependent on location
• Drastic changes to environment (flooding)
• Initial costs very high
Wind moving at speed v, cross sectional area of turbines = A
V
AVolume of air going through per second = Av
Mass of air per second = Density x volume
Mass of air per second = ρAv
Wind moving at speed v, cross sectional area of turbines = A
V
AMass of air per second = ρAv
If all kinetic energy of air is transformed by the turbine, the amount of energy produced per second = ½mv2 = ½ρAv3
Wind power - disadvantages
• Works only if there is wind!
• Low power output
• Unsightly (?) and noisy
• Best located far from cities
• High maintainance costs
Modeling waves
• The mass of water in the shaded part = Volume x density = Ax(λ/2)xLxρ = AλLρ/2
λ
L
2A
Modeling waves
• Loss of Ep of this water = mgh= A2gLρ(λ/2)
• # of waves passing per unit time = f = v/λ
λ
L
2A
Modeling waves
• The maximum power then available per unit length is then equal to = (1/2)A2ρgv
λ
L
2A
Power per unit length
A water wave of amplitude A carries an amount of power per unit length of its wavefront equal to
P/L = (ρgA2v)/2
where ρ is the density of water and v stands for the speed of energy transfer of the wave
Wave power - disadvantages
• Only in areas with large waves
• Waves are irregular
• Low frequency waves with high frequency turbine motion
• Maintainance and installation costs high
• Transporting power
• Must withstand storms/hurricanes
The Sun
The sun emits electromagnetic waves (gamma X-rays, ultra-violet, visible light, infra-red, microwaves and radio waves) in all directions.
Reflected
Around 30% will be reflected by the earth’s atmosphere. This is called the earth’s albedo (0.30). (The moon’s albedo is 0.12) Albedo is the ratio of reflected light to incident light.
30%
Absorbed by the earth
70%Infrared
This absorbed solar energy is re-radiated at longer wavelengths (in the infrared region of the spectrum)
Black-body radiation
• Black Body - any object that is a perfect emitter and a perfect absorber of radiation
• object does not have to appear "black"
• sun and earth's surface behave approximately as black bodies
Black-body radiation
The amount of energy per second (power) radiated from a body depends on its surface area and absolute temperature according to
P = eσAT4
where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10-8 W.m-2.K-4) and e is the emissivity of the surface (=1 for a black object)
Example
• By what factor does the power emitted by a body increase when its temperature is increased from 100ºC to 200ºC?
Example
• By what factor does the power emitted by a body increase when its temperature is increased from 100ºC to 200ºC?
• Emitted power is proportional to the fourth power of the Kelvin temperature, so will increase by a factor of 4734/3734 = 2.59
Surface heat capacitance Cs
Surface heat capacitance is defined as the energy required to increase the temperature of 1 m2 of a surface by 1 K. Cs is measured in J.m-2.K-1.
Q = ACsΔT
Example
• Radiation of intensity 340 W.m-2 is incident on the surace of a lake of surface heat capacitance Cs = 4.2 x 108 J.m-2.K-1. Calculate the time to increase the temperature by 2 K. Comment on your answer.
Example
• Radiation of intensity 340 W.m-2 is incident on the surface of a lake of surface heat capacitance Cs = 4.2 x 108 J.m-2.K-1. Calculate the time to increase the temperature by 2 K. Comment on your answer.
• Each 1m2 of lake receives 340 J.s-1
• Energy needed to raise 1m2 by 2 K = Q = ACsΔT = 1 x 4.2 x 108 x 2 = 8.4 x 108 J
• Time = Energy/power = 8.4 x 108/340 = 2500000 seconds = 29 days
• Sun only shines approx 12 hours a day so would take at least twice as long
Absorbed by the earth
70%Infrared
This absorbed solar energy is re-radiated at longer wavelengths (in the infrared region of the spectrum)
Absorbed
• Various gases in the atmosphere can absorb radiation at this longer wavelength (resonance)
C
O
O
C
H
H
H
HThey vibrate more (become hotter)
HH
O
Greenhouse gases
• These gases are known as “Greenhouse” gases. They include carbon dioxide, methane, water and N2O.
C
O
O
C
H
H
H
HHH
O
Balance
There exists a balance between the energy absorbed by the earth (and its atmosphere) and the energy emitted.
Energy in Energy out
Balance
This means that normally the earth has a fairly constant average temperature (although there have been big changes over thousands of years)
Energy in Energy out
Balance
Without this normal “greenhouse effect” the earth would be too cold to live on.
Energy in Energy out
Greenhouse gases
• Most scientists believe that we are producing more of the gases that absorb the infra-red radiation, thus upsetting the balance and producing a higher equilibrium earth temperature. This is called the enhanced greenhouse effect.
What might happen?
• Higher sea levels and flooding of low lying areas as a result of non-sea ice melting and expansion of water
Coefficient of volume expansion
• Coefficient of volume expansion is defined as the fractional change in volume per unit temperature change
Coefficient of volume expansion
Given a volume V0 at temperature θ0, the volume after temperature increase of Δθ will increase by ΔV given by
ΔV = γV0Δθ
Example
The area of the earth’s oceans is about 3.6 x 108 km2 and the average depth is 3.7 km. Using γ = 2 x 10-4 K-1, estimate the rise in sea level for a temperature increase of 2K. Comment on your answer.
Example
The area of the earth’s oceans is about 3.6 x 108 km2 and the average depth is 3.7 km. Using γ = 2 x 10-4 K-1, estimate the rise in sea level for a temperature increase of 2K. Comment on your answer.
Volume of water = approx depth x area
= 3.6 x 108 x 3.7
= 1.33 x 109 km3 = 1.33 x 1018 m3
ΔV = γV0Δθ
ΔV = 2 x 10-4 x 1.33 x 1018 x 2 = 5.3 x 1014 m3
Δh = ΔV/A = 5.3 x 1014/3.6 x 1014 = 1.5 m
Evaporation? Greater area cos of flooding? Uniform expansion?