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INTRODUCTORY NOTE Subject of the course is a social history of
music, with special focus on the 18th and 19th century. In this
period, the status of both music and musicians rose to
unprecedented heights. The key to understanding the sacralisation
of music, which turns music into an alternative religion and brings
the musical man of genius into the position of its high priest, is
closely related to the development of the public sphere and
bourgeois capitalism. The course relies on a book written by the
English historian Tim Blanning, an internationally acclaimed expert
in the field. It is titled:
The Triumph of Music: Composers, Musicians and Their Audiences,
1700 to the Present (London, 2008) American edition: The Triumph of
Music: The Rise of Composers, Musicians and Their Art (Cambridge,
Mass., 2008)
The book contains five chapters:
1. Status: You Are a God-Man, the True Artist by Gods Grace 2.
Purpose: Music Is the Most Romantic of All the Arts 3. Places and
Spaces: From Palace to Stadium 4. Technology: From Stradivarius to
Stratocaster 5. Liberation: Nation, People, Sex
Chapter 1 (on Status) will be dealt in depth with. Special
topics will be selected from the remaining chapters.
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Status
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THE MUSICIAN AS SLAVE AND SERVANT For most of recorded history
sharp discrepancy between:
status of music high
status of musician low STATUS OF MUSIC ANTIQUITY Mythology
belief that music is of divine origin Egypt: Osiris as composer of
the traditional chants any alteration strictly forbidden Ancient
Greece: Orpheus, legendary singer and musician:
divine ancestry: Apollo and the muse Calliope alternative
version: son of the Thracian king Oeagrus
divine power of his singing and playing charming wild beasts,
diverting the course of rivers,
Philosophy music as a main preoccupation Plato (428/427 BC
-348-347 BC)
affinity between music and mathematics Harmony of the Spheres
(Pythagoras)
music as an essential part of education theory of the ethos
music affects the character (soul) good versus bad music
blueprint of the ideal state (totalitarian utopia?) music
strictly regulated to avoid anarchy, disorder and moral
degeneration only Dorian and Phrygian modes permitted (courage,
temperance)
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MIDDLE AGES Substantial cultural shift
Antiquity: mens sana in corpore sano (a sound mind in a sound
body)
Middle Ages:
man as a sinful creature
salvation only through God and a pious life
Evil and the Devil as a permanent threat Persistent influence of
the platonic teachings:
strong opposition body-soul, material-spiritual
dichotomy good versus bad music Saint Augustine (354-430):
era of the Church Fathers (early Christian writers)
Confessiones (Confessions)
under the spell of Ambrosian chant in Milan o enjoying the music
in itself = mortal sin o music reinforcing the Word of God = divine
gift
RENAISSANCE BAROQUE EARLY MODERN EUROPE 15th 18th century
Cultural changes:
self-awareness of man
theocentrism (theo-)anthropocentrism
process of secularisation
Antiquity sets the example Growing royal power (absolutism;
Louis XIV) development of a court culture:
Italy (Florence, Milano, Mantua,)
Duchy of Burgundy (Brussels, Philip the Good)
Paris Baldassare Castiglione, Il libro del cortigiano (The Book
of the Courtier, 1528):
music = a holy matter
harmony of the spheres
soul affected by music Shakespeare , The Merchant of Venice
(mid-1590s): the sweet power of music
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Reformation:
16th century
attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church
establishment of the Protestant Churches
Calvin (1509-1564):
uneasy about power of music
unaccompanied congregational singing of psalms
aversion of instrumental music
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531): total banning of music
Martin Luther (1483-1546): music as magnificent gift of God song
of the congregation hymn Eine feste Burg ist unser Gott (A Mighty
Fortress is our God)
Healing qualities of music Robert Burton (1577-1640), Anatomy of
Melancholy (1621) Conclusion Blanning, p.11:
In short, with the exception of the grim Franco-Swiss reformers,
Europeans have always cherished music especially when performed
collectively (whether by Athenians, Jews, medieval monks,
Protestant congregations or whomever).
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STATUS OF THE MUSICIAN ANTIQUITY musicians often slaves
Aristotle, Politics:
music = essential part of education (moral improvement)
professional performers (payment) = vulgar MIDDLE AGES Boethius
ca 480 ca 524 De institutione musica division into three types:
musica mundana
musica humana
musica instrumentalis music as a science:
music = a science of numbers (part of the quadrivium)
true musician = philosopher (clerics!)
performers and composers (!) driven by instinct Lay musicians
Jongleurs (jugglers):
perform tricks, tell stories, sing or play instruments
itinerant
precarious living
low status Minstrels:
more specialized musicians (from 13th century on)
itinerant
often employed at court or city
varied backgrounds (former clerics, sons of merchants and
craftsmen, knights Troubadours / Trouvres:
poet-composers in medieval France (12th 13th century)
supported by the many castles and courts all over the
country
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Blanning: most came from the margins of polite society
Christopher Page: study of 15 troubadours:
5 clergymen
4 poor knights or their sons
3 sons of townsmen
2 former artisans Burkholder, Grout & Palisca on troubadours
and trouvres social background:
nobles e.g. Guillaume IX, duke of Aquitaine (1071-1126)
sons of servants at court e.g. Bernart de Ventadorn (ca 1130 ca
1200)
families of merchants, craftsmen, or even jongleurs acceptance
into aristocratic circles because of:
accomplishments in poetry and music
adoption of the value system and behaviour practiced at court
actual performance often entrusted to jongleur or minstrel German
Minnesinger (Minnesnger):
12th 14th century
knightly poet-musicians
e.g. Walther von der Vogelweide (ca 1170 ca 1230)
EARLY MODERN EUROPE musicians growing self-confidence e.g.
Josquin des Prez (ca 1450 - 1521):
career in France (Louis XI) and Italy (duke of Ferrara, house of
Este)
independent in his behaviour important factor = music print
Ottaviano Petrucci (1466-1539), Venice compare to the visual
arts:
higher prestige
importance of visual representation
Michelangelo (1475-1564) o Il Divino (The Divine One) o first
Western artist whose biography published during his own
lifetime
(Giorgio Vasari / Ascanio Condivi)
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basic problem for musicians fickleness, capriciousness of
princely patrons Claudio Monteverdi 1567-1643 music director at the
court of Mantua:
1607: Orfeo
1612: Vincenzo Francesco Gonzaga
abrupt dismissal 1613 maestro di capella in Venice, St Marks
Basilica 1620 Mantuans try to recover him Monteverdi refuses and
makes his point in a famous letter:
income, regularly paid out
permanent appointment (security)
control over his musicians and singers
respect working in a Republic > serving a princely patron?
Johann Sebastian Bach 1685-1750 Weimar 1708-1717:
court organist / Konzertmeister (1714)
no perspective of further promotion (Kapellmeister)
attractive offer by prince of Anhalt-Cthen
gets imprisoned / unfavourable discharge Anhalt-Cthen
1717-1723:
prince Leopold
Kapellmeister (music director)
1721 Leopold x Fredericka Henriette of Anhalt-Bernburg Leipzig
1723-1750:
cantor of the St Thomas Church
employed by the town council
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moving from West to East examples of artistic despotism Prussia
Frederick the Great (1740-1786) Gertrude Elizabeth Mara
(1749-1833):
1774: London offer
1780: illness
weight of slavery
O Libert! Russia society:
tsarist autocracy
magnates
serfdom serf = unfree person, bound to the land
musicians:
serf troupes maintained by magnates
position often complicated and ambiguous: o relatively well-paid
o emancipation o corporal punishment
Sheremetev family:
> 8,000 km of land compare Belgium: 30,528 km
200,000 registered serfs (approx. one million in real terms)
Saint Petersburg palace (Fountain House) (> 300 servants)
splendid theatre buildings in the summer houses (French opera!):
o Kuskovo Palace (east of Moscow)
burns down in 1789 o Ostankino Palace (north of Moscow)
opens in 1795 room for 260 spectators
Conclusion Blanning, p. 15:
the subservient status of even the greatest singers and
composers was the rule in courts large and small.
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Further illustrations Empress Maria Theresa (1717-1780) manual
for her son Archduke Ferdinand (1754-1806):
table illustrating social hierarchy
musicians at the very bottom (along with beggars and actors)
advice to Ferdinand, then governor of the Duchy of Milan, on Mozart
(1771):
you dont need a composer or any other useless people (gens
inutiles)
it brings service into disrepute when these people roam around
the world like beggars (comme gueux)
Joseph Haydn and the Esterhzy family Joseph
Haydn(1732-1809):
Rohrau (south east of Vienna)
son of a wheelwright
1740: choirboy in St. Stephens Cathedral (Vienna) Esterhzy
family:
Hungarian magnates
main residence: Eisenstadt (50 km south of Vienna)
1761 Haydn is appointed deputy director of music
(Vice-Capel-Meister) employment contract between Prince Paul Anton
and Haydn detailed enumeration of Haydns duties:
exemplary conduct
strict dress code for performances: o white stockings, white
shirt o powdered o wig o identical appearance
servant-composer The said Vice-Capel-Meister shall be under
permanent obligation to compose such pieces of music as his Serene
Princely Highness may command, and neither to communicate such new
compositions to anyone, nor to allow them to be copied, but to
retain them wholly for the exclusive use of his Highness; nor shall
he compose for any other person without the knowledge and gracious
permission of his Highness.
complete unbalance in the clauses regarding the ending of the
contractual relation
Haydn: o probationary period of 3 years o 6 months notice before
leaving
Prince: free at all times to dismiss him from service
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relation Haydn - Prince Esterhazy feudal bond between lord and
vassal:
personal (moral) relation
paternalism
submissive language
substantial payments in kind (wine, firewood, wheat, beef,
candles, cabbages, a pig)
real contract presupposes equality between the parties to the
contract music for baryton:
derived from the viola da gamba
cumbersome and difficult to play (Blanning)
favourite instrument of Prince Nicholas (1762-1790)
126 pieces (1765-1778) Farewell Symphony symphony no 45 in F
sharp Minor (1772) context:
Esterhza summer palace Versailles of Hungary opera house (500
spectators)
in the middle of nowhere
musicians living there without their families
closing adagio: musicians one by one snuffing their candle and
leaving the room
return to Eisenstadt Haydn revolutionary:
good-natured, easy-going (Papa Haydn)
grown up and socialized in the society of the Ancien Rgime
(masters and servants)
Haydns greatest frustration = isolation / restrictions on his
freedom of movement: frustration grows as time goes on examples of
self-pity (1790):
Esterhaza = my wilderness
It really is sad to be a slave, but Providence wills it so.
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HANDEL, HAYDN AND THE LIBERATION OF THE MUSICIAN HAYDN AND THE
PUBLIC SPHERE Haydn 1790 Nicolas Anton = characteristic critical
moment of succession:
disbanding of the court orchestra and opera company
Haydn takes advantage: o lifelong, comfortable pension o
permission to travel
London journeys, 1791-1792, 1794-1795 offer from the impresario
Johann Peter Salomon (1745-1815) England:
collapse of royal absolutism (Stuarts) Glorious Revolution, 1688
Bill of Rights, 1689 constitutional monarchy parliament
free enterprise society of movers and doers dynamism
London:
Blanning: the Eldorado of musicians
one million inhabitants
London Season: o parliamentary sessions o concentration of
elites (upper class) and wealth
Haydns situation = ambiguous:
isolation as court servant of the Esterhzys
notoriety, even fame in London Blanning, p. 18:
Haydn was fortunate that his career coincided with a massive
expansion of music printing and publishing. Although printing had
been possible since the late fifteenth century, not until the
middle of the eighteenth did something approaching a mass market
begin to develop. This was an integral part of a much wider
phenomenon the emergence of a public sphere.
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elements:
expansion of towns / promotion of urban values
rise of consumerism / commercialisation of leisure
proliferation of voluntary associations (reading clubs, choral
societies, masonic lodges,)
improvement of communications and postal services result = a new
kind of cultural space into which musical entrepreneurs eagerly
moved mushrooming of publishing houses after c. 1750:
1745 Breitkopf (Leipzig) technical innovations (movable type
process) commercial techniques
(catalogues, advertising, distribution networks, mail-order)
> 100 workers
1767 Artaria (Vienna)
1770 Schott (Mainz) Haydn:
1763 harpsichord divertimento in Breitkopfs catalogue
[] music published and sold in Paris, Amsterdam, London
1779 revision of contract (removal of restrictions)
by the 1780s international reputation:
composing for patrons all over Europe (e.g. 6 Paris Symphonies,
ordered by the Loge Olympique)
music readily available for sale across Europe Francisco Goya
(1746-1828):
portrait of the Duke of Alba (1795)
holding a Haydn score (Four Songs with Pianoforte Accompaniment)
efforts at self-promotion:
flattering portrait by Johann Ernst Mansfeld (1738-1796)
(1781)
engraved, reproduced, advertised for sale by Artaria Blanning,
p. 24
In short, by the time Haydn really did reach London on New Years
Day, 1791, the musical public was ready and waiting.
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A NEW HANDEL? Haydn Handel London musical public willingness to
embrace German-speaking musicians GEORG FRIEDRICH HNDEL 1685-1759
London period Georg Frederick Handel 1710-1759 Blanning: Handel =
an early demonstration of how a musician could become rich and
famous through the public sphere
musical entrepreneur
paying public
wealth + social status A Statue in the Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens
Handel-statue:
Louis-Franois Roubiliac (1738)
homage by Jonathan Tyers
Orpheus-posture Vauxhall Pleasure Gardens
c 1660 1859
Kennington (South of the Thames)
free entrance until 1785
food and drink for sale main venue for fashionable society:
to see and be seen
walks
concerts, balls, fireworks
rococo structures (pavilions): o Turkish tent (1744) o
chinoiserie style o fashionable drinks: coffee, tea, hot
chocolate
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Jonathan Tyers (1702-1767):
John Barrell, Times Literary Supplement, 25 January 2012:
Vauxhall pleasure gardens, on the south bank of the Thames,
entertained Londoners and visitors to London for 200 years. From
1729, under the management of Jonathan Tyers, property developer,
impresario, patron of the arts, the gardens grew into an
extraordinary business, a cradle of modern painting and
architecture, and... music.... A pioneer of mass entertainment,
Tyers had to become also a pioneer of mass catering, of outdoor
lighting, of advertising, and of all the logistics involved in
running one of the most complex and profitable business ventures of
the eighteenth century in Britain.
1749: rehearsal of Handels Music for the Royal Fireworks
audience of 12,000 Imitations:
Paris (1760s)
Brussels (1781, Parc de Bruxelles) Handel as a national hero to
the English Handels tomb in Westminster Abbey, London Statue by
Louis-Franois Roubiliac, 1761 Westminster Abbey:
coronation, wedding and burial site for the English (British)
monarchs
tombs of famous British subjects Pantheon in Paris
Handels tomb = indication of:
personal status
sacralisation of his art Handel does never fall into
oblivion:
first book-length biography devoted to a musician John
Mainwaring, Memoirs of the Life of the Late George Frederic Handel
(London, 1760)
1784: 5 commemorative concerts o Westminster Abbey / Pantheon
(Oxford Street) o main event attended by the royal family (George
III)
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THE BEST OF TWO WORLDS HAYDN IN LONDON 17911792 / 1794-1795 warm
welcome:
newspapers invitations for dinner
financially rewarding:
6,000 guilder in 6 months
net profit: c. 15,000 guilder
compare annual salary at Esterhzy court: 1,000 to 1,200 guilder
Hanover Square Rooms:
1775
first purpose-built concert hall in London
private enterprise
Sir John Gallini (1728-1805) Swiss-Italian dancing-master mover
and doer
Johann Christian Bach / Carl Friedrich Abel subscription
concerts
SACRALISATION music:
functional valued for its own sake
religion art sacralisation of music
concert hall church building:
audience seated as if it were a congregation
orchestra in a chancel-like space: o platform fenced off by a
rail o organ taking the place of the altar
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COMMERCIALISATION commercialisation impact on the content of an
art form
size of the orchestra: o Esterhzy court: 14-22 players
permanent charge for the prince o London concerts: 50 to 60
players
unique context of the metropolis musicians recruited from a much
larger pool hired by the season or even the concert
stimulating interaction between composer and his audience H.C.
Robbins Landon: The music reflects the atmosphere of fin de sicle
London: assured, disputatious, intriguing, eccentric, open-minded
yet sensitive
PUBLIC RECOGNITION Oxford:
honorary doctorate, 7 July 1791
on the proposal of Charles Burney (1726-1814)
Sheldonian Theatre (Christopher Wren)
Symphony no. 92 in G (Oxford) (1789)
emblematic of his emergence as a celebrity HAYDN RETURNS TO THE
ESTERHZYS! Advantages ( Monteverdi in Venice):
comfortable income
security
control
prestige In sole command of large musical establishment of high
quality:
instruments
space
library
orchestra
unlimited rehearsal time Prince Nicholas Esterhzy, discerning
and tolerant:
room for artistic experimentation Sturm und Drang symphonies
(late 1760s early 1770s)
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Haydn manages to have the best of both worlds: aristocratic +
public cultural icon of the Habsburg monarchy:
national anthem Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser (God Save Emperor
Francis) God Save the King 1797 threat of revolutionary France
27 March 1808, University of Vienna gala performance oratorio
The Creation birthday present Prince von Trauttmansdorff reception
committee: Prince Lobkowitz, Prince Esterhzy, Beethoven orchestra
conducted by Antonio Salieri
Blanning, p. 29:
At the beginning of his career, Haydn became famous because he
was the Kapellmeister for the Esterhzys; by the time he died, the
Esterhzys were famous because their Kapellmeister was Haydn.
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MOZART, BEETHOVEN AND THE PERILS OF THE PUBLIC SPHERE WOLFGANG
AMADEUS MOZART 1756-1791 painful struggle for recognition and
emancipation Biography:
1756-1773: childhood / travelling as child prodigy
1773-1781: employment at the Salzburg court
1781-1791: freelance composer-performer in Vienna SALZBURG
PERIOD Salzburg Court of archbishop Hieronymous Count von Colloredo
relation patron-servant bad luck
Colloredo = narrow-minded and unappreciative
chain of humiliations e.g. eating with the valets and cooks
Mozarts revolt Mozart Haydn:
generation younger
extensive travelling as a child prodigy
encouraged in social aspirations by his ambitious father
Leopold
lively temperament June 1781 Count Arcos notorious kick on the
arse servant freelance composer and performer revolutionary
step:
socially: leap in the dark, or at least the unknown
personally: sharp conflict with his father Leopold
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VIENNA 4 sources of income:
commissions for new works
ticket sales from concerts as a pianist
royalties from publishers
music lessons 1787: appointment as imperial chamber composer
(800 guilders annually) Mozart, gifted and energetic, lives well in
Vienna:
comfortable accommodations
horse and carriage
wardrobe of an aristocrat Major flaw in his condition dependency
on the (high) nobility:
private concerts in their palaces
main presence at public concerts: o Academies o subscription
concerts
noble connoisseurs:
exceptionally high level of musical education
receptive to innovative music of high quality
Countess Thun Count Cobenzl Prince Galitzin Archduke Maximilian
Franz (brother of Joseph II)
nobility diplomatic corps Gottfried Freiherr van Swieten ( 1733
Leiden 1803 Vienna):
son of Maria Theresas personal physician
Jesuit college
diplomatic career
prefect of the Imperial Library (1777)
Councillor of State under Joseph II
freemason 1786 Gesellschaft der Associierten:
society of music-loving nobles
veneration for the old masters
silence
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one of Mozarts main patrons:
salon of Countess Thun
conductor at the Gesellschaft (1788) financial support
introduces Mozart to the music of Bach and Handel
counterpoint
late 1780s Mozart confronts financial problems:
moves 4 times in 18 months
loans from friends explaining elements:
1786: Le Nozze di Figaro
1788: illness Constanze
1787-1790: war with the Turks:
exodus of noble army officers
contraction of cultural life in Vienna
Europe-wide economic recession from 1790 on recovery
1791: La Clemenza di Tito / Die Zauberflte
international reputation invitations from London to St.
Petersburg
1791: Mozart dies of rheumatic fever Caution! Mozarts alleged
poverty and falling into oblivion to a large extent the product of
romantic imagination creation of a legend financial problems =
shortage of liquid assets (short term) recovery had started
achievement recognised in public and private memory venerated
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LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN 1770-1827 builds on the achievement of
Haydn and Mozart raising the status of both music and the musician
to unprecedented heights PUBLIC SPHERE COMES TO AGE 19th century
breakthrough of a substantial market for music:
improvements in music print: use of steam engines
manufacturing industry of musical instruments (piano)
middle class demand in cities Beethoven to Franz Gerhard Wegeler
29 juni 1801:
My compositions earn me a great deal, and I can say that I have
more orders than is possible for me to fulfill, and for every
piece, I have 6, 7 publishers and more if I wanted to, and one does
not negotiate with me, anymore, I demand and one pays, you see,
that this is a beautiful situation,
STATUS 1809 Beethoven gets an attractive offer from Jerome, king
of Westphalia (Kassel) 3 aristocrats coalesce to keep Beethoven in
Vienna lifelong annual income of 4,000 guilder prince Lobkowitz
prince Kinsky archduke Rudolph (brother Francis I)
Observations:
Beethoven clearly recognised as a man of genius
relation more akin to friendship than patronage Beethoven only
wants to be treated on equal terms
dedications as friend, not as supplicant e.g. archduke Rudolph
(piano concerto no 5, Archduke trio, Missa Solemnis)
Beethoven thinking of himself as being the son of Frederick
II
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Beethoven has attitude
appearance
behaviour
deafness first musician to become the centre of a cult, a legend
in his own time Beethoven worshipped by fans all over Europe
(fanatic) admirers want to know how their hero looked like
unprecedented visual access
Franz Klein life mask 1812 portrait bust
Blanning: passionate, indomitable, exciting, untamed, above all
original BEETHOVENS DEATH AND FUNERAL artists standing manner in
which his death is marked Mozart 1791 anonymous grave Beethoven
1827 Beethoven 1827: sense and awareness of an historical
moment:
autopsy locks of hair drawing and death mask by Josef Danhauser
(1805-1845) last words: Pity, pity too late!
(Schade, schade, zu spt) funeral: grand and formal event:
formal invitations
school holiday declared by the authorities
funeral procession: o 36 torch bearers (Schubert) o 10,000
30,000 onlookers
Whring cemetery: o oration written by dramatist Franz
Grillparzer o only deity recognised = music per se
Beethoven as its high priest sacralisation of music
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BEETHOVEN AND 19TH-CENTURY STATUOMANIA Bonn Beethoven-monument
(1845) Ernst Julius Hhnel (1811-1891) Mnsterplatz Involvement of
Franz Liszt Vienna Beethoven Monument (1880) Kaspar von Zumbusch
(1830-1915) Beethovenplatz RELATION TO THE MUSICAL PUBLIC
Beethoven:
sense of aristocracy
distanced from the general public developments
noble connoisseurs (Lichnowsky, Lobkowitz) subject to
substantial financial pressures: o wars 1787-1815 o dissolution of
their musical establishments
growth of population emerging public sphere (middle classes)
larger musical public cultural participation as social pressure
keeping up appearances public concerts impresarios profit
Blanning p. 44
These paying audiences were given what they wanted, and that was
easy listening in the form of plenty of variety, good tunes,
regular rhythms and pieces that were not too long or demanding.
pot-pourris popular overtures, operatic arias, dance tunes at
best a single movement of a symphony or concerto
Haydn/Mozart/Beethoven Italians complex music simple enjoyment
complaint of vulgarisation Beethoven: It is said vox populi, vox
dei- I never believed it
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ROSSINI, PAGANINI, LISZT THE MUSICIAN AS CHARISMATIC HERO
GIOACCHINO ROSSINI 1792-1868 Stendhal (1783-1842) Vie de Rossini
(1824)
Light, lively, amusing, never wearisome, but seldom exalted
Rossini would appear to have brought into this world for the
express purpose of conjuring up visions of ecstatic delight in the
commonplace soul of the Average Man
stupendous success popular adulation middle classes in Italy
even popular among layers of the working class public sphere has
come of age musician enters spheres previously reserved for kings
and generals Stendhal:
Napoleon is dead; but a new conqueror has already shown himself
to the world; and from Moscow to Naples, from London to Vienna,
from Paris to Calcutta, his name is constantly on every tongue. The
fame of this hero knows no bounds save those of civilisation
itself; and he is not yet thirty-two! The task which I have set
myself is to trace the paths and circumstances which have carried
him at so early an age to such a throne of glory.
In the rich mans world 1829 Rossini retires 1855 Rossini settles
in Paris:
protagonist of Paris society
jours cultural, diplomatic, financial elite
atmosphere of luxury, fashion and opulence gourmand tournedos
Rossini (foie gras, truffle)
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Rossini as charismatic musician charisma:
original meaning: gift from God
19th century secularisation purely internal quality derived
exclusively from the personal qualities of the individual
archetype of the modern charismatic leader = Napoleon Bonaparte
extraordinary force of his personality, charm, authority, sense of
destiny, self-assurance 1804 places the imperial crown on his own
head power of personal myth in the cultivation of public
opinion