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Recent literature extols Tibetan medicine andits plants (Kletter and Kriechbaum 2001; Dash1994), often giving the impression that there isone centralized practice. Like Chinese andAyurvedic medical systems, Tibetan medicinehas a central core of historic literary referenceworks, called “the four Tantras” (rgyud bzhi)which define and describe the Tibetan medicalsystem. This core of literary texts (written intheir present form in the 12th century) togetherwith later commentaries (such as the 17th cen-tury “Blue Beryl treatise”) are still commonlyaccepted as the scholarly foundation of Tibetanmedicine. However, the existence of such a com-monly accepted literary basis does not imply astatic or uniform system of knowledge and prac-tice. Ghimire, McKey, and Aumeeruddy-Thomas
(2005) have broken ground in appreciating varia-tion within Tibetan medical traditions in Nepal.The fact that similar variation has existed formany centuries is evidenced by Tibetan textsfrom the 16th century that bear witness to con-flicting views of the “proper” way of learningand practicing Tibetan medicine (Schaeffer2003). The origin of Tibetan medicine is in itselfdiverse and from the beginning has been charac-terized by the existence of different lineages orschools. Not only have there been strong influ-ences from Indian and Chinese medical systems,but also from pre-Buddhist Bön, Middle Eastern,and Greek medical systems, and from localherbal practices (Beckwith 1979).
Through the first half of the 20th century, Ti-betan medicine retained a diversity of schoolsand practitioners, including not only Buddhistmonks, but also professional secular medicalpractitioners (with their own schools) and localhealers, who often incorporated pre-Buddhist
Tibetan Medicine Plurality1
Jan Salick, Anja Byg, Anthony Amend, Bee Gunn, Wayne Law,and Heidi Schmidt
Salick, Jan (Curator of Ethnobotany, Missouri Botanical Garden, P.O. Box 299, St. Louis,MO 63166; e-mail: [email protected]), Anja Byg (Post-doctoral Fellow, Missouri Botan-ical Garden), Anthony Amend (Senior Herbarium Assistant, Missouri Botanical Garden;present address: Department of Botany, University of Hawaii at Manoa; e-mail:[email protected]), Bee Gunn (Research Specialist, Missouri Botanical Garden; e-mail:[email protected]), Wayne Law (Ph.D. candidate, Missouri Botanical Garden; e-mail:[email protected]), and Heidi Schmidt (Senior Herbarium Assistant, MissouriBotanical Garden; e-mail: [email protected]). Tibetan Medicine Plurality. Eco-nomic Botany 60(3):227–253, 2006. Tibetan medicine historically has had multiple medicallineages, despite ancient, shared literary medical canons. However, since the second half ofthe 20th century in Tibet, increasing state control and commoditization has lead to centraliza-tion and standardization of Tibetan medicine. Here we investigate how much variation in theuse of medicinal plants remains in contemporary Tibetan medicine. Medicinal plants usedand/or sold by fifteen Tibetan medical institutions, markets, and doctors, as well as two addi-tional non-Tibetan markets, are inventoried and vouchered (where allowed). The data are or-dered by Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling. Four distinct groups are defined: (1) govern-ment recognized Tibetan medical institutions and their disciples both in Lhasa and elsewhere,(2) local herbal doctors near Mt. Khawa Karpo, eastern Himalayas, (3) Tibetan medicinalmarkets in Lhasa and near Mt. Khawa Karpo, and (4) non-Tibetan medicinal markets nearDali and Kunming, Yunnan. This clearly documents the plurality of Tibetan medical tradi-tions—official, local, and market—while differentiating these from non-Tibetan markets.
Key Words: Tibetan medicine, markets, cultural variation, medicinal plants.
1 Received 13 September 2005; accepted 17 May2006.
shamanistic practices in their treatments(Cantwell 1995; Janes 1995). During the Cul-tural Revolution, Tibetan medicine was stigma-tized as feudalistic and superstitious. Manymonasteries and medical institutions wereclosed, medical texts destroyed, and medicalpractitioners sent to labor camps and preventedfrom practicing (Janes 1995; Cantwell 1995).Reforms in the 1980s rehabilitated Tibetanmedicine, which is now seen as a cheap and ef-ficient way to provide health care in rural areas.
This development is similar to what has hap-pened in other Asian countries where traditionalmedical systems have been incorporated into na-tional health care systems (Holliday 2003). Theincorporation of traditional medicinal systemshas been recommended by the World Health Or-ganization (WHO 2002) as a means to improvehealth care access for the rural poor. Along withgovernmental recognition of traditional medi-cine, WHO promotes national and internationalregulation and control of treatment and practi-tioners. This route has been followed in Tibet,where increasing official acceptance of Tibetanmedicine has entailed increasing state control.The teaching of Tibetan medicine has been cen-tralized and secularized around the Mentsikhangschool of medicine in Lhasa (Janes 1995). Onlygraduates of the Mentsikhang school are offi-cially allowed to practice in state supported Ti-betan clinics and hospitals. As a result, much ofthe variation in Tibetan medicine in the form ofdifferent medical lines or schools has been lost(Janes 1995).
In addition to increasing state regulation, Ti-betan medicine has, like many other traditionalmedical systems, experienced an increasingcommoditization beginning in the 1990s (Janes1999). The reasons are twofold (Janes 1999;Fischer 2005). First, reforms in the health caresystem required hospitals and clinics to financea larger share of their budget themselves, intro-ducing consultation fees and higher prices formedicines. Second, external demand (from non-Tibetan China, as well as India, Nepal, andwestern countries) for Tibetan medicine hasbeen skyrocketing. The health care sector wasthus one of the few areas in Tibet experiencinginflation at the end of the 1990s, while all othersectors experienced stagnating prices. Since Ti-betan areas are among the most impoverishedin China, this medicinal economic sector waspromoted to alleviate poverty.
228 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60
The number of people participating in Ti-betan medicinal markets has escalated dramati-cally, from the herbal collectors to investors inmedicinal production plants. Unfortunately,aside from the field collectors and factory la-borers, the Tibetan medicinal industry tends tobe controlled by non-Tibetans (Fischer 2005).The commoditization has led to increasing de-mands for standardized products and services,which can be subjected to quality control,adding further impetus to the state’s efforts atformalizing Tibetan medicine. Commoditiza-tion has therefore contributed further to the ho-mogenization of Tibetan medicine. Both com-moditization and state policies have had theirstrongest impacts in Lhasa and other urban cen-ters (Cantwell 1995; Janes 1995, 1999). Mean-while, rural areas mainly have been affected bya general decrease in the availability of healthcare from the end of the 1990s (Janes 1999;Fischer 2005).
Here we investigate how state interjection,commoditization, and local traditions affect Ti-betan medicine in Lhasa and a distant easternTibetan realm, known traditionally as the Menrior Medicine Mountains. To this end we com-pare the medicinal plant species used by differ-ent sectors of the medical system—formal Ti-betan hospitals and clinics, Tibetan medicinalmarkets, and local herbalist healers—in thesetwo localities. In addition, we compare these el-ements with nearby eastern outgroups—medici-nal markets in Dali (ethnically Bai) and Kun-ming (ethnically Han), Yunnan, China—whichgives a sense of where Tibetan medicine fitswithin a larger context.
Study SitesMount Khawa Karpo, (Fig. 1; 6,740m,
28°26’20”N latitude, 98°41’05”E longitude) issituated on the border in the extreme northwestof Yunnan and southeast of Tibet. It is the high-est peak of the Menri (“Medicine Mountains”in Tibetan, transliterated to Meili in Chinese),which are part of the Hengduan Mountains ofthe eastern Himalayas, the most biologically di-verse temperate ecosystems on earth (Mitter-meier et al. 1998). Mount Khawa Karpo is oneof the eight sacred mountains in Tibetan Bud-dhism and is circumambulated by thousands ofpilgrims from all over Tibet each year. Locally,the area is predominantly Kham Tibetan, withtraditional village livelihoods based on agricul-
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 229
Fig. 1. In Lhasa, Dechen, Dali, and Kunming, medicinal plants were censused in Tibetan medicalinstitutions, markets, and with Tibetan doctors of Tibet and northwest Yunnan.
ture, herding, forestry, and gathering (Salick,Yang, and Amend 2005). In the Menri there is arich tradition of herbalism, with doctors trainedlocally (Law and Salick n.d.), and thriving me-dicinal markets, as well as a state-supported Ti-betan clinic in the town of Dechen (pinyin:Deqin, formerly Atunze). The Medicine Moun-tains, as their name implies, are a traditionalarea for collecting Tibetan medicinal plants.
Lhasa (3,650m, 29°41.76’N 91°9.54’E) is lo-cated on the southern edge of the Tibetanplateau. Nearby mountains reach altitudes of upto 5,500m. Ethnically, Lhasa is originally cen-tral Tibetan. Nowadays, migrants from other re-gions of Tibet, as well as Han Chinese, make upa large proportion of the city’s population ofaround 200,000.
MethodsTibetan medicinal plants used near Khawa
Karpo by local doctors of various training, bythe formal clinic, and in markets are comparedto those used in Lhasa, Tibet, and in Dali andKunming, Yunnan. In Lhasa we inventoried me-dicinal plants at the Mentsikhang (Tibetan Hos-pital), the main Tibetan Medicine Factory, theTibetan Pharmacy in the Barkhor market (nearcentral Lhasa monastery, Jokhang), and the offi-cial, government licensed Tibetan MedicineMarket. Near Dali, Yunnan, we sampled thecentral warehouse of Bai medicinal plant mer-chants. In Kunming, Yunnan, we sampled thecentral Han Chinese medicinal market.
SamplingSampling varied by necessity; however, prior
informed consent was uniformly received withstipulations observed as follows. Optimally, forthe Kunming, Dali, Dechen, Sinong (nearKhawa Karpo), and Lhasa markets, as well asthe Barkhor Pharmacy in Lhasa and TibetanMedical Clinic in Dechen, vouchered plantsamples with scientific names are deposited atthe Missouri Botanical Garden. Less ideally,where we were not allowed to take samples,highly trained Tibetan doctors identified Ti-betan medicinal plants used at the Mentsikhangand the Tibetan Medicine Factory. With thesedoctors, we double-checked scientific namesagainst two standard Tibetan medicine manuals(Gawai Dorje 1995; Chinese Academy of Sci-ence 1996). Local herbalists near Khawa Karpowere interviewed (see Law and Salick n.d.), and
230 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60
for each, a list of their 20 most useful medicinalplants was recorded for which we ascribed sci-entific names with reference to a Tibetan medi-cine guide specific to Dechen (Yang 1987–89).Finally, to provide the most recent nomencla-ture, all these scientific names are referencedagainst the International Plant Names Index(IPNI, www.ipni.org) and the Flora of China(mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/foc.html). SeeAppendix.
AnalysesSince there are many congeneric species
differences over the geographic range of ourstudy, since specific epithets are not uniformlyattributed and vouchers were not always avail-able, and since many congeneric species areused for the same general purposes in Tibetanmedicine, we chose to analyze the data at thegeneric level.
To differentiate and group Tibetan medicaltraditions, Non-metric Multidimensional Scal-ing with the Jaccard Distance Measure is per-formed with PC–Ord 4 (McCune and Mefford1999). The binary presence-absence matrix isappended including both genus and species.
ResultsTibetan medical institutions and doctors
clearly group by the plants that are used (Fig.2). The tightest group is the formal Tibetanmedicine establishment of Lhasa including theMentsikhang Tibetan Hospital, the Barkhorpharmacy, the Tibetan Medicine Factory, aswell as the Dechen Tibetan Medical Clinic(sanctioned and supplied by Lhasa) and the onemonk practicing in the Khawa Karpo area whohas Lhasa training in Tibetan medicine. Theseinstitutions/people represent the official Tibetanmedicinal system, as it is taught and practicedin state-approved institutions.
Similar but distinct are the local doctors whopractice herbal medicine near Khawa Karpoand were mostly trained by a local medicinal“grand master.” As a group, these doctors aremore dispersed in the ordination than the Lhasagroup, indicating that their local uses of medic-inal plants are less uniform and more individu-alistic. A third group, more distant and moredispersed, includes the markets in Lhasa,Dechen, and Sinong and two self-taught localherbalists who began their career by collectingfor the market. Finally, the two out-groups—the
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 231
Fig. 2. Pluralism in Tibetan medicine, grouped by similarity of plant genera used, include the well-established Lhasa tradition (bottom right), local Tibetan doctors practicing near Mt. Khawa Karpo (centerright), and markets selling Tibetan plants (upper left). Medicinal markets outside of Tibetan cultural influence(lower left) are clearly distinct. Exceptions to these groups prove their integrity: for example, the one Decheninstitution falling within the Lhasa tradition is the state-run Tibetan Medicine Clinic that receives its storesfrom Lhasa; and two self-taught herbalists south of Dechen who used medicinal plants similar to those inmarkets learned medicine by collecting plants for such markets. This ordination is Non-metricMultidimensional Scaling with the Jaccard Distance Measure, performed with PC–Ord 4; the binary presence-absence matrix is appended.
Kunming Medicinal Market and the Dali cen-tral warehouse of Bai medicinal plant mer-chants—are ordered separately and not particu-larly close to each other, but clearly distinctfrom the Tibetan medical traditions.
DiscussionDespite the ancient, shared literary canons
and recent government centralization and mar-keting, Tibetan medicine is still by no means asingle entity (see also Ghimire, McKey, andAumeeruddy-Thomas 2005). Plants used ingovernment-sponsored Tibetan medicine—astaught and manufactured in Lhasa and practicedthroughout Tibet and China—are distinct fromthose used in Tibetan medicine as practiced byherbalists near sacred Mt Khawa Karpo, whichis again distinct from those which appear in Ti-betan medicinal markets, be they in Lhasa orKhawa Karpo or elsewhere. The government-sponsored medical institutions are the most ho-mogeneous in their plant use. In Lhasa, the in-fluence of state policies has been strongest: it isthere that the main state-approved medical in-stitutions (school, clinics, hospitals, and facto-ries) are located, but approved state institutionsoutside of Lhasa are also comparable. This ho-mogeneity seems to have arisen after the Cul-tural Revolution with the state centralizationand increasing commoditization of Tibetanmedicine. Although little documentation re-mains today, there were reportedly several dis-tinct medical lineages in Lhasa until the middleof the 20th century (Janes 1995).
In more rural areas, homogenizing forceshave been less influential and local Tibetanmedical traditions coexist (although withoutstate support or subsidy) with the officiallystate-sanctioned version of Tibetan medicine astaught in the Mentsikhang school. Conse-quently, more variation in the plant use of med-ical practitioners remains in rural areas.Nonetheless, the plants used by local medicalpractitioners of the Khawa Karpo region areclearly distinct from those used in Lhasa, thosein the government Tibetan medical clinic nearKhawa Karpo, and those of the one Lhasa-trained doctor in the Khawa Karpo area. Thesedifferences can be ascribed partly to locally dif-ferentiated traditions (with differt medical line-ages dominating in different parts of Tibet),partly to environmental variation of locallyavailable plant species, and potentially to varia-
232 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60
tion in the most prevalent types of afflictions indifferent areas. There is ample evidence thatlocal flora shapes local medicine; for example,the species of Lagotis that is used medicinallyvery much depends on location with L. alu-tacea dominating in Dechen, while in Lhasaseveral other species of Lagotis are used.
As shown elsewhere (Olsen 2005), com-moditization of Tibetan medicine has reducedthe materia medica and made it relatively uni-form between both Lhasa and Khawa Karpo.Interestingly, two self-trained herbalists whostarted as commercial medicinal collectorsclearly show evidence of their shared back-ground in the medicinal plants they use—typi-cal market fare.
Lhasa Tibetan medicine and commoditizedTibetan medicine support an extensive interna-tional trade with Persian (e.g., saffron), Indian(e.g., Terminalia bellerica and T. chebula), andother tropical medicinal plants (e.g., Cinnamo-mum spp., Elettaria sp. (actually imported fromcultivated stock in Guatemala!), and Zingiberspp. Local doctors in the Khawa Karpo arearely more on local plants that they collect them-selves, many of which are threatened (Law andSalick n.d.). However, local Tibetan doctorspose little apparent threat to medicinal plantsbecause they use very little of any one plantspecies, carefully guarding the plant popula-tions that they do use. Tibetan medicine mar-kets in Lhasa as well as Dechen also support anextensive trade in several threatened medicinals(e.g., Fritillaria spp., Panax spp., Saussureaspp.). In contrast to local doctors, market col-lectors often do not comply with traditionalcustoms or constraints (e.g., sacred sites; seeAnderson et al. 2005 and Salick et al. 2006), es-pecially where global demand has lead to in-crease in prices and required quantities (Olsenand Larsen 2003; Xu and Wilkes 2004; Olsenand Bhattarai 2005).
This commercial collection is of great concernbecause rampant collectors harvest and exportalready limited and stressed populations of valu-able medicinal herbs (Xu and Wilkes 2004; Kala2005). There are no exact figures for the harvestand trade of medicinal plants available fromTibet. In the Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture inNW Yunnan, estimates of income from non-timber forest products ranges between 25% and80% of earned income (Xu and Wilkes 2004;Zhang, Wang, and Geng 2000) with the most lu-
crative being Matsutake, a medicinal/culinarymushroom (He 2003; Yeh 2000; Yun, Hall, andEvans 1997). In Nepal an estimated 7,000–27,000 tons of medicinal plants are harvested peryear involving around 323,000 households or10% of rural households (Olsen 2005). Most ofthe harvest in Nepal is concentrated on a smallnumber of high value species, which make up ca.50 % of the total value and ca. 40% of the totalamounts collected. Many programs are being de-veloped around the world to cultivate medicinalherbs both for their conservation in natural habi-tats and for sustainable development (e.g., Longet al. 2003 in the eastern Himalayas; Silori andBadola 2000 in the western Himalayas). How-ever, many of these threatened Tibetan medicinalspecies are very difficult if not impossible to cul-tivate, while others take many years to matureand so are not profitable. In situ conservation andmanagement of these threatened species is ofhighest priority.
Tibetan medicine, in all its plurality, is distinctfrom Bai traditional medicine in Dali and fromHan (Chinese) traditional medicine in Kunming.Although trade and exchange of specific medici-nal plants are both historic and current betweenTibetan and other areas (Li et al. 2000), medicaltraditions remain distinct. Analogous to biodiver-sity, diversity of traditional medicine obviouslyexists at many levels: within traditions, amongtraditions, and on larger scales.
Unfortunately, the Chinese government onlyrecognizes and allows Tibetan clinics to be esta-blished by practitioners of Tibetan medicine for-mally trained in Lhasa. Local doctors in theKhawa Karpo and other areas are not recog-nized. Variation in cultural traditions is a sign ofadaptation and change (Pelto and Pelto 1975). Astrength of traditional medicinal systems is theirability to attend to the physical and psychologi-cal needs of people in ways that are culturallymeaningful (Janes 1995, 1999). While incorpo-ration into national health care may afford tradi-tional medical systems greater recognition, itwill also tend to increase regulation, standardi-zation, and the demand for testing according tobiomedical standards. This may lead to the dis-carding of more spiritual and local elements oftraditional medical systems (Janes 1995; Holli-day 2003). Rigid institutionalization may inhibitthe ability of traditional institutions to meet thechanging and locally differing needs of people(Janes 1995, 1999). Even though incorporation
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 233
of traditional medical systems into nationalhealth care has been promoted by the WorldHealth Organization as a means of ensuringgreater access to health care for all, this may notnecessarily be the result, especially when it iscoupled with greater commoditization.
This is the case in Tibet, where increased na-tional as well as foreign demand for Tibetanmedical treatment and medicines has resulted inincreasing prices (Janes 1999; Fischer 2005).Consequently, the inequity in health care accesshas increased during the last decade, both be-cause of government control and because ofmarkets. The most impoverished Tibetans, whohave no access to government-supported Tibetanclinics and/or who cannot afford the increasingcosts of treatment and manufactured Tibetanmedicines, are served only by traditional Ti-betan herbal doctors who collect their own med-icines in places like the Medicine Mountains.However, these highly knowledgeable and re-spected professionals are not recognized by thegovernment and so receive no support or recom-pense for their knowledge, dedication, or labor.Nonetheless, they carry on their ancient tradi-tion with boddhieitta.
AcknowledgmentsThis research was variously funded by the
Missouri Botanical Garden, The Nature Con-servancy, and National Science Foundation(#0408123). In Yunnan we are very grateful forsupport from the Kunming Institute of Botanyand the Shangrila Alpine Botanical Garden, andin Lhasa from the Tibetan Academy of Agricul-tural and Animal Sciences and the Tibetan Insti-tute of Biology. Our most profound apprecia-tion goes to the Tibetan medical experts whogave willingly of their time and expertise ontraditional medicinal plants.
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royl
ei(L
indl
.)K
achr
oo,
U.D
har
&N
aqsh
i1
1
Api
acea
eB
uple
urum
long
icau
leW
all.
exD
C.
11
Api
acea
eC
arum
carv
iL
.1
12
Lhasatraineddoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamarket
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Dechenmedicalinstitution
Dechenmarket
Dechenmarket
Othermarket
Othermarket
Totals
236 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60A
PP
EN
DIX
.C
on
tin
ued
Fam
ily
Sp
ecie
s
Api
acea
eC
nidi
umm
onni
eri
Cus
son
11
Api
acea
eC
oria
ndru
msa
tivu
mL
.1
11
3A
piac
eae
Cum
inum
cym
inum
L.
11
13
Api
acea
eF
erul
aas
sa-f
oeti
daL
.1
12
Api
acea
eFo
enic
ulum
vulg
are
Mil
l.1
11
3A
piac
eae
Her
acle
umca
ndic
ans
Wal
l.ex
DC
.1
1A
piac
eae
Lig
usti
cum
pter
idop
hyll
umF
ranc
h.ex
Gli
ver
11
2A
piac
eae
Lig
usti
cum
sine
nse
Oli
ver
11
Api
acea
eN
otop
tery
gium
fran
chet
iiH
.de
Boi
ssie
u1
1A
piac
eae
Not
opte
rygi
umin
cisu
mT
ing
exH
o-t.C
hang
11
Api
acea
eP
euce
danu
mvi
olac
eum
R.H
.S
han
&M
.L.
She
h1
1
Api
acea
eP
leur
ospe
rmum
nanu
mF
ranc
het
11
Api
acea
eP
leur
ospe
rmum
sp.
Hof
fm.
11
Api
acea
eSi
noli
mpr
icht
iaal
pina
H.W
olff
11
2A
piac
eae
Spha
ller
ocar
pus
grac
ilis
(Bes
ser
exT
revi
r.)K
oso-
Pol
.1
1
Apo
cyna
ceae
Hol
arrh
ena
anti
dyse
nter
ica
(L.)
Wal
l.ex
A.
DC
.1
12
Ara
ceae
Pin
elli
ate
rnat
a(T
hunb
.)B
reit
enb.
11
Ara
ceae
Ari
saem
aco
nsan
guin
eum
Sch
ott
11
Ara
ceae
Ari
saem
afla
vum
(For
ssk.
)S
chot
t1
1A
rali
acea
eA
rali
aqu
inqu
efol
iaD
ecne
.&
Pla
nch.
11
Ara
liac
eae
Pan
axgi
nsen
gC
.A.
Mey
.1
12
Ara
liac
eae
Pan
axps
eudo
gins
eng
Wal
l.1
11
14
Are
cace
aeP
hoen
ixda
ctyl
ifer
aL
.1
1A
reca
ceae
Arc
hont
opho
enix
sp.
H.W
endl
.&
Dru
de1
1A
reca
ceae
Are
caca
tech
uL
.1
11
14
Ari
stol
ochi
acea
eA
rist
oloc
hia
grif
fithi
iH
ook.
f.&
Tho
mso
nex
Duc
h.1
11
3
Lhasatraineddoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamarket
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Dechenmedicalinstitution
Dechenmarket
Dechenmarket
Othermarket
Othermarket
Totals
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 237A
rist
oloc
hiac
eae
Ari
stol
ochi
am
acro
carp
aC
.Y.
Wu
&S
.K.
Wu
exD
.D.
Tao
11
Ari
stol
ochi
acea
eA
rist
oloc
hia
mou
pine
nsis
Fra
nch.
11
2A
scle
piad
acea
eC
ynan
chum
vinc
etox
icum
(L.)
Per
s.1
1A
scle
piad
acea
eV
ince
toxi
cum
kom
arov
iiIj
insk
.1
1A
spar
agac
eae
Asp
arag
usfil
icin
usB
uch.
-Ham
.ex
D.
Don
11
11
4A
spar
agac
eae
Asp
arag
uslo
ngifl
orus
Fra
nch.
11
Asp
arag
acea
eA
spar
agus
myr
iaca
nthu
sF.
T.
Wan
g&
S.C
.C
hen
11
Ast
erac
eae
Ain
slia
eape
rtyo
ides
Fra
nch.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Aja
nia
khar
tens
is(D
unn)
Shi
h1
1A
ster
acea
eA
jani
ate
nuif
olia
(J.
Jacq
.)T
zvel
ev1
1A
ster
acea
eA
rcti
umla
ppa
L.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Art
emis
iaan
nua
L.
11
2A
ster
acea
eA
rtem
isia
dese
rtor
umS
pren
g.1
1A
ster
acea
eA
rtem
isia
hedi
nii
Ost
enf.
&P
auls
on1
1A
ster
acea
eA
rtem
isia
parv
iflor
aB
uch.
-Ham
.ex
Rox
b.1
1A
ster
acea
eA
rtem
isia
sive
rsia
naW
illd
.1
1A
ster
acea
eA
rtem
isia
sp.
L.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Art
emis
iave
stit
aW
all.
exB
esse
r1
1A
ster
acea
eA
ster
bata
ngen
sis
Bur
eau
etF
ranc
h.1
1A
ster
acea
eA
ster
him
alai
cus
C.B
.C
lark
e1
1A
ster
acea
eA
ster
meg
alan
thus
Y.
Lin
g1
1A
ster
acea
eA
ster
yunn
anen
sis
Fra
nch.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Cal
endu
laof
ficin
alis
L.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Car
duus
acan
thoi
des
L.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Car
tham
usti
ncto
rius
L.
11
2A
ster
acea
eC
irsi
umso
ulie
i(F
ranc
h.)
Mat
tf.
exR
ehde
r&
Kob
uski
11
Ast
erac
eae
Cos
mos
bipi
nnat
usC
av.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Cre
man
thod
ium
deca
isne
iC
.B.
Cla
rke
11
Ast
erac
eae
Cre
man
thod
ium
line
are
Max
im.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Cre
man
thod
ium
ling
ulat
umS
.W.
Liu
11
Ast
erac
eae
Cre
man
thod
ium
sp.
Ben
th.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Dol
omia
easo
ulie
i(F
ranc
h.)
C.
Shi
h1
11
3A
ster
acea
eE
rige
ron
brev
isca
pus
(Van
iot)
Han
d.-M
azz.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Eri
gero
nfla
ccid
us(B
unge
)B
otsc
h.1
12
Ast
erac
eae
Ger
bera
anan
dria
(L.)
Sch
.B
ip.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Gna
phal
ium
affin
eD
.D
on1
1
238 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60A
PP
EN
DIX
.C
on
tin
ued
Fam
ily
Sp
ecie
s
Ast
erac
eae
Gna
phal
ium
hypo
leuc
umD
C.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Het
erop
appu
scr
enat
ifol
ius
(Han
d.-M
azz.
)G
rier
son
11
Ast
erac
eae
Inul
ara
cem
osa
Hoo
k.f.
11
11
4A
ster
acea
eIx
erid
ium
grac
ile
(DC
.)J.
H.
Pak
&K
awan
o1
1A
ster
acea
eIx
eris
sp.
(Cas
s.)
Cas
s.1
1A
ster
acea
eK
alim
eris
smit
hian
us(H
and.
-Maz
z.)
S.Y
.H
u.1
1
Ast
erac
eae
Leo
ntop
odiu
mfr
anch
eti
Bea
uver
d1
1A
ster
acea
eL
igul
aria
virg
aure
a(M
axim
.)M
attf
.ex
Reh
-de
r&
Kob
uski
11
Ast
erac
eae
Pet
asit
estr
icho
lobu
sF
ranc
h.1
1A
ster
acea
eP
icri
shi
erac
ioid
esL
.1
1A
ster
acea
eP
ulic
aria
insi
gnis
J.R
.D
rum
m.
exD
unn
11
Ast
erac
eae
Pyr
ethr
umta
tsie
nens
e(B
urea
u&
Fra
nch.
)L
ing
exC
.S
hih
11
2
Ast
erac
eae
Saus
sure
aco
stus
(Fal
c.)
Lip
sch.
11
13
Ast
erac
eae
Saus
sure
agr
amin
eaD
unn
11
Ast
erac
eae
Saus
sure
ahi
erac
ioid
esH
ook.
f.1
1A
ster
acea
eSa
ussu
rea
lani
ceps
Han
d.-M
azz.
11
2A
ster
acea
eSa
ussu
rea
liki
ange
nsis
Fra
nch.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Saus
sure
am
edus
aM
axim
.1
12
Ast
erac
eae
Saus
sure
aob
vall
ata
(DC
.)E
dgew
.1
12
Ast
erac
eae
Saus
sure
apa
chyn
eura
Fra
nch.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Saus
sure
apa
xian
aD
iels
exH
.L
impr
.1
1A
ster
acea
eSe
neci
oso
lida
gine
usS
pren
g.1
12
Ast
erac
eae
Sene
cio
thia
nsch
anic
usR
egel
&S
chm
alh.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Sonc
hus
brac
hyot
usD
C.
11
Ast
erac
eae
Soro
seri
sgl
omer
ata
(Dec
ne.)
Ste
bbin
s1
1
Lhasatraineddoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamarket
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Dechenmedicalinstitution
Dechenmarket
Dechenmarket
Othermarket
Othermarket
Totals
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 239A
ster
acea
eSo
rose
ris
hook
eria
na(C
.B.
Cla
rke)
Ste
bbin
s1
1A
ster
acea
eSy
ncal
athi
umka
wag
uchi
i(K
itam
.)L
ing
11
Ast
erac
eae
Syno
tis
eryt
hrop
appa
(Bur
eau
&F
ranc
h.)
C.
Jeff
rey
&Y
.L.
Che
n1
1
Ast
erac
eae
Tage
tes
erec
taL
.1
1A
ster
acea
eTa
raxa
cum
sikk
imen
seH
and.
-Maz
z.1
1A
ster
acea
eTa
raxa
cum
tibe
tanu
mH
and.
-Maz
z.1
11
3A
ster
acea
eTe
phro
seri
sfla
mm
ea(T
urcz
.ex
DC
.)H
olub
11
Ast
erac
eae
Xan
thiu
msi
biri
cum
Pat
rin
exW
idde
r1
1B
erbe
rida
ceae
Ber
beri
sda
syst
achy
aM
axim
.1
1B
erbe
rida
ceae
Epi
med
ium
sp.
L.
11
Ber
beri
dace
aeM
ahon
iadu
clou
xian
aG
agne
p.1
1B
erbe
rida
ceae
Sino
podo
phyl
lum
hexa
ndru
m(R
oyle
)T
.S.
Yin
g1
11
3
Big
noni
acea
eIn
carv
ille
aar
guta
(Roy
le)
Roy
le1
1B
igno
niac
eae
Inca
rvil
lea
com
pact
aM
axim
.1
11
3B
igno
niac
eae
Oro
xylu
min
dicu
m(L
.)K
urz
11
Bom
baca
ceae
Bom
bax
ceib
aL
.1
12
Bor
agin
acea
eM
icro
ula
tibe
tica
Ben
th.
11
Bor
agin
acea
eO
nosm
aho
oker
iC
.B.C
lark
e1
11
3B
orag
inac
eae
Ono
sma
mul
tira
mos
umH
and.
-Maz
z.1
1B
orag
inac
eae
Asp
erug
opr
ocum
bens
L.
11
Bor
agin
acea
eC
ynog
loss
umw
alli
chii
G.D
on1
1B
orag
inac
eae
Eri
tric
hium
sino
mic
roca
rpum
W.T
.W
ang
11
Bra
ssic
acea
eN
eoto
rula
ria
hum
ilis
(C.A
.M
ey.)
Hed
ge&
J.L
eona
rd1
1
Bra
ssic
acea
eP
egae
ophy
ton
scap
iflor
um(H
ook.
f.&
Tho
m-
son)
C.
Mar
quan
d&
Air
yS
haw
11
11
11
6
Bra
ssic
acea
eR
apha
nus
sati
vus
L.
11
Bra
ssic
acea
eSi
napi
sal
baL
.1
11
3B
rass
icac
eae
Sisy
mbr
ium
hete
rom
allu
mC
.A.
Mey
.1
12
Bra
ssic
acea
eSi
sym
briu
min
dicu
mL
.1
1B
rass
icac
eae
Solm
s-L
auba
chia
eury
carp
a(M
axim
.)B
otsc
h.1
1
Bra
ssic
acea
eT
hlas
piar
vens
eL
.1
11
3B
rass
icac
eae
Bra
ssic
aca
mpe
stri
sL
.1
1B
rass
icac
eae
Bra
ssic
aju
ncea
(L.)
Cze
rn.
11
Bra
ssic
acea
eB
rass
ica
rapa
L.
11
2B
rass
icac
eae
Cap
sell
abu
rsa
(L.)
Med
ik.
11
240 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60A
PP
EN
DIX
.C
on
tin
ued
Fam
ily
Sp
ecie
s
Bra
ssic
acea
eC
arda
min
em
acro
phyl
laA
dam
s1
1B
rass
icac
eae
Des
cura
inia
soph
ia(L
.)W
ebb
exP
rant
l1
1B
rass
icac
eae
Dil
ophi
afo
ntan
aM
axim
.1
1B
rass
icac
eae
Dra
basp
.L
.1
1B
rass
icac
eae
Ery
sim
umbe
ntha
mii
Mon
net
11
Bra
ssic
acea
eL
epid
ium
apet
alum
Wil
ld.
11
Bud
dlej
acea
eB
uddl
eja
cris
paB
enth
.1
1B
uddl
ejac
eae
Bud
dlej
aof
ficin
alis
Max
im.
11
Bur
sera
ceae
Bos
wel
lia
cart
erii
Bir
dw.
11
Bur
sera
ceae
Com
mip
hora
myr
rha
(T.
Nee
s)E
ngl.
11
2C
aesa
lpin
iace
aeC
aesa
lpin
iacr
ista
L.
11
2C
aesa
lpin
iace
aeC
aesa
lpin
iasa
ppan
L.
11
Cae
salp
inia
ceae
Cas
sia
fistu
laL
.1
1C
aesa
lpin
iace
aeC
assi
ato
raL
.1
11
3C
ampa
nula
ceae
Cam
panu
lasp
.L
.1
1C
ampa
nula
ceae
Cod
onop
sis
cane
scen
sN
annf
.1
1C
ampa
nula
ceae
Cod
onop
sis
conv
olvu
lace
aK
urz
11
11
4C
ampa
nula
ceae
Cod
onop
sis
mac
roca
lyx
Die
ls1
1C
ampa
nula
ceae
Cod
onop
sis
nerv
osa
(Chi
pp)
Nan
nf.
11
2C
ampa
nula
ceae
Cya
nant
hus
sher
riffi
iR
.S.
Cow
an1
1C
ampa
nula
ceae
Pla
tyco
don
gran
diflo
rus
(Jac
quin
)A
.D
C.
11
Can
naba
ceae
Can
nabi
ssa
tiva
L.
11
Cap
rifo
liac
eae
Lon
icer
am
aack
iH
erd.
11
Cap
rifo
liac
eae
Lon
icer
am
icro
phyl
laW
illd
.ex
Roe
m.
&S
chul
t.1
1
Cap
rifo
liac
eae
Lon
icer
am
yrti
llus
Hoo
k.f.
&T
hom
son
11
Cap
rifo
liac
eae
Lon
icer
asa
ccat
aR
ehde
r1
1C
aryo
phyl
lace
aeSi
lene
gram
inif
olia
Ott
h.1
1C
aryo
phyl
lace
aeSi
lene
spL
.1
1C
aryo
phyl
lace
aeSi
lene
yeti
iB
ocqu
et1
1
Lhasatraineddoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamarket
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Dechenmedicalinstitution
Dechenmarket
Dechenmarket
Othermarket
Othermarket
Totals
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 241C
aryo
phyl
lace
aeA
rena
ria
fest
ucoi
des
Ben
th.
11
Car
yoph
ylla
ceae
Are
nari
aka
nsue
nsis
Max
im.
11
13
Car
yoph
ylla
ceae
Are
nari
ala
ncan
gens
isL
.H.
Zho
u1
1C
epha
lota
xace
aeC
epha
lota
xus
sine
nsis
(Reh
der
&E
.H.W
ilso
n)H
.L.
Li
11
Che
nopo
diac
eae
Che
nopo
dium
albu
mL
.1
1C
lavi
cipi
tace
aeC
ordy
ceps
sine
nsis
(Ber
k.)
Sac
c.1
11
11
5C
ombr
etac
eae
Qui
squa
lis
indi
caL
.1
1C
ombr
etac
eae
Term
inal
iabe
llir
ica
(Gae
rtn.
)R
oxb.
11
11
4C
ombr
etac
eae
Term
inal
iach
ebul
a(G
aert
n.)
Ret
z.1
11
11
5C
onif
erae
Juni
peru
sre
curv
aB
uch.
-Ham
.ex
D.
Don
11
Con
vall
aria
ceae
Oph
iopo
gon
bodi
nier
iH
.Lev
.1
1C
onva
llar
iace
aeP
olyg
onat
umci
rrhi
foli
um(W
all.)
Roy
le1
11
11
5C
onva
llar
iace
aeP
olyg
onat
umve
rtic
illa
tum
(L.)
All
.1
12
Con
volv
ulac
eae
Cus
cuta
euro
paea
L.
11
Cra
ssul
acea
eR
hodi
ola
cren
ulat
a(H
ook.
f.&
Tho
mso
n)H
.O
hba
11
11
4
Cra
ssul
acea
eR
hodi
ola
dum
ulos
a(F
ranc
h.)
S.H
.F
u1
1C
rass
ulac
eae
Rho
diol
aki
rilo
wii
(Reg
el)
Max
im.
11
2C
rass
ulac
eae
Sedu
mbu
lbif
erum
Mak
ino
11
Cra
ssul
acea
eSe
dum
tata
rino
wii
Max
im.
11
Cuc
urbi
tace
aeH
erpe
tosp
erm
umpe
dunc
ulos
um(S
er.)
C.B
.C
lark
e1
11
3
Cuc
urbi
tace
aeL
agen
aria
sice
rari
a(M
olin
a)S
tand
l.1
1C
ucur
bita
ceae
Luf
facy
lind
rica
(L.)
M.
Roe
m.
11
Cuc
urbi
tace
aeM
omor
dica
coch
inch
inen
sis
(Lou
r.)S
pren
g.1
1C
ucur
bita
ceae
Sira
itia
gros
veno
rii
(Sw
ingl
e)C
.Je
ffre
yex
A.M
.L
u&
Zhi
Y.
Zha
ng1
1
Cuc
urbi
tace
aeB
enin
casa
hisp
ida
(Thu
nb.)
Cog
n.1
1C
yper
acea
eC
yper
usro
tund
usL
.1
1D
icks
onia
ceae
Cib
otiu
mba
rom
etz
(L.)
J.S
m.
11
Dio
scor
eace
aeD
iosc
orea
cirr
hosa
Lou
r.1
1D
ipsa
cace
aeD
ipsa
cus
aspe
rW
all.
11
Dip
saca
ceae
Pte
roce
phal
usho
oker
i(C
.B.
Cla
rke)
L.
Die
ls1
11
14
Dip
saca
ceae
Trip
lost
egia
glan
duli
fera
Wal
l.ex
DC
.1
1E
laea
gnac
eae
Ela
eagn
usvi
ridi
sS
erve
ttaz
11
Eph
edra
ceae
Eph
edra
equi
seti
naB
unge
11
Eph
edra
ceae
Eph
edra
gera
rdia
naW
all.
exC
.A.
Mey
.1
1
242 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60A
PP
EN
DIX
.C
on
tin
ued
Fam
ily
Sp
ecie
s
Eph
edra
ceae
Eph
edra
min
uta
Flo
rin
11
Equ
iset
acea
eE
quis
etum
diff
usum
D.
Don
11
Equ
iset
acea
eE
quis
etum
ram
osis
sim
umD
esf.
11
Eri
cace
aeR
hodo
dend
ron
anth
opog
onoi
des
Max
im.
11
2E
ucom
mia
ceae
Euc
omm
iaul
moi
des
Oli
ver
11
Eup
horb
iace
aeE
upho
rbia
fisch
eria
naS
teud
.1
1E
upho
rbia
ceae
Eup
horb
iam
icra
ctin
aB
oiss
.1
1E
upho
rbia
ceae
Eup
horb
iare
gina
H.
Lev
.1
1E
upho
rbia
ceae
Eup
horb
iast
rach
eyi
Boi
ss.
11
2E
upho
rbia
ceae
Eup
horb
iaw
alli
chii
Hoo
k.f.
11
Eup
horb
iace
aeP
hyll
anth
usem
blic
aL
.1
12
Fab
acea
eA
brus
prec
ator
ius
L.
11
Fab
acea
eA
caci
aca
tech
u(L
.f.)
Wil
ld.
11
Fab
acea
eA
stra
galu
sad
surg
ens
Pal
l.1
1F
abac
eae
Ast
raga
lus
flori
dus
Ben
th.
exB
unge
11
Fab
acea
eA
stra
galu
spa
stor
ius
Tsa
i&
T.T
.Yu
11
Fab
acea
eA
stra
galu
sto
ngol
ensi
sU
lbri
ch1
12
Fab
acea
eA
stra
galu
syu
nnan
ensi
sF
ranc
h.1
12
Fab
acea
eB
utea
mon
ospe
rma
(Lam
.)Ta
ub.
11
Fab
acea
eC
anav
alia
glad
iata
(Jac
q.)
DC
.1
12
Fab
acea
eC
arag
ana
brev
ifol
iaK
om.
11
Fab
acea
eC
arag
ana
juba
ta(P
all.)
Poi
r.1
1F
abac
eae
Car
agan
ati
beti
caK
om.
11
Fab
acea
eE
ntad
aph
aseo
loid
es(L
.)M
err.
11
2F
abac
eae
Gly
cine
max
(L.)
Mer
r.1
1F
abac
eae
Gly
cyrr
hiza
ural
ensi
sF
isch
.ex
DC
.1
11
11
5F
abac
eae
Gue
lden
stae
dtia
him
alai
caB
aker
11
Fab
acea
eH
edys
arum
sikk
imen
seB
enth
.ex
Bak
er1
1F
abac
eae
Lab
lab
purp
ureu
s(L
.)S
wee
t1
1F
abac
eae
Len
scu
lina
ris
Med
ik.
11
Lhasatraineddoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamarket
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Dechenmedicalinstitution
Dechenmarket
Dechenmarket
Othermarket
Othermarket
Totals
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 243F
abac
eae
Med
icag
oar
chid
ucis
-nic
olai
Sir
jaev
11
Fab
acea
eM
elil
otus
offic
inal
is(L
.)P
all.
11
Fab
acea
eM
ille
ttia
sp.
Wig
ht&
Arn
.1
1F
abac
eae
Oxy
trop
isfa
lcat
a(G
reen
e)A
.N
elso
n1
1F
abac
eae
Oxy
trop
isoc
hroc
epha
laB
unge
11
Fab
acea
eO
xytr
opis
reni
form
isP.
C.
Li
11
2F
abac
eae
Oxy
trop
issu
bpod
olob
aP.
C.
Li
11
Fab
acea
eP
hase
olus
luna
tus
L.
11
Fab
acea
eP
hase
olus
vulg
aris
L.
11
2F
abac
eae
Pis
umsa
tivu
mL
.1
1F
abac
eae
Pso
rale
aco
ryli
foli
aL
.1
1F
abac
eae
Pte
roca
rpus
sant
alin
usB
uch.
-Ham
.ex
Wal
l.1
12
Fab
acea
eP
uera
ria
sp.
DC
.1
1F
abac
eae
Soph
ora
tonk
inen
sis
Gag
nep.
11
Fab
acea
eT
herm
opsi
sba
rbat
aB
enth
.1
1F
abac
eae
The
rmop
sis
lanc
eola
taR
.B
r.1
1F
abac
eae
Trig
onel
lafo
enum
-gra
ecum
L.
11
Fab
acea
eTr
igon
ella
ruth
enic
aL
.1
1F
abac
eae
Vic
iafa
baL
.1
1F
agac
eae
Que
rcus
sem
ecar
pifo
lia
Sm
.1
1G
anod
erm
atac
eae
Gan
oder
ma
sp.
11
Gen
tian
acea
eG
enti
ana
algi
daP
all.
11
2G
enti
anac
eae
Gen
tian
acr
assi
caul
isD
uthi
eex
Bur
kill
11
Gen
tian
acea
eG
enti
ana
rige
scen
sF
ranc
h.1
1G
enti
anac
eae
Gen
tian
asp
.L
.1
11
3G
enti
anac
eae
Gen
tian
ast
ipit
ata
Edg
ew.
11
2G
enti
anac
eae
Gen
tian
ast
ram
inea
Max
im.
11
11
4G
enti
anac
eae
Gen
tian
asz
eche
nyii
Kan
itz
11
2G
enti
anac
eae
Gen
tian
aur
nula
Har
ryS
m.
11
11
11
17
Gen
tian
acea
eG
enti
ana
veit
chio
rum
Hem
sl.
11
Gen
tian
acea
eG
enti
anop
sis
gran
dis
(Har
ryS
m.)
Ma
11
2G
enti
anac
eae
Gen
tian
opsi
spa
ludo
sa(M
unro
exH
ook.
f.)
Ma
11
Gen
tian
acea
eH
alen
iael
lipt
ica
D.
Don
11
2G
enti
anac
eae
Swer
tia
cili
ata
(D.
Don
exG
.D
on)
B.L
.B
urtt
11
13
Gen
tian
acea
eSw
erti
aco
rdat
a(W
all.
exG
.D
on)
C.B
.C
lark
e1
1
Gen
tian
acea
eSw
erti
afr
anch
etia
naH
arry
Sm
.1
1
244 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60A
PP
EN
DIX
.C
on
tin
ued
Fam
ily
Sp
ecie
s
Gen
tian
acea
eSw
erti
am
ulti
caul
isD
.D
on1
1G
enti
anac
eae
Swer
tia
mus
soti
Fra
nch.
11
Gen
tian
acea
eSw
erti
aw
olfg
angi
ana
Gru
ning
11
Ger
ania
ceae
Ger
aniu
mor
ient
ali-
tibe
ticu
mR
.K
nuth
11
2G
eran
iace
aeG
eran
ium
prat
ense
L.
11
Ger
ania
ceae
Ger
aniu
mpy
lzow
ianu
mM
axim
.1
1G
esne
riac
eae
Cor
allo
disc
uski
ngia
nus
(Cra
ib)
B.L
.B
urtt
11
Ges
neri
acea
eC
oral
lodi
scus
lanu
gino
sus
(Wal
lich
exR
.B
row
n)B
.L.
Bur
tt1
12
Gro
ssul
aria
ceae
Rib
eshi
mal
ense
Roy
leex
Dec
ne.
11
Hip
puri
dace
aeH
ippu
ris
vulg
aris
L.
11
Irid
acea
eC
rocu
ssa
tivu
sL
.1
11
14
Irid
acea
eIr
isbu
lley
ana
Dyk
es1
1Ir
idac
eae
Iris
goni
ocar
paB
aker
11
Irid
acea
eIr
isla
ctea
Pal
l.1
1Ir
idac
eae
Iris
pota
nini
iM
axim
.1
1Ju
ncag
inac
eae
Trig
loch
inm
arit
imum
L.
11
Lam
iace
aeA
juga
lupu
lina
Max
im.
11
2L
amia
ceae
Aju
gaov
alif
olia
Bur
eau
etF
ranc
h.1
1L
amia
ceae
Isod
onru
besc
ens
(Hem
sl.)
H.
Har
a1
1L
amia
ceae
Lag
opsi
ssu
pina
(Ste
phan
exW
illd
.)Ik
onn.
-G
al.
exK
norr
ing
11
Lam
iace
aeL
amio
phlo
mis
rota
ta(B
enth
.ex
Hoo
k.f.
)K
udo
11
2
Lam
iace
aeL
amiu
mam
plex
icau
leL
.1
1L
amia
ceae
Mar
mor
itis
com
plan
atum
(Dun
n)A
.L.
Bu-
dant
zev
11
Lam
iace
aeM
icro
mer
iaeu
osm
a(W
.W.
Sm
.)C
.Y.
Wu
11
Lam
iace
aeN
epet
aco
erul
esce
nsM
axim
.1
1L
amia
ceae
Phl
omis
beto
nico
ides
Die
ls1
12
Lhasatraineddoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamarket
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Dechenmedicalinstitution
Dechenmarket
Dechenmarket
Othermarket
Othermarket
Totals
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 245L
amia
ceae
Phl
omis
youn
ghus
hand
iiM
uker
jee
11
2L
amia
ceae
Salv
iapr
atti
iH
emsl
.1
1L
amia
ceae
Salv
iaro
boro
wsk
iiM
axim
.1
1L
amia
ceae
Salv
iaw
ardi
iE
.P
eter
11
Lam
iace
aeSc
utel
lari
aam
oena
C.H
.W
righ
t1
1L
amia
ceae
Stac
hys
kouy
ange
nsis
(Van
oit)
Dun
n1
1L
amia
ceae
Stac
hys
sp.
L.
11
Lam
iace
aeC
aryo
pter
isfo
etid
a(D
on)
The
ll1
1L
amia
ceae
Car
yopt
eris
tric
hosp
haer
aW
.W.
Sm
.1
1L
amia
ceae
Dra
coce
phal
umbu
llat
umF
orre
stex
Die
ls1
12
Lam
iace
aeD
raco
ceph
alum
hete
roph
yllu
mB
enth
.1
1L
amia
ceae
Dra
coce
phal
umta
ngut
icum
Max
im.
11
11
11
6L
amia
ceae
Els
holt
zia
cili
ata
(Thu
nb.)
Hyl
ande
r1
1L
amia
ceae
Els
holt
zia
dens
aB
enth
.1
1L
amia
ceae
Els
holt
zia
erio
stac
hya
(Ben
th.)
Ben
th.
11
Lam
iace
aeE
riop
hyto
nw
alli
chia
num
Ben
th.
11
Lam
iace
aeG
aleo
psis
bifid
aB
oenn
.1
1L
aura
ceae
Cam
phor
apa
rthe
noxy
lon
(Jac
k)N
ees
11
Lau
race
aeC
inna
mom
umca
ssia
(L.)
Pre
sl1
11
14
Lau
race
aeC
inna
mom
umw
ilso
nii
Gam
ble
11
2L
iche
nC
etra
ria
isla
ndic
a(L
.)A
ch.
11
Lic
hen
Tha
mno
lia
verm
icul
aris
(Sw
.)S
chae
r.1
1L
iche
nU
snea
dasy
poga
Roh
l1
1L
iche
nU
snea
long
issi
ma
Ach
.1
1L
iche
nX
anth
oria
fall
ax(H
epp.
)A
rn.
11
Lil
iace
aeF
riti
llar
iaci
rrho
saD
.D
on1
11
11
11
18
Lil
iace
aeF
riti
llar
iade
lava
yiF
ranc
h.1
11
3L
ilia
ceae
Lil
ium
brow
nii
F.E
.B
row
nex
Mie
llez
11
Lin
acea
eL
inum
usit
atis
sim
umL
.1
12
Log
ania
ceae
Stry
chno
snu
x-vo
mic
aL
.1
12
Lyc
oper
dace
aeC
alva
tia
cyat
hifo
rmis
(Bos
c)M
orga
n1
1L
ythr
acea
eP
unic
agr
anat
umL
.1
11
11
5M
agno
liac
eae
Mag
noli
aro
stra
taW
.W.S
m.
11
2M
alva
ceae
Abe
lmos
chus
mos
chat
us(L
.)M
edik
.1
11
14
Mal
vace
aeA
ltha
earo
sea
(L.)
Cav
.1
12
Mal
vace
aeH
ibis
cus
sabd
arif
faL
.1
1M
alva
ceae
Mal
vasi
nens
isC
av.
11
Mal
vace
aeM
alva
vert
icil
lata
L.
11
2M
elia
ceae
Mel
iasp
.L
.1
1
246 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60A
PP
EN
DIX
.C
on
tin
ued
Fam
ily
Sp
ecie
s
Men
ispe
rmac
eae
Step
hani
ade
lava
yiD
iels
11
2M
enis
perm
acea
eTi
nosp
ora
cord
ifol
ia(W
illd
.)M
iers
11
Men
ispe
rmac
eae
Tino
spor
asi
nens
is(L
our.)
Mer
r.1
12
Mor
acea
eM
orus
alba
L.
11
Mor
inac
eae
Mor
ina
alba
Han
d.-M
azz.
11
Mor
inac
eae
Mor
ina
koko
nori
caK
.S.
Hao
11
Myr
isti
cace
aeM
yris
tica
frag
rans
Hou
tt.
11
Myr
sina
ceae
Em
beli
ala
eta
(L.)
Mez
11
13
Myr
tace
aeE
ugen
iaar
omat
ica
O.B
erg
11
2M
yrta
ceae
Syzy
gium
cum
ini
(L.)
Ske
els
11
2N
elum
bona
ceae
Nel
umbo
nuci
fera
Gae
rtn.
11
Nyc
tagi
nace
aeO
xyba
phus
him
alai
cus
Edg
ew.
11
Ole
acea
eFo
rsyt
hia
susp
ensa
(Thu
nb.)
Vah
l1
1O
leac
eae
Fra
xinu
ssi
kkim
ensi
s(L
inge
lshe
im)
Han
del-
Maz
zett
i1
12
Ona
grac
eae
Epi
lobi
uman
gust
ifol
ium
L.
11
Orc
hida
ceae
Ble
till
ast
riat
a(T
hunb
.ex
Mur
ray)
Rch
b.f.
11
Orc
hida
ceae
Cyp
ripe
dium
tibe
ticu
mK
ing
exR
olfe
11
Orc
hida
ceae
Den
drob
ium
hook
eria
num
Lin
dl.
11
Orc
hida
ceae
Den
drob
ium
mul
tiflo
rum
Par
ish
&R
chb.
f.1
1O
rchi
dace
aeD
endr
obiu
mno
bile
Lin
dl.
11
Orc
hida
ceae
Gas
trod
iael
ata
Blu
me
11
11
11
6O
rchi
dace
aeG
ymna
deni
aor
chid
isL
indl
.1
11
3O
rchi
dace
aeH
aben
aria
sp.
Wil
ld.
11
Orc
hida
ceae
Orc
his
lati
foli
aL
.(?
)1
1P
aeon
iace
aeP
aeon
iave
itch
iiL
ynch
11
Pap
aver
acea
eC
oryd
alis
adun
caM
axim
.1
1P
apav
erac
eae
Cor
ydal
isbo
wer
iH
emsl
.1
1P
apav
erac
eae
Cor
ydal
isbu
lbif
era
C.Y
.W
u1
1P
apav
erac
eae
Cor
ydal
isca
lcic
ola
W.W
.S
m.
11
Lhasatraineddoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamarket
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Dechenmedicalinstitution
Dechenmarket
Dechenmarket
Othermarket
Othermarket
Totals
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 247P
apav
erac
eae
Cor
ydal
isco
nspe
rsa
Max
im.
11
2P
apav
erac
eae
Cor
ydal
isda
sypt
era
Max
im.
11
Pap
aver
acea
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alis
hend
erso
nii
Fed
de1
12
Pap
aver
acea
eC
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impa
tien
s(P
all.)
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ch.
exD
C.
11
Pap
aver
acea
eC
oryd
alis
line
aris
C.Y
.W
u1
1P
apav
erac
eae
Cor
ydal
ism
elan
ochl
ora
Max
im.
11
Pap
aver
acea
eC
oryd
alis
muc
roni
fera
Max
im.
11
Pap
aver
acea
eC
oryd
alis
nigr
o-ap
icul
ata
C.Y
.W
u1
1P
apav
erac
eae
Cor
ydal
ispa
chyp
oda
(Fra
nch.
)H
and.
-Maz
z.1
1P
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erac
eae
Cor
ydal
issp
.D
C.
11
13
Pap
aver
acea
eC
oryd
alis
tong
olen
sis
Fra
nch.
11
Pap
aver
acea
eC
oryd
alis
trac
hyca
rpa
Max
im.
11
Pap
aver
acea
eC
oryd
alis
yanh
usuo
W.T
.W
ang
exZ
.Y.
Su
&C
.Y.
Wu
11
13
Pap
aver
acea
eH
ypec
oum
lept
ocar
pum
Hoo
k.f.
&T
hom
son
11
13
Pap
aver
acea
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nric
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urea
u&
Fra
nch.
11
Pap
aver
acea
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opsi
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rrid
ula
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k.f.
&T
hom
son
11
13
Pap
aver
acea
eM
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opsi
sin
tegr
ifol
ia(M
axim
.)F
ranc
h.1
11
3P
apav
erac
eae
Mec
onop
sis
puni
cea
Max
im.
11
Pap
aver
acea
eM
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opsi
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intu
plin
ervi
aR
egel
11
Pap
aver
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rqua
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rain
11
13
Ped
alia
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11
13
Phy
tola
ccac
eae
Phy
tola
cca
acin
osa
Rox
b.1
12
Pin
acea
eP
icea
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hian
a(W
all.)
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ss.
11
Pin
acea
eP
inus
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bus
L.
11
Pip
erac
eae
Pip
ercu
beba
L.f
.1
1P
iper
acea
eP
iper
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umL
.1
11
3P
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acea
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nigr
umL
.1
12
Pip
erac
eae
Pip
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atum
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.1
1P
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11
2P
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essa
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ld.
11
13
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inac
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ntag
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osa
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Rox
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eP
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orL
.1
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.B.
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11
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mus
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11
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ceae
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abro
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.)P.
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uv.
11
Poa
ceae
Cym
bopo
gon
dist
ans
(Nee
sex
Ste
ud.)
Wil
l.Wat
son
11
248 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60A
PP
EN
DIX
.C
on
tin
ued
Fam
ily
Sp
ecie
s
Poa
ceae
Hor
deum
vulg
are
L.
11
2P
oace
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pera
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usch
.1
1P
oace
aeO
ryza
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vaL
.1
1P
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anic
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ilia
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11
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ceae
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nise
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flacc
idum
Gri
seb.
11
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ceae
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agm
ites
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rali
s(C
av.)
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ud.
11
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ceae
Phr
agm
ites
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rali
s(C
avan
ille
s)S
teud
el1
1P
oace
aeP
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osta
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.)M
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11
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ceae
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zost
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inen
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12
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ceae
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ica
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.1
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itic
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.1
12
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onum
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11
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ygon
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onum
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eri
Mei
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11
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ygon
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onum
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roph
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.D
on1
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onac
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.1
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onac
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ygon
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leac
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.1
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2P
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num
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uels
son
11
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11
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ygon
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onum
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onac
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11
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uels
son
11
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inal
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.1
11
3P
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onac
eae
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umpu
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axim
.1
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onac
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icif
orm
eR
oyle
11
2P
olyg
onac
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Rhe
umta
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(Max
im.
exR
egel
)M
axim
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Bal
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Pol
ygon
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11
Lhasatraineddoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamarket
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Dechenmedicalinstitution
Dechenmarket
Dechenmarket
Othermarket
Othermarket
Totals
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 249P
olyg
onac
eae
Rum
exne
pale
nsis
Spr
eng.
11
2P
olyg
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.D
on)
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11
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11
Pri
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rim
ulac
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ila
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&F
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ulac
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-War
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ulac
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rest
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nch.
11
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11
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11
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16
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11
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ris
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11
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atis
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im.
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Pur
sh1
1
250 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60A
PP
EN
DIX
.C
on
tin
ued
Fam
ily
Sp
ecie
s
Ran
uncu
lace
aeN
igel
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andu
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int
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reyn
11
11
4R
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oyle
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2
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11
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lace
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ang
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elch
.1
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3R
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acea
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.1
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eae
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ygda
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ica
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11
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arck
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akai
11
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Lin
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.W
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11
13
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acea
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alin
)C
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.1
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11
2R
osac
eae
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nb.
11
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acea
eP
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.L
.1
12
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acea
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11
2R
osac
eae
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aom
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fe1
12
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eR
osa
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.L
ev.
&V
anio
t1
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osac
eae
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ase
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aL
indl
.1
1
Lhasatraineddoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamarket
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Dechenmedicalinstitution
Dechenmarket
Dechenmarket
Othermarket
Othermarket
Totals
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 251R
osac
eae
Ros
ase
rtat
aR
olfe
11
Ros
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eR
osa
sweg
inzo
wii
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11
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eL
.1
12
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iace
aeR
ubia
chin
ensi
sM
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o1
1R
ubia
ceae
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iaco
rdif
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11
11
4R
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ceae
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aria
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ter)
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b.1
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eae
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.1
1R
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uang
11
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11
3S
anta
lace
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11
13
Sap
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n1
11
11
16
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son)
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12
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ook.
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Tho
m-
son
11
13
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isan
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inen
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11
2S
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.S
m.
11
13
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im.
11
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im.
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.1
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Tho
mso
n1
11
3S
crop
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orhi
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ular
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ra(P
enne
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.H
ong
11
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252 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60A
PP
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Mai
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Lhasatraineddoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Dechendoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Self-taughtdoctor
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Lhasamarket
Lhasamedicalinstitution
Dechenmedicalinstitution
Dechenmarket
Dechenmarket
Othermarket
Othermarket
Totals
2006] SALICK ET AL.: TIBETAN MEDICINE PLURALITY 253V