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484 ؼ ا ؼخ ط١جخ: ٣داة غخ اغخ عب ١خ، ا ؼذدزبعؼخالإغب ـ 1441, 19 ، ا
"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English
and Arabic Discourse
Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
Department of English Language and Literature
Faculty of Arts, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
[email protected]
Abstract:
This paper is an attempt to study and investigate the
semantic and syntactic features of the English items till and
until and compare them with their equivalent in Arabic,
ħattaa. The study is qualitative in nature drawing primarily
upon books. To achieve the goal of the study, the researcher
relies on different viewpoints of some linguists who study
the English items till and until (Swan (1983), Quirk et al
(1985), Leech and Svartvik (1994), Freeborn (1995), and
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
Quirk and Greenbaum (1996)), and the linguists who study
the Arabic item ħattaa (Hassan (1973), Al-afghany (1977),
As-sayyed (1977), Jacob (1983), Ibn Jinny (1988), Al-
muradi (1992), Al-anbari (1995), and Al-fawzan (2003)).
The study exhibits different viewpoints about the subject.
For till and until, it is mentioned that they are used to
perform the functions of a preposition and conjunction
conveying the meanings of duration, purpose, or result. On
the other hand, the Arabic item, ħattaa, can be used as a
preposition, conjunction, introductory particle, and causative
particle. Arab linguists have cast light on the meanings
achieved by the use of ħattaa. These meanings include
indicating the last point of the temporal action (duration)
(?intihaa?u ?al-γaϳa: ازبء اغب٠خ اضب١خ), the end of direction
((?intihaa?u ?al-γaϳa: ازبء اغب٠خ اىب١خ(, the utmost end of
any feature (?al-γaϳa: اغب٠خ أ طفخ), 'cause or purpose'
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486 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
(?at-ta؟liil: ازؼ١), result (?an-natiiʤah: از١غخ(, exclamation
(?at-ta؟aʤub: ازؼغت(, and exception (?al-?istiθnaa?: الاعزضبء).
Keywords: Till; until; ħatta; prepositions;
conjunctions
1. Introduction
Contrastive studies are a complicated area of investigation
since they compare languages from different cultural and
linguistic heritage together in order to identify similarities
and differences between the languages compared. Thus, this
study is a modest attempt to investigate just one category in
both English and Arabic and to shed light on some features
of "till/", "until" and "ħattaa" with regard to their functions
and meaning.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Till and Until
Till and until are items that some grammarians have paid
attention to as two word classes, i,e. as prepositions and as
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
conjunctions according to the kind of complement each item
introduces.
Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik, (1985)
suggest that until, which is used almost equally as a
conjunction and a preposition, occurs more frequently than
its variant till. However, till, which is not commonly used as
a subordinator, is mainly used in spoken texts and
"predominantly as a preposition (p. 534)". For example:
- They will live in Chicago until William finishes his thesis.
(until is a conjunction)
- She will be working till nine o'clock. (till is a preposition)
In their book "A University Grammar of English",
Quirk and Greenbaum (1995) argue that till and until, as
prepositions, are used "almost exclusively as prepositions of
time (p. 155) and can be followed by different structures
such as:
(a) a temporal noun phrase (e.g. till / until next year)
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488 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
(b) a subjectless V-ing clause (e.g. till / until leaving school)
(c) a noun phrase with a deverbal noun (i.e. a noun derived
from a verb other than the gerund) or some other noun
phrase interpreted as equivalent to a clause (e.g. until the fall
of Rome = until Rome fell)
For Leech and Svartvik (1994), until and till can be
used in specific constructions to indicate the meaning of
"duration". For example, they can replace the preposition to
in the construction from … to … )from Monday to (until)
Friday) provided that from is not absent (p. 87). In addition,
until or till as a preposition and as a conjunction with a state
verb signals the terminal point of a period in positive
structures:
- You're to stay in bed until next Monday. (i.e. from
now to next Monday)
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
In negative structures, until can be used with event verbs to
give a meaning similar to before and to indicate the
commencement point of a period:
- He didn't start to read until he was ten. (= He didn't
start to read before he was ten)
Leech and Svartvik (ibid.) clarify that what determines
the class of till or until is the structure that follows each:
- I did not have glasses till I was eight. (till is a
conjunction)
- I did not have glasses till eight. (till is a preposition)
According to Swan (1983, sec. 611) until and till have
exactly the same meaning that indicates time. Additionally,
Swan clarifies when until can be used correctly: "Until is
used when we talk about a continuing situation or state that
will stop at a certain moment in the future." (p. 611)
Freeborn (1995, pp. 251-252), in his turn, claims that
the meaning of the adverbial clause is defined more clearly
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490 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
by some traditional labels with conjunctions that relate to
them. Among the examples given is the conjunction until
that is used to introduce adverbial clauses of time.
2.2 Ħattaa
Ħattaa is the Arabic particle (ħarf: ؽشف( with which till and
until share some features. Concerning its usage, ħattaa
seems to have several functions and expresses various
meanings according to many Arab linguists.
In his book "?al-ʤana ?ad-danii Fii huruuf ?al-
ma؟anii", Al-muradi (1992) states that ħattaa is a particle
that has three functions: a preposition (ħarf ʤar: ؽشف عش),
conjunction (ħarf ؟atf: ؽشف ػطف(, and introductory particle
(ħarf ?ibtidaa?: ؽشف إثزذاء) according to Basra linguists. The
Kufic linguists add a fourth function as a causative particle
(ħarf naşb: ؽشف ظت). Al-muradi believes that the
prepositional ħattaa conveys the meaning of "the terminal
point of the action' (?intihaa?u ?al-γaϳa: ازبء اغب٠خ). This
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
means that the action extends over a period up to a specific
point in the future, provided that the object of the
preposition is an explicit noun (not a pronoun), and the
object is the last part of the noun that comes before ħattaa,
for example:
akaltu ?s-samakata?)سأعب ؽزىخ أوذ اغ -
ħattaa ra?siha)
- I ate the fish, until (up to) its head.
It is not necessary for the object of the prepositional ħattaa
to be included in the action. This is completely different
when ħattaa is a subordinate conjunction.
Although ħattaa is more popular as a preposition, it
sometimes appears as a subordinating conjunctive particle
)ħarf ؟atf: ؽشف ػطف(. In this situation, the noun after ħattaa
has to meet the following conditions:
(1) it has to be a part or part-like of the noun that precedes
ħattaa, for example:
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492 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
(qadema ?l-ħuʤaaʤu ħattaa ?l-muʃatu( اؾغبط - ؽزلذ
اشبح.
- The pilgrims came even the pedestrians. (pedestrians
are part of the pilgrims)
)qadema ?ş-şaϳaduuna ħattaa kilaabuhum) - لذ
ولاث. ؽزاظ١بد
– The hunters came even their dogs. (dogs are part-like
of hunters)
(2) it has to indicate the utmost end of any feature attributed
to the noun that precedes ħattaa. (?al-γaϳa: اغب٠خ), for
example: the maximum degree of generosity or the
maximum degree of stinginess.
(3) it has to be a single item not a clause.
The third function as an introductory particle (ħarf
?ibtidaa?: ؽشف إثزذاء) indicates the meaning of the utmost
end of any feature of the noun that precedes ħattaa (?al-γaϳa:
according to the linguists of Al-Basra. It is worth (اغب٠خ
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
mentioning that ħattaa has to be followed by a clause to
perform this function.
The Kufic linguists, as Al-muradi (ibid.) and Jacob (1983)
show, suggest that ħattaa can be used as a causative particle
)ħarf naşb: ؽشف ظت) expressing two meanings: 'cause or
purpose' (?at-ta؟liil: ازؼ١) and the terminal point of the
action (duration) which, then, can be replaced by ?ilaa ?an
()إ أ "up to".
For Ibn Jinny (1988, p. 76-77), ħattaa may function
as a preposition, conjunction, and a resumption
(introductory) particle after which a new structure begins.
Al-fawzan (2003, p. 251) focusses on one function of
ħattaa as a preposition that indicates the "end of the period
or direction' (?intihaa?u ?l- γaϳa: ازبء اغب٠خ اضب١خ أ اىب١خ),
for example:
)sahirtu ?al-laϳlata ħattaa ?al-faʤri ) افغش. ؽزعشد ا١خ -
- I stayed up till the approach of the daybreak.
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494 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
(the action of staying up extended over a period and stopped
when the daybreak approached)
Al-anbari (1995, pp. 240-241), Ibn Hisham (1960),
Sarhan (2007), and As-sayyed (1977, p. 348) agree upon
that ħattaa can be used as a preposition, as a conjunction,
and as an introductory particle.
Al-afghany (1977, p. 331) believes that ħattaa may
function as (1) a preposition that signals the terminal point
of a period (duration) as illustrated by the following
example:
- I stayed up until the morning. (sahirtu
ħattaa ?aş-şabaaħi( اظجبػ. ؽزعشد -
(morning was the last point of the action of staying up that
went on over a period of time),
and (2) as a conjunction with the meanings of 'cause or
purpose' (at-ta؟liil) and the end of the period or direction'
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
(?intihaa?u ?l- γaϳa: ازبء اغب٠خ اضب١خ أ اىب١خ). The
following two examples clarify the last two meanings:
-Work hard in order to (to) win.
)?iʤtahid ħattaa tafuuz) رفص. ؽزاعزذ -
(winning is the purpose of working hard, and working hard
is the cause of winning)
- ħafiðtu ?l-qur?aanaعسح اجمشح. ؽزؽفظذ امشآ و
kullahu ħattaa suurata ?l-baqarati) (
- I memorized the whole Quran even surat al-Baqara.
(the action of memorizing is complete and it includes Surat
Al-Baqarah)
In the four volumes of his book "?an-naħu ?al-waafii",
Hassan )1973( studies ħattaa thoroughly and talks in details
about its three functions as a preposition, conjunction, and
introductory particle mentioning the exact situations and
possible meanings for each by using many examples.
Hassan confirms that the prepositional ħattaa has three
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496 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
meanings: the 'cause or purpose' (?at-ta؟liil), exception (?al-
istiθnaa?(, or the utmost end of any feature that relates to the
unit before ħattaa (?al-γaϳa: اغب٠خ). The latter sense is shared
with ħattaa as an introductory particle )ħarf ?ibtidaa?: ؽشف(
.اثزذاء
Otherwise, ħattaa as a subordinating conjunction shows the
sense of "the end of the period or direction" (?intihaa?u-?al-
γaϳa: ازبء اغب٠خ اضب١خ أ اىب١خ).
3. Findings and Discussion
Since till / until, and ħattaa show some similarities and
differences as have been illustrated in
the previous section, in what follows, the researcher will
present some evidence to show that till / until, and ħattaa
can be used to perform similar functions and convey similar
meanings, in addition to some distinct features of ħattaa.
3.1 The Meaning of "Duration"
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
(1) They will live in Chicago until William finishes his
thesis.
(2) She will not leave till her brother gets there.
(3) The performance lasted until 2 a.m.
(4) She will be working till nine o'clock.
The sentences above, which are used by Quirk et al
(1985, pp. 533-534), prove that each of till and until,
which carry strong semantic content of time, can be used
to give the meaning of duration. In each sentence, the
action continues over a period up to a specific point
indicated by either till or until. In sentences (1) and (2),
until and till are subordinate conjunctions that introduce
adverbial clauses whereas sentences (3) and (4) use till
and until as prepositions followed by noun phrases.
Frank (1972), in his turn, provides some examples to
shed light on the meaning of extended time (i.e. duration) if
only the last point is given (pp. 164, 216):
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498 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
(5) I cannot see you until / till five o'clock. (until/ till are
prepositions)
(6) Let's sit out here till the sun sets. (till is a
subordinate conjunction)
(7) We'll wait inside until the rain stops. (until is a
subordinate conjunction)
In the examples above, till and until are used to mark the
time up to which the situation in the clause or phrase
applies.
Like till and until, the Arabic particle ħattaa may
function as a preposition implying duration as the
following examples illustrate:
(nimtu ħattaa maţla؟i ?l-faʤri( ذ ؽز طغ افغش. (8)
- I slept till/ until the appearance of dawn.
The-( ٠ضداد اؾش بس اظ١ف ؽز رغ١ت اشظ. 9)
summer heat increases until the sunset.
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
)ϳazdaadu ?l-ħarru nahaara ?aş-şaϳfi ħattaa taγiiba ?aʃ-
ʃamsu(
u ?al- qiţaaru ħattaaؾطخ. ( ٠غشع امطبس ؽز ٠ذخ ا10)
ϳadxula ?al-maħaţata(؟)ϳusri
- The train speeds up until getting into the station.
Hassan (1973, p. 335) uses examples (9) and (10) to
clarify that ħattaa is a particle that gives the meaning of
duration. In these two examples, ħattaa is a preposition
that indicates a continuous situation or the last point of
the action (?intihaa?u ?al-γaϳa: ازبء اغب٠خ اضب١خ(. In this
case, it is necessary for ħattaa to be followed by a noun,
noun phrase, or verbal clause.
3.2 The Meaning of "Purpose"
(11) Larry polished the table until he could see his face in it.
In this sentence, the subordinate conjunction until has a
meaning comparable to conjunctions of purpose such as:
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500 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
"that" or "in order that" since the subject of the until-clause
is the same as the subject of the main clause (Larry and he).
Consequently, the following sentence sounds quite
acceptable:
(12) Larry polished the table in order that he could see his
face in it.
In Arabic, this meaning is apparently common with
the preposition ħattaa that can be translated into to or in
order to as the following examples show:
- (s?aʤtahidu ħattaa ?afuuza(أفص. ؽزعأعزذ (13)
I will work hard to (in order to) win.
. ؽز( ششثذ اذاء 14) θaribtu ?ad-dawaa?a ħattaa(أطؼ
?aşşiħħa(
-I took the medicine to (in order to) recover.
Replacing ħattaa with kaϳ (و) in these sentences is an
obvious signal of purpose:
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
و، ششثذ اذاء )s?aʤtahidu kaϳ ?afuuza(أفص. وعأعزذ
. )θaribtu ?ad-dawaa?a kaϳ ?aşiħa(أطؼ
3.3 The Meaning of "Result"
Until / till clauses or phrases may indicate result as well as
time. This sense is clear in the following examples from
Quirk et al (ibid, pp. 1081, 1083):
(15) She massaged her leg until it stopped hurting.
It is obvious that until, which is a subordinate conjunction in
this sentence, corresponds to "with the result that …." or
"so that" signaling the result of the action stated in the main
clause.
(16) Larry polished the table until you could see his face in
it.
Because the subject of the main clause and that of the until-
clause are not coreferential (they do not refer to the same
antecedent), until may convey the meaning of result in
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502 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
addition to the meaning of time )…as a result, you could see
his face in it).
Similarly, ħattaa seems to reflect the meaning of
result, along with the meaning of time, when it is used with
verbal clauses in the past tense:
- He worked hard. As a result, he succeeded.(؟amila biʤidin
ħattaa naʤaħa( ثغذ غؼ. ؽزػ (17)
)rakaᵭtu limasaafatin ţawiilatin ħattaa ta؟ibtu) سوضذ
رؼجذ. ؽزغبفخ ط٠خ (18)
- I ran for a long distance. As a result, I got tired.
In addition to what has been discussed, it is fitting to
mention some meanings and functions that are exclusively
connected with ħattaa as shown below:
3.4 Exception (?al-istiθnaa?: العرصاء)
Exception is one of the meanings of the Arabic particle
ħattaa as the following example illustrates:
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
)laa ϳaşluhu ?alwalii lilħukmi ħattaa ϳaltazima ?al؟adla)
اؼذي. ؽزلا ٠ظؼ اا ؾى ٠زض (19)
- The governor can not rule unless he is committed to
justice.
Hassan (1973, p. 337) claims that ħattaa can be used to give
the meaning of exception if it can be replaced by ?illaa ?an
without causing any change to the general meaning of )إلا أ)
the structure: لا ٠ظؼ اا ؾى اؼذي. إلا أ ٠زض )laa ϳaşluhu
?alwalii lilħukmi ?illaa ?an ϳaltazima ?al؟adla)
3.5 Reaching the utmost end of any feature (?al-
γaϳa: انغاح(
This is another meaning that ħattaa can convey. It can be
used to indicate the maximum degree of the noun. The
following points are good examples:
ثببي ( ٠جخ ا20) lam ϳabxali ?alγaniϳϳu(ا٢لاف. ؽزغ
bilmaali ħattaa ?al?aalaafi)
- The rich man donated money even thousands.
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504 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
.I ate the fish even its head -سأعب. ؽز( أوذ اغىخ 21)
(?akaltu ?as-samakata ħattaa ra?sahaa(
In these two sentences, ħattaa is a subordinate conjunction
that requires only a noun or noun phrase to follow it. This
noun or noun phrase points out the maximum degree of the
noun that precedes ħattaa.
This meaning, along with the sense of exclamation,
can be viewed with ħattaa as an introductory particle (ħarf
?ibtidaa?: ؽشف اثزذاء) to introduce a new clause. Mas'oud
(1992, p. 294) provides the first example to support this
point:
- Even my friend betrays me! ( ħattaa
şadiiqii ϳaxuununii( طذ٠م ٠خ! ؽز (22)
This point gains more clarity with the next example:
)ϳaa lil؟aʤabi! Ħattaa Zaϳdun ʃatamanii( !ص٠ذ ؽز٠ب ؼغت
(23) شز.
- I am surprised! Even Zaid said bad words to me!
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
4 Conclusion
In this contrastive study, the researcher highlights the
semantic and syntactic features of the two categories till and
until on the one hand, and ħattaa on the other. The study has
revealed that there are some similarities and differences
between these two categories in function and meaning. In
function, both categories can be used as prepositions and as
subordinate conjunctions in addition to the exclusive
functions of ħattaa as an introductory particle and as
causative particle. With regard to the meaning, duration,
result, and purpose are the meanings signaled by till and
until. Nevertheless, the semantic scope of ħattaa extends to
cover the senses of exception (?al-istiθnaa?: الإعزضبء), the
utmost end of any feature attached to the noun before ħattaa
(i.e. the maximum degree of the noun (?al-γaϳa: اغب٠خ)), the
end of a period or direction (?intihaa?u-?al-γaϳa: ازبء اغب٠خ
.)ازؼغت :aʤub؟and exclamation (?t-ta ,(اضب١خ أ اىب١خ
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506 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
References
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507
"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
Al-afghani, S. (1977). Al-moujaz fii Qawa'ed Al-lughatil-
arabiyya Wa shawahediha. 3rd
ed. Dar Al-Fikr: Beirut.
Al-anbari, A. (1995). Kitab Asrar al-arabiyyah. 1st ed. Val.
By Fakhr Qadarah. Dar Al-Jeel: Beirut.
Al-fawzan, A. (2003). Ta'jeel An-nada besharh Qatr An-
nada. 4th ed. Maktabat Ar-rushd: Ar-riyaᵭ.
Al-muradi, H. (1992). Al-jana ad-dani fii hurouf al-ma'ani.
1st ed. Val. By Fakhrudiin Qabawa and Muhammad
Fadhel. Dar Al-Kutub Al-ilmiyah: Beirut.
As-sayyed, A. (1977). Fi 'Elm An-nahu. 4th ed. Dar Al-
ma'aaref: Cairo.
Hassan, A. (1973). An-nahu Al-wafi. 4th
vol. 3rd
ed. Dar Al-
ma'aref: Cairo.
Ibn Hisham, A. (1960). Mughni Al-labeeb 'an Kutub Al-
a'areeb. 1st vol. Val. By: Muhammad Abdul-hameed.
Matba'atu Al-madani: Cairo.
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508 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
Ibn Jinny. (1988). Kitab Al-luma' fii Al-arabiyya. 1st ed. Val.
By: Fa'ez Fares. Dar Al-amal: Irbid, Jordan.
Mas'oud, J. (1992). Ar-Ra'ed. 7th
ed. Dar Al-'elm
lilmalayeen: Beirut.
Sarhan, H. (2007). Qamous Al-adawat An-nahwiyyah. 1st ed.
Maktabat Al-eman: Al-mansourah, Egypt.
Yacoub, E. (1983). Mu'jam Al-e'rab Wal-emlaa'. 1st ed. Dar
Al-'elm Lilmalaayiin: Beirut.
Frank, M. (1972). Modern English: A Practical Reference
Guide. Prentice-Hall: USA.
Freeborn, D. (1995). A Course Book in English Grammar.
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ed. Palgrave: London.
Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (1994). A Communicative
Grammar of English. 2nd
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York.
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"Till", "Until" and "Ħattaa" in English and Arabic Discourse
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1985).
A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.
Longman: England.
Quirk, R. & Greenbaum, S. (1996). A University Grammar
of English. 30th
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Swan, M. (1983). Practical English Usage. Oxford:
London.
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510 Dr. Mariam Mohammad Abdel-Aziz Al-Momani
انغرخهص
" until "يعتبر هذا البحث محاولة لدراسة السؿات الدلقة والـحقية للأداتقـ:
"till " بالؾغة الإكجؾقزية، ومؼاركتفؿا بؿا يرادففؿا بالؾغة العربقة مـ حروف. وقد
اطتؿدت الباحثة في جؿع مادة البحث طؾك الؿعؾقمات الؿتقافرة بالؽتب بشؽؾ
العديد مـ الؿتخصصقـ بالؾغتقـ العربقة أساسل، حقث قامت بدراسة أراء
يعؼقب (،1977(، افغاني )1973واكجؾقزية، ومـ أبرزهؿ طؾك التقالل: حسـ )
(، الػقزان 1995(، اكباري )1992(، الؿرادي )1988(، ابـ جـل )1983)
(2003 ،)Swan(1983) ،Quirk et al (1985)،Leech and Svartvik
(1994) ،Freeborn (1995) ثبلإضبفخ إQuirk and
Greenbaum (1996).
وقد تقصؾت الدراسة إلك أن اداتقـ السابؼ ذكرهؿا يصـػان في الؾغة الإكجؾقزية
ضؿـ قسؿقـ مـ أقسام الؽلام وهؿا: حرف جر، وحرف ططػ للإشارة إلك الؿدة
د أضفرت الدراسة الزماكقة، أو الؿؽاكقة، أو الغاية، أو الـتقجة. وطلاوة طؾك ذلؽ، فؼ
أن للأداة حتك في الؾغة العربقة وضائػ طدة؛ حقث يؿؽـ اطتبارها حرف جر، و
حرف ططػ، و حرف ابتداء، وكذلؽ حرف كصب. ولؽؾ مـفا معان مختؾػة تدل
طؾقفا كاكتفاء الغاية الزماكقة أو الؿؽاكقة، التعؾقؾ، استثـاء، الـتقجة و التعجب.
. until؛ till؛ حتك؛ حرف جر؛ حرف ططػ: الؽؾؿات الؿػتاحقة