Throwing Kinematics and Children’s Abilities in the Imaginary Ball Situation By Peter Capucilli Under the direction of John J. Rieser, Ph.D.

Throwing Kinematics and Children’s Abilities in the Imaginary Ball Situation

By Peter Capucilli

Under the direction ofJohn J. Rieser, Ph.D.

Introduction• Preliminary study by Rieser et al. (2005)

• Children (3-5 years old) illustrated a difference in throwing technique when throwing a tangible ball versus throwing a pretend ball.

Our Goals• To understand how children throw in the imaginary situation?

• Determine age at which children adjust throwing technique to correctly account for altered distances?

• Determine factors that might contribute?

The Broader PictureTheoretical Implications

• Future understanding of neurological process in imaginary throwing.

• Understanding a greater piece of children’s development.

Practical Implications• Training• Rehabilitation/Conditioning

Past Research

• Preliminary Study - Rieser et al. (2005)

• Lillard (1998) - Young children lack understanding of the connection between cognitive understanding and physical representation in pretence

• Mah, Ferdinaldo & Mussa-Ivaldi (2003) - Mapping of learned kinematic motions only occurs on tasks requiring same technique

Pilot Testing

Blind Feedback Test Holding Ball Test

What we realized…

•Our initial plans were not the best of plans…

Blocking For Distance

• Three consecutive throws on a single target.

•Targets move in increasing order from shortest distance to furthest distance.

Original Hypothesis

• 3-4 year olds: Real Ball - Succeed Pretend Ball - Fail

(to illustrate adult-like change in

throwing kinematics)• 5-7 year olds: Real Ball - Succeed

Pretend Ball - Some succeed, some fail

• Adults: Real Ball - Succeed Pretend Ball - Succeed

Study 1• Total (n=24) participants. •Regular developing.• 3.9-22.4 years of age•Equal number of males and females evaluated.• 4 distinct distances (Blocked)• Three trials per distance

Variables

•Throw Distances - Children (1m, 3m 5m, 10m) (Blocked) - Adults (1m, 7m, 15m, 40m)

• Trial Number - 3 throws at each target (Blocked)

• Throw Condition - Real/Pretend - Pretend/Real

Dependent Variables

• Actual Distance Thrown• # of throw strategies used

Independent Variables

• Age - Children (3-4), Children (4-7), Adults (18+)

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Distance/Accuracy Scale Sheet

Pretend Throwing Kinematics Scoring Guide

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Study 2

•Verbal Study

• (n=11) Children participants, (n=8) Adult participants

• Four Questions: Which distance was the hardest and which distance was the easiest to throw/pretend to throw to in each condition.

•Independent Variable: Questions•Dependent Variable: Children’s and Adult’s answers

• Mean averages coded

•Results did not prove significant to study

Results•Statistical Tests conducted using SPSS and Excel: Two Way Analysis of Variance (repeated measures on variables, within subjects), T-tests•Did Target Distance exert significant effect on Throw Distance?

MAIN EFFECT FOR ALL PARTICIPANTS

•Did Trial Number exert significant effect on Throw Distances?

MAIN EFFECT ONLY IN YOUNG CHILDREN

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Results cont.• Coded Videotapes using “Pretend Throwing Kinematics Scoring Guide”

• 3-4 Year Olds (5/8 illustrated adult-like capabilities)• 5-7 Year Olds (8/8 illustrated adult-like capabilities)• Adults (8/8 illustrated adult-like capabilities)

*Ratios based on participants ability to illustrate adult-like capabilities at least once

•Total # of changes across intervals also calculated

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Pretend Throw Technique Results

DiscussionKey Findings

•Both young and older children’s displayed adult-like technique in Pretend Condition•Contrary to original hypothesis

Unanticipated Findings •Influence of informal pilot testing •Young children exposure to throwing task in daycare not considered

Limitations•Subjective video tape analysis•Lengthy patience require•Blocking for distance

Future Directions…

• Large scale analysis of each age range

•Extended research under randomized trials with increased age range

•Extensive interview conducted post-throwing trial to understand specific actions utilized in Pretend Condition

•Altered experimenter verbal instruction

General Summary•In the Pretend Condition, children do not account for the appropriate changes in throwing kinematics associated with altering distances of a target, if targets are presented in a randomized order.•When distances are blocked over three trials, and targets are presented with distance increasing, children begin to illustrate adult-like throwing patterns in the Pretend Condition.•Confirmation of blocking for distance as the variable associated with children’s success in the imaginary situation might only be supported by future statistical analysis as well as additional tests associated with differences among ages, as well as cognitive understanding of one’s displayed action.

Acknowledgements

Thank you to the team of researchers associated with this study. A special thank you to Gayathri Narasimham for her time and dedication to this project. Additional thanks to Karen Rieser, Dr. Craig Smith, Dr. Sue Hespos, and Dr. Michael Rose for their undying support. Thank you to my family. Thank you to Jonathan Herberg and Dr. Tom Carr for their contribution to the defense.

Finally, I thank Dr. John Rieser for his wonderful mentorship and active participation in research, as well as his confidence to allow me the freedom to think, discover and imagine. I also thank John for his kind human spirit, as well as his respect and interest in my overall wellbeing. I believe this to be a rare quality of such a well-regarded professor.

-p.s.c

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