TOPIC 3
PHYSICAL INJURY AND CONTROLS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this topic, students should be able to:
1. Design safety and health program to meet the work place
requirements.
(C5, PLO1)
2. Perform according to the most current acts pertinent to the
Occupational Safety and Health. (P5, PLO2) CONTENTS3.1Introduction
to Physical Injury
Physical injury is injury that resulted by the exposure to
hazards which generated from energy and matter, and the
interrelationships between the two. Physical aspects to be
considered include all constructed and naturally occurring
structural and physical features of the workplace and its environs
as well as their spatial relationships. Physical aspects include
not only such obvious structures as buildings, sheds, tanks, silos,
transmission lines, containment dikes, reactor vessels, stacks, and
roadways, but also such structures as underground pipes and
conduits, landforms, groundwater aquifers, unconsolidated soils,
and surface water supplies. The consequences of exposure to these
hazards can be modied by worker protection and a variety of human
factors. This topic will review the general principles of physical
injury and worker protection.Work plays a central role in people's
lives, since most workers spend at least eight hours a day in the
workplace, whether it is on a plantation, in an office, factory,
etc. Therefore, work environments should be safe and
healthy.Unfortunately some employers assume little responsibility
for the protection of workers' safety and health. In fact, some
employers do not even know that they have the moral and often legal
responsibility to protect workers. In most cases they seem to
overlook the economic and humanitarian implications for their
failure to ensure safety and health at their workplaces. The focus
on this topic are: Ensuring workplace safety and health is not only
part of an accident prevention program - it is more than that.
For organization, occupational safety and health are being
managed due to numerous reasons.
Generally, there are three (3) major arguments that validate why
occupational safety and health to be managed, namely:
Legal arguments;
Economic arguments; and
Humanitarian arguments.
3.1.1 Legal Arguments There are two (2) main legal provisions
governing occupational safety and health in Malaysia.
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, Regulations and
Orders.
- Factories and Machinery Act 1967 and Regulations. Penalty for
non-compliance:
Occupational Safety & Health Act 1994, Regulations &
Orders:
Maximum fine not exceeding RM50,000.00; or
Maximum imprisonment not exceeding 2 years; or Both.
Notice of Improvement & Notice of Prohibition.
Maximum fine RM2000.00/day for continuous offences.
Factories & Machinery Act 1967 & Regulations:
Maximum fine not exceeding RM250,000; or
Maximum imprisonment not exceeding 5 years; or Both.
Compounded. Notice of Improvement & Notice of Prohibition.
Maximum fine RM2000.00/day for continuous offences.
Figure 2.1 : Legal Arguments
3.1.2Economic Arguments Types of accident costs: insured costs
or direct costs - e.g. workmen compensation scheme, public
liability insurance, work insurance, etc.
uninsured costs or hidden costs - e.g. legal fees, work
interruption, production delayed, time and effort spent for
investigation, lost of experienced and skilled workers, cost of
replacing injured worker, etc.
Affected Parties:
the country - lost of skilled workers and high financial
compensation.
the employer - legal fees, work interruption, production
delayed, time and effort spent for investigation, lost of
experienced and skilled workers, cost of replacing injured worker,
etc.
the victims - lost of earning power.
Figure 2.2 : Costs of an Accident
3.1.3Humanitarian Arguments It is the moral duty of every man to
ensure the general well being of our fellow men.
This place an onus on all parties (the common law duty of care)
to ensure others safety and health at the workplace.
Workers die; lose their health, income, careers, dreams, and
futures.
The families of injured workers are also deeply hurt,
economically and emotionally.
Figure 2.2 : Costs of an Accident
3.2Construction Work
The construction industry has an unenviable record of accidents
including many fatalities. While the type of work carried out does
present a high level of hazard, there seems to have been an
attitude endemic in the industry that it is all part and parcel of
the job. Some recent major construction projects have disproved
that contention and have been successfully completed without
fatality or serious injury.
Whenever construction work is to be undertaken if consideration
is given to some of the hazards faced and the appropriate
precautions taken, accidents and damage can be prevented. This
applies whether you are a client having the work done or a
contractor doing the work. However, once having agreed
precautionary measures it is essential that the work is monitored
to ensure the precautions are implemented. The contractor should
supply all plant and materials needed for the contract.
Typical of the points to be considered are: Falls from
heights:
working platforms:
* above 2m from ground/floor, must be provided with hand rail at
1m, intermediate rail at 0.5m and toe board 150mm high for roof
work, provide:
* edge protection
* safety harness
crawler boards if a fragile roof (such as asbestos sheeting)
ladders must:
* be in good condition
* be inspected regularly
* be lashed at top end to structure. (If this is not possible
post someone
at bottom to foot the ladder)
* if used as access, project at least 1m above platform served
unless safe handhold provided
* be set no steeper than 75, i.e. 1 unit out for every 4 units
rise Falling objects:
hard hats must be worn
when material stored at high level, ensure platform is:
* wide enough to allow access past storage position
* strong enough to support the weight
* provided with hand rails, toe board and netting or similar to
retain materials
Trenches and excavations deeper than 1.2 m (4 ft) should:
have sides:
* battered (sloping) or
* benched (stepped) or
* properly shored under supervision of competent person be
inspected very day be far enough from existing buildings not to
affect foundations have edges protected to prevent:
* people falling in
* vehicles falling in have ladder for access and egress have
arrangements for removing water Temporary wiring
should be secured to structure, not left hanging in loops
connections should be properly made, not taped
should be kept for minimum period then removed
should be 110-volt, centre tapped to earth
if 240-volt, should be protected by residual current device
(RCD) Power tools
should be preferably 110-volt
should be regularly inspected, including leads, sockets, etc.
Materials
follow suppliers safety instructions
provide PPE (gloves, goggles, face masks, etc.) as
appropriate
where solvents are used (in adhesives, paint, etc.) ensure work
area is well ventilated Housekeeping
ensure site kept tidy
do not allow build-up of rubbish it is a fire and health
hazard
rubbish to be removed not burnt on site
dust and fumes to be kept to a minimum Noisy equipment
used only during social hours (7am to 7pm)
provide hearing protection to operators and those working nearby
Overhead power lines
indicate by lines of bunting or flags
post warning notice Underground services
check with local authority and gas, water, electricity and
telephone companies before excavating
check for service runs with suitable instrument Scaffolding
must be erected by competent certificated (CITB) erectors
must be inspected:
* before use
* every week
* after damage or alterations Asbestos
check type local analytical chemist can do this
get atmosphere monitored to determine concentrations
if chrysotile (blue) or amosite (brown) arrange for an approved
contrac-
tor to strip it out
if other types, decide action, i.e. remove, seal or encase
use specialist contractor Pneumatic tools
breakers, chisels, etc.
risk of vibration white finger (VWF)
if diagnosed move worker to other work
check with supplier of tools for availability of attachments to
reduce the vibration effect (insulated handles, etc.)
provide hearing protection for operator and those working nearby
Mobile cranes
ensure test/examination certificates are current
ensure driver is properly trained and certificated (CITB)
use outriggers when lifting
ensure outrigger feet rest on suitable base plates
ensure base plates are on solid compacted ground
allow room for swing of counterbalance weight
use a banksman to assist driver with slinging and lifts
if crane hired in:
* check test/examination certificate of crane and associated
equipment
* check driver is trained and certificated
* if in doubt refuse to accept the hire Welfare facilities
each contractor should provide their own but can share by
arrangement
facilities include toilets, washrooms, canteen, first aid, etc.
Site arrangements
should be made known to all contractors:
* routes to be taken by workmen and vehicles
* security arrangements
* fire precautions and alarm
* site facilities available to the contractor Equipment
each contractor should provide their own
if contractor wants to use anothers equipment:
* agree in writing
* contractor to give written statement that equipment is in good
order
* if equipment needs driver, either owner provides one or
contractors
driver must prove competence (by training certificate)
* contractor must sign indemnity accepting responsibility for
any
damage caused by or to equipment during period of hire/loan
Pits, openings, and platform edges to be provided with a
substantial barrier Use of local services:
agree with site agent before work starts:
* which services
* for how long
* what charge to be made.Establishing good communications with
site agent and between contractors, through the nomination of
individuals to be the points of contact, will enable many of the
day-to-day problems to be sorted as the work progresses and ensure
it is carried out in a much safer manner.
3.3Electrical Work Electricity is one of the most common power
sources in our home and workplace environment. Electrical
equipment, which uses electrical energy, forms a system which needs
to be treated with respect. In other words, users and those in the
vicinity of electricity are required to be safety aware. Electrical
equipment used in workplace environments and tasks needs to be
considered for safety management. This includes such areas as the
type of equipment used, handling of equipment, and maintenance of
systems in place to reduce the risks from electrical faults.
When electrical equipment is being used, if system faults occur
electrical energy can severely injure or kill a person who is in
contact with a live conductor. The danger is not apparent in the
size of equipment, as a small hand-held electrical device can be
just as damaging as industrial equipment, if faulty. It has been
found through experience that the following current magnitudes are
likely to affect a recipient in the way shown if contact is made
with a live conductor
:CurrentPotential
13mA generally cannot be felt
1015Madifficult to let go or be pushed away
2530mAcontraction of chest muscles is affected, resulting in
heart fluttering and an inability of the heart to pump blood
effectively.
These levels must not be taken as more than indicative. Other
possible effects from shock include burns (contact, arc, radiation,
vaporized metal), arc eye and other injuries resulting from a
fall.
Faulty electrical equipment can result in fires and explosions.
When a short circuit occurs on any system, the resulting current is
limited only by the electrical constraints of the system (including
the fault) and can reach a value as high as 20 times the normal
load current for the plant item concerned. Thus, in many cases,
conditions at the fault are rather like the explosion of a bomb.
Metals melt and very hot gases are liberated, often in a small
confined space, so that there is a great risk of damage and injury
to persons. Electrical equipment which has the possibility of
generating heat, or sparking with use, requires special
consideration. See the section below on flammable
atmospheres.3.4Mechanical Work Mechanical work refers to any
powered means for moving or lifting loads. The more common means
are:
lifts, including hoists
cranes, including lifting tackle
conveyors
powered trucks, including driverless trucks.
Lifting equipment covers any equipment used in raising or
lowering any load, including people. It ranges from the massive
tower cranes used on construction sites to a dumb waiter in a
restaurant, and includes a bath hoist in a nursing home, a scissor
lift, elevating conveyors, lorry tail lifts, a passenger lift, fork
lift trucks, etc. Cranes are lifting equipment that have no
restraint on the direction of movement. Typical cranes are: chain
blocks
single direction of movement
mono rails
two directions of movement
overhead travelling cranes
mobile cranes three directions of movement.
tower cranes
jib cranes
Conveyors are used to carry a flow of goods or materials, and
can present a number of hazards. There are two broad types of
conveyor: roller conveyors and belt conveyors. A common hazard is
that of trapping, either between adjacent rollers or under the
belt.
A common requirement for the safe use of all powered trucks is
that the drivers are fully trained and competent.The training of
drivers should: be by qualified instructors check their
credentials. If a training centre
they should be members of the Industrial Truck Training
Assocation
be held in-house or at accredited training centre
cover:
driving theory, especially for fork trucks with rear-wheel
steering and other specialized trucks with multi-wheel steering
use of basic controls
practical driving techniques
practical experience in the workplace
test of theoretical knowledge and practical competence.
Candidates for fork-lift truck training should:
be over eighteen years of age
have a medical check before training starts
have stereoscopic vision. If monocular (one-eyed) they should be
referred for a medical check on their vision
not be colour-blind
if epileptic or diabetic, be referred to doctor for medical
check
not be known drug users.
3.5Chemical WorkChemicals vary in how toxic (poisonous) they
are. Toxicity is a chemical property which causes damage to a
tissue, organ or system in the body. A chemical can be a hazard
because of its toxicity. How much of a risk the hazard presents
depends on the circumstances, e.g. is anyone nearby? is the
chemical in powder, liquid, mist, vapour or gas form? We also talk
of risk how likely is it that the hazard will result in an accident
of something unplanned and unwanted occurring. A chemical can also
be a hazard in other. This involves firstly recognizing chemical
hazards and identifying them. This will mean surveying the use of
chemicals in the workplace. The next step is to use data sources to
identify hazards associated with individual chemical compounds
(where they are known) or using MSDS to identify hazards associated
with trade name chemicals. Other documentation which may help
includes stock records; the chemical register; emergency services
manifest; placards; and container labels.
The key information sources to use in controlling chemical
hazards in the workplace are:
your national and local OHS and dangerous goods authorities
materials safety data sheets (MSDS)
substance labels
chemical registers
emergency procedure guides
UN/ILO/EU/NIOSH International Chemical Safety Cards (on CD-ROM,
and Internet, www.ilo.org)
the UN Recommendations
dangerous goods and occupational safety and health acts and
regulations in your jurisdiction.
The above sources will allow supervisors, health and safety
officers, and health and
safety committees to have a basis for controlling hazards.
If the hazardous chemicals are dangerous goods, i.e. listed in
or otherwise covered by The CPL Regulation, the Regulation includes
the requirements for:
classification of the chemical
assignment of packing group
marking of packages
vehicles and transport containers documentation
packing
transport in bulk
stowage and compatibility of different dangerous goods
requirements,
procedures for transport
construction and testing of packages, intermediate bulk
containers, large packages and portable tanks.
Once the identification or recognition phase is complete, the
next step is to assess or evaluate the hazards.
Assessment involves these questions:
1. Is anyone exposed to the chemical hazard? If so, who? How
often? How much? The last question may require expert assistance
with air sampling, but in many cases this will not be necessary.
For instance, many substances may not result in airborne exposure
from dust, vapour, gas, fume or mist. Instead, any potential
contact may be with the skin. The substance may or may not be
absorbed via the skin. Does the substance act on contact or is it
absorbed to go on and affect other target organs? Poor personal
hygiene could result in ingestion (swallowing) if the chemical is
on hands and the worker bites nails or eats or smokes with unwashed
hands.
2. What form is the chemical in? This affects the degree of
risk. Is it solid, liquid, paste, gas, vapour, fume, mist, dust or
fibrous dust? Will it be heated and give off vapour or fume? For
instance, low hydrogen electrodes in welding give off fluoride
fume, a toxic hazard, during use. The possibility of exposure may
depend on process control, for example maintaining the correct pH
of cyanide solutions in a gold recovery plant. If the pH is too
low, hydrogen cyanide gas is given off.
3. Are workers close to or distant from the source of the
hazard? Is the work area open, closed, ventilated? Are there
heavier-than-air vapours which can flow elsewhere? Will airflow
carry vapour or dust away from the source towards workers?
4. Is process control a critical factor? For example, brick kiln
vapours may normally be led away to proper filtering equipment and
high level exhausts, but emergency vents may open to assist process
control and so expose workers.
5. Is unexpected contact from spillage of containers due to poor
handling practices
(climbing ladders, pouring instead of pumping) a
possibility?
6. How toxic is the chemical? Which parts of the body are
affected? Is the danger acute (immediate), or chronic (where the
effects can result from repeated small exposures)?
After assessing and evaluating the hazard against accepted
standards, the basic approach to control of chemical hazards can be
summed up in what is called the preferred order (or hierarchy of
control measures). It is shown here:
MANAGEMENT T
R Elimination
A Substitution
I Segregation
N Engineering controls
I Work practices
N Personal protective equipment
G
3.6 Example on Accident CasesEven though occupational safety and
health practices and standards had improved since Hammurabis era,
workplace accidents still happened.
There were numerous major industrial accidents that have
contributed significantly to the evolution of occupational safety
and health. Lessons learnt from those incidents have initiated more
stringent precautionary and preventive measures.
3.6.1 Piper Alpha Tragedy Background
An oil platform located about 120 miles north-east of Aberdeen.
Connected with Claymore Platform, Tartan Platform and Flotta Oil
Terminal on the Orkney Islands. Explosions and fires took place on
6 July 1988. Had 226 people on board at the time of the event.
Implications
165 perished in addition to 2 of rescue personnel.
Total insured loss was about 1.7 billion (USD 3.4 billion).
Contributing Factors
Breakdown chain of command and poor communication.
Poor implementation and enforcement of permit to work
system.
Lack of blast wall only fire wire installed.
Photo 4.1 : Piper Alpha
3.6.2 Chernobyl Disaster Background
A nuclear power plant located in Chernobyl, 128 km northwest of
Kiev that is in the Ukraine.
Comprised of 4 nuclear reactors.
Reactor No. 4 exploded on 4 exploded on 26 April 1986.
Implication
The impact was nearly thirty to forty times more fallout was
released than the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Caused 28 fatalities due to exposure to radiation; and 2 from
thermal burns and or falling debris.
Up to 200 people were hospitalized due to the radiation
exposure.
Large areas in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia were badly
contaminated, resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of over
336,000 people.
The plume drifted over extensive parts of the western Soviet
Union, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, Northern Europe, and eastern
North America.
Contributing Factors
Flawed Operators Theory poor communication and incompetent
operators.
Flawed Design Theory - very unstable at low power levels and
prone to sudden increase of energy production to dangerous level if
the temperature rises.
Photo 3.2 : Chernobyls Victims
3.6.3 Bhopal Tragedy Background
A pesticide plant owned and operated by Union Carbide India
Limited.
Located in densely populated area of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh,
India.
A methyl isocyanate tank exploded on 3 December 1984.
Implication
Estimated 3,800 died immediately and 8,000 were killed within a
few days.
Death toll rose to more than 20,000 people with more than
500,000 people being affected directly and indirectly and many more
thousands of families were permanently affected for
generations.
Ongoing civil and criminal cases against Warren Anderson, CEO of
Union Carbide at the time of the disaster.
Union Carbide offered US$ 350 million, the insurance sum as
compensation but The Government of India claimed US$ 3.3
billion.
In 1999, a settlement was reached under which UCC agreed to pay
US$470 million.
Contributing Factors
Poor maintenance of the plant.
Cost-cutting and a lack of regard for the safety of its workers
and the surrounding community.
Did not have adequate safety measures in place to prevent such a
disaster.
Photo 3.3 : Bhopals Victims
3.6.4 Hawks Nest Tragedy Background
Tunnel construction through Gauley Mountain at Hawks Nest by
Union Carbide in 1930.
The company wanted the tunnel dug fast.
3,000 African Americans men were hired to drilled through pure
silica rocks.
Implication
Many workers died from silicosis, sometimes as quickly as within
a single year. Total approximate fatalities were 476. Contributing
Factors
Safety rules were ignored. Wet drilling was not used because it
would take longer to build the tunnel. Workers were not given masks
for protection, even though management wore such masks during the
short times they visited for inspection.
Photo 4.4 : Hawk Nests Tunnel
3.6.5 Minamata Tragedy Background
A chemical factory owned by Chisso Corporation in Minamata,
Japan.
Produced fertilisers, acetylene, acetaldehyde, acetic acid,
vinyl chloride and octanol, etc.
Production wastes were released into Minamata Bay.
Implication
May 1, 1956, discovery of an "epidemic of an unknown disease of
the central nervous system" - Minamata disease.
2,265 victims have been officially certified (1,784 of whom have
died).
Over 10,000 people have received financial compensation from
Chisso, although they are not recognized as official victims.
Contributing Factors
Lack of proper disposal for production wastes 27 tons of organic
mercury was dumped into the bay.Activity
Assignment1. Based on the discipline on work activity (Civil
Eng/Tech, Electrical Eng/Tech, Mechanical Eng/Tech, Education,
Information Technology and Management), Please make the HIRARC
report. The report must full fill the requirement of HIRARC.
2. Please find the accident statistic for Malaysia workforce
from 2005-2010
Discuss about it and relate the theory and application why it is
occurred?
3. Discuss the accident cost based on the current situation
(nationally and internationally) with refer to guideline on
accident cost.REFERENCESDepartment of Occupational Safety and
Health. 2008. Guidelines for Hazard Identification, Risk
Assessment, Risk Control (HIRARC). DOSH Malaysia.Ridley. J &
Channing. J (2003). Safety at Work. 6th. Edition.
Butterworth-Heinemann
Stranks. J. 2006. The A-Z of Health and Safety. Thorogood
Publishing Ltd.Bahari. I. 2006. Pengurusan Keselamatan dan
Kesihatan Pekerjaan. McGraw Hill Education, McGraw Hill (Malaysia)
Isnard. L. 1999. Hazard and Risk Assessment Method &
Application in Environmental Health and Safety Practise. University
of GreenwichWinston. B. E. 1997. Total Quality Management. School
of Business, Regent UniversityGuideline on estimation on accident
cost
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