THROUGH THESE VEINS: TRANSLATION AND COMMENTARY by Vian F. Kurrbassy A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the American University of Sharjah College of Arts and Sciences in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in English/Arabic/English Translation & Interpreting (MATI) Sharjah, United Arab Emirates January 2017
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THROUGH THESE VEINS: TRANSLATION AND COMMENTARY
by
Vian F. Kurrbassy
A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the
American University of Sharjah
College of Arts and Sciences
in Partial Fulfilment
of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Arts in English/Arabic/English Translation & Interpreting (MATI)
Vita ............................................................................................................................... 68
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Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Overview
Translation is the core of this thesis. Its theories, strategies, principles and rules
are the sustenance of this material. Why does translation matter, and how would
communication between cultures differ without translation? Peirce describes translation
as being, “always situated in a set physical, mental and cultural context which influence
its creation and the understandings it may give rise to; and every translation itself
becomes a part of the world and of one, or often many continues chains of signification”
(Malmkjær, 2015, p. xiii). A chain of communication is established in the proses of
decoding and encoding a message that is transferred from a source culture (SC) into a
target culture (TC) when a translator decodes the message of a text encodes it into his
or her own language. Finally, that message is decoded by the target readers of the
translation. The translator is the clamp who holds everything together.
In the light of the above, it is clear that, without translation, there would be no
communication. In every process, there is a challenge, and since translation is a process,
it has its own challenges. Because this thesis involves a translation of a literary text, I
will focus on challenges of literary translation. Literary transition is considered one
among many of the large challenges that are associated with communication. The
translator must deal not only with semantic problems but also with stylistic
connotations that are, “inseparable from the content which will demand a constant and
painful process of decision-making.” (Sanchez, 2009, p.133). Whether the issue is
semantic, stylistic, lexical or some other, there is a specific theory, strategy and
procedure for each that many linguistic theorists recommend as the cure for any
problem or difficulty the translator might face.
Translation theory is a guideline for the production of translation. “A theory
should be a coherent and integrated set of prepositions used as principles for explaining
a class of phenomena” (Nida, 1991, p. 20). The distinction between literary and non-
literary text is one of the main issues with which the theory of translation is concerned.
Therefore, many translation strategies and techniques have been proposed by
translation theorists to help literary translators overcome the obstacles and challenges
that are faced when translating literature.
My aim in this thesis is to carry out a literary translation and determine how
best to tackle the difficulties of translation—how best to produce a coherent text that
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conveys the sense and the message of the source text as much as possible—by applying
translation theories and techniques. In what follows, I translate two chapters of a novel.
I then discuss the challenges associated with translation, analyze the techniques I have
used and illustrate them with examples from the original and its translation.
1.2 Thesis Overview
This thesis discusses the following:
A literature review in the field of translation as related to the translation project in
hand;
An outline of translation in general and of literary translation in particular,
A discussion of theories applied on translation,
A discussion of challenges that translators face in transmitting messages from
source text to target readership,
A discussion of strategies adopted to provide adequate, successful literary
translations.
In what follows, two chapter of the novel, Through These Veins, written by the
American novelist, Anne Marie Ruff, are translated. Then an analysis and discussion
are provided with regard to the decisions taken while translating, identifying translation
problems and the strategies used to overcome them. Examples are selected from the
translation to highlight problems and the strategies used, and justification is offered for
each strategy.
Therefore, this thesis is comprised of five chapters. Chapter one presents an
introduction to the thesis. Chapter Two sheds light on text type and focuses on literary
translation, relevant translation theories and techniques. Chapter Three starts with some
information about the novelist and the novel, and includes the ST and TT. Chapter Four
is a commentary on the various translation problems that are faced. It offers a discussion
and analysis of challenges, solutions, and strategies used in solving these problems.
Chapter Five provides conclusion to wrap up the whole work.
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Chapter Two: Theoretical Framework
2.1 Overview
This chapter sheds light on text types, translation in general and literary
translation in particular. It further defines the terms, translation and literary translation,
and it explains some of the theories, strategies and procedures that are applied in
translation.
The definition of translation is not really simple. There are many definitions of
translation. According to Catford (1965), translation is, “the replacement of textual
material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)”
(p. 20). Here, SL refers to source language and TL refers to target language. Newmark
defines translation as “a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message
and/ or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another
language" (as cited in Sawant, 2008, p. 122). Nida and Taber (2003) state that,
“translation consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural
equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in
terms of style” (p. 12). Definitions in general emphasize the same concept and the same
principle, which is to preserve meaning. Translation is like a bridge that is extended to
connect the target reader with the source text, but with the difference of language usage.
Language, communication and culture are all related. The relationship between
translation and language is an intimate one. And since translators need to know how to
preserve meaning while translating, they require theory and strategy. A theory can be
described as a lens through which we can see something clearly.
Translation theories recognize that different languages encode meaning in
different forms. They guide translators to find appropriate ways to preserve meaning
while using the most appropriate forms of each language.
2.2 Text Type
Besides a suitable theory and strategy, the translator must know which text type
s/he is dealing with. Text type plays an important role in choosing the translation
technique. There are different kinds of texts, and the strategies vary according to text
type; the informative, the expressive, which is the type of the text I am dealing with in
my thesis, the operative and the Audiomedial. All of this is explained in detail in the
following paragraphs.
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According to Katharine Reiss (as cited in Munday, 2001, p.73), four types of
texts exist. Each has its own language and can be categorized according to the function
of that language. An informative text, such as a reference work, deals with facts
(information, knowledge, opinion, etc.). In this kind of text, “the language dimension
used to transmit the information is logical or referential” (p. 73) and the main focus of
the communication is on the content or the topic of the text.
The second type is expressive; it is a creative composition. The dimension of
language used by the author is aesthetic. The author is foregrounded in this kind of text,
and in the form of the message as well. A poem or a novel is a highly expressive form-
focused type.
The third type is operative. The form of language is dialogic; the aim of this
type is to appeal to or to persuade the reader or receiver of the text to act in a certain
way. Advertisements, for example, are used to persuade readers to buy something.
The fourth type of text is audiomedial: e.g., films and spoken and visual
advertisements that supplement the other three functions of a text with visual images,
music, etc.
Some texts lie between these four categories. For example, a biography could
be located somewhere between the informative and the expressive types, as it provides
information about a subject while also performing an expressive function as a piece of
literature. Because it is a piece of literature according to the Reiss divisions, the text I
consider in what follows is an expressive one. In the coming section, I will discuss
literary translation in detail.
2.3 Literary Language
The language of literary texts differs from general language or from any other
text type.
Literary texts are defined as expressive by Reiss. They have a set of typical
features. They have a written base-form, though they may also be spoken, and they
convey high social prestige. They fulfil an affective aesthetic rather than a transactional
or informational function, and are aimed to provoke emotions rather than to influence
or inform. They are judged as fictional, whether fact-based or not; they feature words,
images, etc. They are also characterized by poetic language (where language form is
important in its own right, as with word-play or rhyme).
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Literary writers use various devises of diction to create a form of language that
differs from the common one. Literary language is characterized by obscurity and
vagueness. It employs abstract thoughts and expressions that are generally not found in
common language which tend to be clear and explicit. Ambiguity is the remarkable
feature of literary language, not lucidity or directness. Most of the ideas and thoughts
are expressed in a sophisticated manner. The manner may be detailed and accurate, but
it often uses uncommon adjectives to describe a thing or a situation. Unique utterance
is noticeable when a creative writer uses words or phrases that ordinary speakers of a
language rarely encounter. Such language always possesses a deeper meaning than it
seems to. It has an aesthetic function, as it is believed that the heightened form of
expression gives a sense of joy when it is understood.
Literary language is of a figurative nature. Literary writers tend to use many
figures of speech, such as metaphor and irony, to give their language a special flavor.
Such characteristics complicate the task of translation.
2.4 Literary Translation
It is difficult for a translator to convey the meaning or exact message of a text.
To preserve the meaning of a literary text, the translator must focus on the both structure
and what lies beyond words and sentences.
The translator should know both cultures and should understand completely
what meaning is behind each word before translating. This is especially true when two
different languages are spoken by people from two different cultures and backgrounds.
The target audience might have totally different feelings and reactions from those of
the source audience. The translator should try to convey the message as close as
possible to that of the source text without adding or creating any meanings that could
affect the original.
In literary translation, the typical features of the source literary text and the
influential elements from the target readers’ perspective—such as linguistic and
cultural differences—must be taken into account.
Literary texts are characterized by rhetorical and aesthetic value, which is the
essence that must be captured and maintained in a literary translation. For example,
literary or poetic language exhibit author foregrounding: i.e., the author is the main
topic. The translator should transfer the message into the TT with the same sense and
value found in the original. The translator should also strive to affect the target reader
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in the same way. Reproduction of rhetorical and aesthetic value is one of the main tasks
of a literary translator. The target text should transmit both the aesthetic and the artistic
form of a source text. A translator of this type of text should adopt the standpoint of the
source-text author.
Translation plays an important role in increasing understanding among diverse
cultures and nations and in filling the gaps between them. Literary translations put
different nations under one universal culture and help them reach compromises. An
image of one culture is erected for another by translation, which mirrors the traditions,
values and beliefs of the source culture (SC) and encourages target readers to feel that
they want to drastically widen their awareness about the source culture and gain more
knowledge of it. This understanding breaks the barriers and facilitates interaction
between cultures.
It is generally agreed that literary translation has its own characteristics that are
distinguished from translation in general. In literary translation, the translated text must
convey the imaginative, intellectual and intuitive writing of the author and must reflect
the literary features of the source text, including sound effects, figures of speech, etc.
Literary works are created with touches of art by increasing the difficulty and
length of perception, which leads to defamiliarization—the basic aim of art, according
to Shklovsky. “A work is created ‘artistically’ so that its perception is impeded and the
greatest possible effect is produced through the slowness of the perception” (Shklovsky,
1917, p. 3).
Defamiliarization is a literary technique by which the writer turns the normal
objects we see in everyday life into something special and unique—into something with
spirit that can haunt the mind of the reader. In other words, it turns a text into a piece
of art. The translator must create an equivalent form of art, not just transfer information.
When defamiliarization is comprehended by the translators or readers, a unique
sensation is created.
Literary translators’ choices of wording are highly dependent on the target
language and culture. Literary texts are solidly rooted in their source languages and
cultures; due to linguistic and cultural differences, literal translations might fail.
Consideration of the target audiences is another important issue in literary
translation and literary tradition. The text might fail to gain acceptance. As mentioned
above, each culture has its own values, principles and traditions, and readers of literary
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translation differs from those the writer had in mind. So the translation might be
acceptable to some extant for a particular audience at a particular time and place. There
is always translation loss: “literary translation is a complicated act, and to this effect
there is no definite correct translation yet there is a proper or an appropriate translation
according to certain criteria or from a certain perspective” (Morina, 2013, p. 163).
2.4.1 Literary translation from English into Arabic: Problems and
challenges. Transferring the meaning from English into Arabic literary text will not be
fulfilled smoothly without facing some problems and difficulties.
Culture is one of the serious problematic issues in translation and literary
translation helps different cultures to be introduced to each other. Abu Hatab explains
the connection between culture and literature by saying: “Literature is considered as
manifestation of nations’ cultures, beliefs and values. It is the vehicle via which human
experience is encapsulated” (2015, p. 186). The difference in values, principles,
traditions and religion are the main difficulties that the translator might confront (as we
will see in some examples of the coming chapters). Abu Hatab (2015) supports the
suggestions of other scholars regarding how to provide a proper translation. These
suggestions involve providing appropriate text, which means to fit the context of the
message, natural one and acceptable to the target audience or literary readership. She
gives the strategies and solutions suggested by Newmark as well, such as cultural
equivalent which refers to replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL one, functional
equivalent that refers to the use of a culture-neutral word and descriptive equivalent,
another way to find the proper translation by translating the cultural bound term into
several words.
In literary texts, like all other kind of texts, syntax is considered to be among
the main requirements to provide a proper translation. In spite of the fact that there are
some syntactic universals both languages English and Arabic share, there are many
differences that might arise some difficulties while translating a text, especially the
narrative one as this kind of problems faces the translator constantly. According to
Lahlali and Abu Hatab (2014), “while English is usually considered an SVO (Subject-
Verb-Object) language, Arabic is basically a VSO language since SVO structures are
less frequent” (p. 31). Auxiliary verbs come under syntax problems as well. English
makes use of auxiliary in questions and negation sentences, while it is not frequent in
Arabic, and that is why such verbs are not always translated into Arabic. Tenses are
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also a continuous challenge for translator. Arabic tenses are basically past, present and
future and sometimes an adverb is used to convey different categories of past and
present, while English has many tenses, other than the basic ones. The verb can be
accompanied by an auxiliary to reflect the perfect tenses. In such cases, the translator
picks the proper adverb in Arabic to use it his/ her translation and reflect it successfully.
Another common difficulty is metaphor, one of the crucial figures of speech that
are used in literature. Some difficulties arise if the image that is used in the metaphor is
unknown in the receptor language. Jaber (2005, p. 211) explains the importance of
metaphor saying that writers tend to use metaphors for being one of “the most important
means” by which they can reflect their visions accurately and efficiently. Some kind of
metaphor is considered to be a problematic one, especially when it has a hidden
message to serve a specific purpose or convey a specific message. In such cases, the
translator needs to be careful by using an equivalent that has the same impact on the
reader as the one of the source text and “reproduce” as close as possible “the same
image in the target text” (Jaber, 2005, p. 215).
Vocatives, one of the difficulties that need obligatory explicitation while
translating. “Arabic requires the use of a vocative particle before the noun” (Mansour
et al., 2014, p. 105). In Standard Arabic, in formal situations especially, it is not
permitted to call somebody without the use of vocative particles such as يا or يا أيها,
therefore, a vocative particle needs to be inserted before the names being called in the
translated copy.
Other remarkable problems usually face any translator are Alliteration and
Assonance: Terms refer to Repetition of sounds. Alliteration is “the recurrence of the
same sound or sound-cluster at the beginning of words”, and Assonance is “the
recurrence, within words, of the same sound or sound-cluster”, (Dickins et al., 2002, p.
81).
According to Dickins et al. (2002), “many texts are marked by the deliberate
use of phonic patterns for expressive purposes” (p. 81). For Arabic, not only repetition
of sound is used, but of words as well to arise a sense of emphasize. Although Dickins
et al. highlight this issue with regards to translation from Arabic into English, the same
thing is applied in case of translating English into Arabic. What is required from any
translator that confronts with sound-symbolism issue have to recognize its function
before he/she start translating. This problem is highlighted by Mansour et al. (2014, p.
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105) under the name of “morphological repetition”, by mentioning different kind of
repetition such as pattern repetition, root repetition as well as suffix repetition. In other
words, translators can compensate the alliteration and assonance that are found in
English text by using any equivalent kind of repetition that could preserve the same
message and serve the same purpose with taking the aesthetic value into consideration.
As a conclusion for what is mentioned above is that a good understanding of the
ST literary genre is one of the most important factors that help the translator in facing
the difficulties that could arise while translating English-Arabic.
After shedding light on some literary translation problems of English-Arabic
translation, some translation theories will be under spot and many other difficulties will
be identified in the coming sections.
2.5 Translation Theories
2.5.1 Exoticism. As mentioned earlier, the differences between cultures might
result in some difficulties for translators to transfer the message accurately. The status
of facing these difficulties is referred to as exoticism”. According to Dickins et al. “A
TT marked by exoticism is one which constantly uses grammatical and cultural features
imported from the SL with minimal adaptation, and which thereby constantly signals
the exotic source culture and its culture strangeness” (2002, p. 29). This case is
happened when there is a term in SL that completely strange for TL speakers and has
no impact on them, while it has a big impact on its audience, the TL speakers. Literal
translation, transliteration, which is kind of borrowing, are the best way to deliver the
same message, however, it will not leave the same impression on the target audience as
it does on the source ones.
Exoticism mirrored clearly in the translation of some cultural specifics, not only
in the translation of the source text, but in the source text itself, as it deals with a
different culture which is rich with its own terms that sound totally strange to other
cultures, such as using the Ethiopian expressions: ato, chat, gabbi, gojo, injeera and
more. These are some of the terms that could be exotic for both the author and the
translator. While others such as “Alhamd’Alla”, which means “thanks to God”, and
“Insha’Allah”, which means “God willing”, can be described as exotic for the author
only, since the original (SL) is Arabic and the target reader is an Arab.
2.5.2 Nida’s dynamic equivalence. Most theories of translation are about two
basic kinds of translation: literal and free translation. We might think of Nida’s terms,
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formal and dynamic equivalence, as synonymous for literal and free, respectively.
According to Nida, dynamic equivalence, "tries to relate the receptor to modes of
behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" without insisting that the
reader, "understands the cultural patterns of the source-language context" (1964, p.
159). Any translator must reproduce the meaningful form and content of the original
and must make the message of the translated text match that of its source as nearly as
possible. A good translation should fulfil the same purpose in the new language as the
original text did in the source language. It should have the feel of the original. One of
the expressions that are found in the text I am translating for this project could be a
good example for Dynamic Equivalence, which is “rose Lazarus like”, translated as
by using lion instead of Lazarus, a bible character that might mean nothing نهض كالأسد
to target culture, especially the Muslims one. Both, Lazarus and lion symbolize strength
and good health. Even so, naturalness of language is required and very important. Nida
(1964, p. 159) notes that the translation should be characterized by "naturalness of
expression" and should relate the “receptor” to his or her own culture and attend the
needs of the reader.
2.5.3 Newmark’s communicative and semantic translation. According to his
semantic and communicative translations theory, Newmark suggests the solution of
conflict of loyalty, or in other words, narrowing the gap between emphasis on source
and target language by replacing such old terms as word for word, sense for sense,
literal, free and faithful translation with those of semantic and communicative language.
When a translator deals with a text, s/he must ask several questions about the
type of the text and the focus of translation. S/he must determine whether the focus
should be on the author or on the reader; in other words, on what the author wants to
say or on what the reader needs to know. Bridging the gap between source and target
culture is not an easy task. It is one of the largest problems in translation theory and
practice. In an attempt to narrow that gap, Newmark suggests replacing old terms with
those of semantic and communicative translation. The former are used mainly for
expressive texts and the latter are used mainly for informative and vocative texts. The
main different between semantic translation and communicative translation is that
semantic focuses on the meaning while communicative focuses on the effect.
Newmark (1988, p. 36) says “Your text is dependent on another text but,
paradoxically again, in communicative translation you have to use a language that
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comes naturally to you, whilst in semantic translation, you have to empathise with the
author (the more you feel with the author, the better you are likely to translate.”
Semantic translation focuses mainly on the writer of the source text and reflects
her or his own thoughts. Semantic translation tends to be more complicated,
incompetent and detailed; it tends to over translate. It mirrors the original culture and
language as much as possible.
Communicative translation addresses the reader of the target language, who
expects a general transfer of foreign elements into his or her own culture and language
where necessary. Communicative translation tends to under-translate as it addresses the
reader to be clear and brief; it tends to be smoother, more idiomatic, natural and easier
to read. In brief, semantic translation is related to the individual; it follows one person:
the author of the original text. Communicative translation has a social aspect: it creates
a kind of communication between two cultures (SC and TC); it concentrates on the
message and the main force of the text and serves large readers. A good example of
communicative translation of “During the first week Nataniel had prepared teas and
pastes, blood and bone meal to restor Ato Worku’s strength” into:
in which ,حضر نتانيل الشاي وبعض المخبوزات في الأسبوع الأول مع وجبة دسمة ليسترد منها أتو ووركو قوته
“blood and bone” is translated into “ big meal” which gives the same essence of the
message naturally and smoothly for the target reader since the TL expression is
common in the Arabic culture. An example for semantic translation can be found in
“Begging mercy from the witch doctor of Chochotte” which is translated into “ يلتمس
as the translation is very close to the semantic and ,”الرحمة من الطبيب العراف لقرية تشوتشوت
syntactic structures of the given text.
Communicative translation resembles Nida’s dynamic equivalence in the effect
it produces in the reader of the target text (TT). Semantic translation is similar to Nida’s
formal equivalence. Semantic is more source text focused. It resembles literal
translation, as its main topic is the source text.
2.5.4 Catford’s shifts theory. Translation shift is a concept first introduced by
Catford in his A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965). He makes another important
distinction between textual equivalence and formal correspondence, upon which the
definition of “translation shift” depends. Catford defines textual equivalence as a
relationship between two portions of text that are translations of each other. Formal
equivalence, on the other hand, is a relationship that holds between two linguistic
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categories that occupy approximately the same place in the organization of their
respective languages. A shift occurs in any departure from formal correspondence that
is made in the process of translating SL into TL, of which there are two major types:
level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts, according to Catford, occur only between
the levels of grammar in one language and lexis in another. Category shifts are divided
into four types: unit, structure, class and intra-system shifts. Unit shifts or “rank-
changes” occur when textual equivalents are located on different ranks. The rank scale
consists of sentences, clauses, groups, words and morphemes: e.g., when a word is
translated into a group of words or vice versa, for example the expression of three words
“clear his throat” which is translated into one word “يتنحنح”. The second type of category
shift is structural; it occurs in grammatical structure when the target structure (TS) and
the source structure (SS) contain the same classes differently arranged. For example,
when the TS order is subject, predicate and compliment and the SS order is predicate,
subject and compliment. Catford (1965) refers to this kind of shift as, “amongst the
most frequent category shifts at all ranks in translation” (p. 77). The third type is the
class shift, which happens when the textual equivalence of a target phrase has a different
class than the source phrase: e.g., an adjectival phrase translated into adverbial one. The
intra-system shift occurs when the SL and TL have a correspondent system but a non-
corresponding item has been chosen as translation equivalents: e.g., when a singular
word in SL has a plural equivalent in TL.
The previous section, some theories have been focused on. In the following
section discusses some translation strategies.
2.6 Translation Strategies
A translator can face several problems while translating. To deal with these
obstacles, the translator must be armed with the procedures and strategies discussed
below.
Among the best known of translation procedures and strategies are those
recommended by Vinay and Darbelnet (1995). They identify two general translation
approaches: direct and oblique translation. These two categories include seven sub-
procedures, of which direct translation covers three:
Borrowing occurs when a SL word is taken directly into the TL. The word may
be borrowed purely or may be naturalized to fit the spelling, phonological and
grammatical rules of the TL. Sometimes, borrowing is used to overcome a lexical gap.
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It can also be used to avoid losing semiotic and cultural aspects of a word. It might even
be used to keep the spirit of the word by preserving its local color.
The second procedure is calque, which may be considered a special kind of
borrowing when the SL expression or structure is transferred via direct translation.
The third procedure is literal translation or so-called “word for word”
translation; involves direct transfer of SL text into grammatically and idiomatically
appropriate TL text. This means that there is no need to make changes beyond those
that are absolutely necessary, such as grammatical changes. For Vinay and Darbelnet,
“Literal translation should only be sacrificed because of the structural and
metalinguistic requirements and only after checking that the meaning is fully conveyed”
(1995, p. 225).
These three procedures fall under direct translation. The other strategy, oblique
translation, on the other hand, comprises four procedures:
Transposition replaces one word class by another without any change in the
meaning of the message. It is a change in grammar from SL into TL. Sometimes it is
obligatory, when the target language has no other choice due to the language rules and
system. And sometimes it is optional for the sake of style when the transposition fits
better into the utterance. Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) describe transposition as,
“probably the most common structural change undertaken by translators” (p. 94).
Equivalence is a third oblique procedure. In equivalence, a translator uses a
totally different structure and style that may even involve a different connotation from
that of source language. The translator makes these changes to produce a style and
structure that are appropriate to the culture of the target language for the same situation.
Adaptation involves changing the cultural reference when the situation being
described in the source does not exist in the target culture. The translator creates a
situation that can be considered equivalent. S/he should therefore have good knowledge
of both cultures and both languages.
In addition to Vinay and Darbelnet strategies and models, there are other models
have been proposed by Halliday and Hassan which is Substitution that occurs when we
replace a word or group of words with another to achieve cohesion. Explicitation is
used to simplify or clarify a word or group of words to keep the flow and the cohesion
of the text when translating them to a target culture.
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2.7 Cultural Perspectives and Translation
The cultural factor is among the most important and perhaps most problematic
of factors.
There are two fundamental components of translation: culture and language.
They are connected to each other. Culture is a mixture of values, principles, beliefs,
history, traditions and even morals. We express ourselves through language. We keep
our cultures alive and stand still among all other cultures by language. As Bassnett puts
it, “you cannot divorce languages from cultures" (2011, p. 60). According to Lotman
(1978) as cited in Shastri (2012, p.57), “no language can exist unless it is steeped in the
context of culture; and no culture can exist which does not have at its centre, the
structure of natural language.”
Culture is a creation of human beings within unique times, areas and ethnicities.
Each community has its own habits, principles, traditions, beliefs and value judgments.
These features allow culture to create variability that the translator must take it into
account while translating. The cultural implications may take several forms that range
from syntax and lexical content to ideologies and principles. Said Faiq states that,
“translation is by necessity a multi-faceted, multi-problematic process with different
manifestations, realizations and ramifications” (2004, p. 36). The translator must know
how to decide what must be kept and conveyed in TT, taking into consideration the
lexical impact and manner on the TL reader. Cultural aspects may be perceived in such
features, as we will see in the text with which I deal in this thesis. The cultural issue
was one of the difficulties I have tried to overcome. The world of translation has many
theories but all have one goal: to translate a text with the minimum loss in translation.
This chapter has covered literary translation, text types, translation processes
and the theories, strategies and procedures that are applied in translation. The following
chapter will introduce the writer, the novel, the ST and the Arabic translation.
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Chapter Three: The Text and the Translation
This chapter first provides background information about the novelist, Anne
Marie Ruff, and her novel, Through These Veins. It then presents the first chapter of the
novel and its translation (ST and TT).
3.1 The Author and the Novel
Anne Marie Ruff was born in 1971 in Minnesota, USA. In 2000-2002 she
worked as a freelance journalist in Bangkok, Thailand. She reported on AIDS research
and AIDS vaccine; traditional medicine and deforestation drug development;
biodiversity conservation; and agriculture from Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and
East Africa. Her articles have appeared in Time, Christian Science Monitor, and Saveur,
among other publications. In 2000, she made a trip to Turkmenistan with a scientific
expedition to research the world's largest collection of pomegranate varieties. In 2002,
she travelled to Ethiopia to research the setting of her novel, Through These Veins. She
spent three years researching and planning the novel. Then she moved to Abu Dhabi.
Later on she moved with her husband to California. Eventually, she self-published the
novel in 2011. She narrated an audio version of the book which was published in 2013.
Ms. Ruff now lives in Los Angeles with her husband and their two sons.
Through these Veins is a novel that portrays events in the coffee fields of
Ethiopia. It tells a fictional story of an Italian scientist who finds out a local man
believes to have magical powers of healing people and distributes a cure for AIDS. As
the medicine man’s teenage daughter unveil the plants behind the cure, their lives
become indelible connected. “Through These Veins entwines together the totally
different worlds of traditional healing, U.S.-government-funded AIDS research, and the
pharmaceutical industry in a tale of strong mixture combine both, scientific intrigue and
love, with devastating and hopeful effect”.
Through these Veins has been broadcast by National Public Radio, Public Radio
International, the British Broadcasting Corporation, and PBS TV. Its echo has haunted
the soul of its readers. As cited in the author’s website, Calestous Juma—Director of
the Science, Technology, and Globalization Project at Harvard University’s Kennedy
School of Government, and former Executive Secretary of the UN Convention on
Biological Diversity—says that, “Through These Veins doesn't just call plants by their
names; it sings their praises. There is no better case for conservation than this vivid
account of how our wellbeing is so intertwined with the secret lives of plants”.
23
The text was chosen for translation because it is rich in cultural elements that
are almost unknown in the target language culture. The cultural references of the
original culture are exotic in both the ST and the TT. The novel is also by a new voice
in American literature.
Paragraphs in both the source text and target are numbered for convenience and
in order to facilitate parallelism of texts.
24
3.2 The Text
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1
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3.3 The Translation
تمهيد
2004واشنطن، مقاطعة كولومبيا،
بجوار سدني التي ونام الفراش في روبرت اندسالساعة ذات الطراز القديم قد دقت الثانية عشر عندما تكان .1
م يكن لمة السائدة. لظلل وشاكرا نائمة لكونها بالإمتنان شاعراينطق ببنت شفة لمنائمة. شبهخذت تدمدم منزعجة أ
الأهم لاكتشافادقيقة فستمثل الأوليليلة في المختبر. إن كانت نتائج الفحص الفايروسي لا رآه اعم مستعدا ليتكلم
ماذج ن . يبدو إنالأولية النتائج من عيناه رأتهمصدق بما غير مرتين الفحص أجرىنه إ إذمسيرته المهنية، في
ه الإستكشافية، بعثت اثناءالنباتات التي أرسلها ستيفانو جيوتي عن سابق تخطيط إلى روبرت والتي حصل عليها
مختبر إلى إثيوبيا من جلبت التي الأوراق منالمصنعة بات رك الم كانتبعد. أحد يكتشفهلم ا في طياتها سر ئتخب
في العالم وهو الخبيثة الأمراضأحد أشهر أنواع فايروسات على فيها انتصرتقد خاضت معركة ،روبرت
(.الأيدزالمناعة البشري ) نقص سفايرو
للإعتناءمهات زواج، و إطالة أعمار الأعلى إطالة أعمار الأ ا ثيوبية قادرالإبات رك الم ار المستخلص من قالع يكون قد .2
يرجع ملايين الناس خطوة إلى وبذلكحتى يشيخ. ويكبر ينمو أن المرض يعاني وهو دول الذيالطفل مكن وت بأطفالهن،
شفا الموت. عن بعيدا الخلف
خرى على ختبارات الأفستجرى العديد من الا ،مر وروبرت مدرك لذلك تماما لأللكشف عن هذا ا مبكرا الوقت زال ما .3
را أخي يحين حتىى على الحيوانات جرت اتميات و اختباراختبارات كشف الس منسلالات فيروسية مختلفة وغيرها
لمبالغير لتبر تقديموفي المؤتمرات قدمت تدعمهانشر العديد من المقالات مع بحوث ي جرى على البشر. وسي لذيالاختبار ا
العمليات التي تجرى على المركب الطبيعي مثل العزل والتركيب والاختبار وتوحيد طريقة الاستخدام ستتطلب. المدفوعة
فائدة تتطلب سنوات عديدة من العمل. يلى عقار ذإوتحويله
أن النبات الموجود في مختبره في كل الاحتمالات مدركا لتجولفكاره روبرت العنان لأ أطلقه الليلة بالذات، ذولكن في ه .4
كل الاحتمالات مرة اخرى.في هليغرق غدا سيكون بانتظاره
42
الفصل الاول
2004تشوتشوت، إثيوبيا،
ولكن باللغة حلوتي وكرر لفظة ،حلوتي لزهارا مربتا على يدها وهي تقدم له العسل: أشكرك يا 1قال أتو ووركو .1
المتبقي شمعهوطلبت منه لعق حتى ،من العود العسللعق كل لامته لأنه لم ي الإنجليزية هذه المرة مع غمزة عين.
.
سوى في الثامنة عشرة وأنت لست وقالت له مازحة : لا تهدر وقتك يا أتو ووركو بالنظر إلى امرأة. وأضافت: .2
تكبرني في السن بكثير لتتزوجني.
ما زلت شابا ، ولكني رجل عجوز لا أحتاج إلى زوجة قائلا : عزيزتي، أنت تجعليني أشعر بأننيتها ألجر فضحك .3
فأنا انظر إليك مثل ابنة تهتم بي.
الذي تمكث فيه زهارا ووالدها بدل 2كان أوتو ووركو قد قضى أسبوعين في القرية، وأصر على المكوث في الغوجو .4
البقاء مع بقية المرضى في الغوجو الذي يسمونه )العيادة( .
وكانت جريئة معه بين الحين والآخر مما كان يشعره بالبهجة. أما والد زهارا، كو رووى أتو بدأت زهارا تعتاد عل .5
نتانيل، فقد كان واثقا ، معتدا بنفسه وقليل الكلام، ولكن زهارا كانت ترى ما تكسوه شجاعة الرجل الغني المفتعلة من
بصوت وباتت لا تشعر حتى ،ير أن تهينهضعف وقلة حيلة فعرفت بالفطرة كيف تعتني به وتجعله متواضعا من غ
بصعوبة من شدة المرض أو حواراته مع نفسه بين الفينة والفينة القادمة من الجانب الآخر من يلتقطها أنفاسه التي
من ازءج الجدار الطيني الذي يقسم الغوجو المستدير إلى نصفين كنصفي قمر. وأصبحت الأصوات الصادرة عنه
الإثيوبية ليحضروا منها فطائر الإنجيرا 3كصراخ الأطفال او أصوات طحن النسوة لحبوب التيفعالم القرية،
4الحامضة.
حضر نتانيل الشاي وبعض المخبوزات في الأسبوع الأول، مع وجبة دسمة ليسترد منها أتو ووركو قوته. في بداية .6
طعام الذي أصرت زهارا أن يبتلعه، فحضرت الأمر، رفض الرجل الغني ذو الكرش المتدلي أكل أي شيء وتقيء ال
به المكان وتبعد الرائحة التي خلفتها أحماض له حساء الخنافس المغلي لتهدئة أمعاءه وأحرقت نبات العود لتعطر
المعدة التي التصقت بالأرضية الترابية. بحلول الإسبوع الثاني، تمكن أتو ووركو من الإبقاء على القليل من العدس
. اليوم وقد تحسن حاله، شعر الحمر ع الإنجيرا دون أن يتقيء، ما أتاح لنتانيل إعطاءه دواء عشبة العروقالممزوج م
اتو ووركو بقدرته على المشي والذهاب للنهر لغسل وجهه بنفسه.
الضوء القادم من خلال الباب: خارج مسارالذي هو المكانقال أوتو ووركو متمتما بينما كان يتحسس من حوله .7
ذائي، أين حذائي؟ رأته زهارا وقد لمس شرائب حذائه المستورد الثمين ذي الجلد الطبيعي. وأخذ ينظف الحذاء من ح
الأتربة التي أطفأت لمعانه، إلا إنه استسلم في النهاية متأففا .
ساقيه ن ارتدى حذاءه الراقي المغبر، متأبطا ذراع زهارا وهو يوازن جسمه الضخم على أن بعد ئنهض وهو ي .8
حتى اجتازا بوابة الغوجو ووقف أتو ووركو للتمعن في منظر القرية. ركض هو وزهارا النحيلتين، كالطير. مشيا
. مرحبين ببهجة ويتقافزونكانوا يصيحون .5: بر واحد، بر واحديقولون وهمالأطفال اليه وأيديهم المتسخة ممدودة
: تعني "سيد" في اللغة الأثيوبية.أتو 1 الغوجو: مسكن ريفي مبني من القش أو الخشب أو الحجر مع سقف مخروطي الشكل مبني من القش. 2 التيف: نبات عشبي ينتج حبوبا تعتبر غذاء رئيسيا للشعب الإثيوبي، إذ تدخل بذوره في تحضير الوجبات مثل الإنجيرا. 3: فطائر حامضة تصنع من طحين حبوب التيف بعد مزجها مع الماء، تعجن وتترك لتخمر قبل أن توضع على الصواني الإنجيرا 4
الحارة لخبزها. بر يعادل ما يقارب دولار أمريكي واحد( 21.60وحدة العملة في إثيوبيا. )كل البر الإثيوبي: هو 5
43
قرص خدودهم بنعومة مازحا فركضوا بعيدا يتأوهون ولكنه ،يريدونليعطيهم ما نقود معدنية أوتو ووركو لدىلم يكن
زجت ليحضرن الإنجيرا، فامت سودضاحكين. كانت هناك نساء عجائز يسكبن خليط حبوب التيف في صوان حديدية
،ءسمافي ال بعيدا رائحة الفحم والقش الجاف بعطر العود وحبوب القهوة التي كانت تحمص. وكانت الصقور تحوم
والذباب يطير بخفة ويحط دون توقف. كان الرجال والنساء من متوسطات العمر غائبين عن القرية، مختفين في
أخذ أتووركو يشق طريقه في البراقة في سلال غير متقنة الصنع. الحمرالغابات المحيطة، يجمعون حبوب القهوة
سوى تلك العيون الحمر للمرضى الذين وصلوا غوجو إعياء بالغ من القرية إلى مجرى النهر ولم يكن يراقب خطواته
العيادة مؤخرا .
كان يرش الماء على وجهه غير الحليق، شعر بروعة دفء أشعة الشمس وهي تلامس رأسه الأصلع. أخذ يصفر وإذ .9
ل إنها يقولحن أغنية فقالت زهارا وهي تشعر بالبهجة: كان أبي يغني هذه الأغنية عندما كنا نمشي في الغابة، وكان
.6تعود لزمن هايلي سلاسي
ضحك وقد انتبه للأمر قليلا وقال: نعم، أظن ذلك. في نظري، أنها تعود لزمن كان لي فيه حبيبة. كانت أمراة جميلة. .10
ماضيه بنظرة شاردة إلى ما وراء حدود النهر. يسترجع وبدء ت كلماته شلات ثم
انتظرت زهارا أن يكمل أوتو ووركو حديثه لكنه تنهد فحسب. فتقدمت بخطواتها لتدخل بين النباتات المرتفعة والقصب .11
الذي ينمو أعلى النهر لتتركه احتراما له وهو غارق في أفكاره. قطفت الزهور بخفة ورشاقة وقلبت أوراقها وأخذت
اق لتجمعها في الجيوب البالية لفستانها الأزرق الباهت تدعكها وتشم عطرها على أصابعها، وقطعت بعض الأور
قد أعادت خياطتها عليه مرتين. كانت على دراية بالنباتات المعروفة، فقد علمها أبوها أسماءها كانتالتي
كمعرفتها للحروف المكتوبة بخطوطتعرفهن رفيقات لها. كانت وكانت تعتبرهن وأستخداماتها منذ أن كانت طفلة
لمدرسة القرية. منح الذيذات زوايا على اللوح حادة
أمسكت بالنباتات فى ملآوأخيرا صفق أتو ووركو إشارة إلى انتهائه من الغسل الصباحي، فرجعت زهارا إليه وجيوبها .12
بذراعه وعادا إلى القرية.
سب، ون بين حين وآخر فحتلك الأيام. في بداية الأمر كانوا يأت كان الناس يصلون إلى تشوتشوت مع مغيب الشمس .13
وكل شهرين ترى إما راعيا بملابسه البالية أو امرأة هزيلة جائعة بضفائرها المتعددة الشعثاء يجرون أقدامهم
، وكل منهم مصاب بمرض مزمن قد أحكم قبضته عليهم، يمنعهم من رعاية الخراف حاشبكالأ ويظهرون من الطريق
أو قد يكون المرض قد أحكم قبضته على أناس يعرفونهم ويحبونهم ،العناية بأولادهمأو الاهتمام بشجيرات القهوة أو
إلى القبر. حملهموشعروا بالألم لأنه
كنه يم كان منالطبيب العراف لقرية تشوتشوت، يعتبرونه كانواكان هؤلاء الناس يأتون لرؤية والد زهارا الذي .14
ويقدمون له ما أتوا لمرض. ل المسببعلى الشر ويطلقها الأرواح الخارقة من الغابة جمعوي معالجة كل الأمراض،
باستطاعتهم الاستغناء عنه كجلد عنز متحجر أو حفنة من حبوب القمح المحمصة في سلة صغيرة بالية أو كيس حفظ
كتف. جاؤا بإيمان أعمى، إيمان راسخ تربوا عليه، إيمان لطالما سلموا به ةالذي يستخدمونه حقيبالطعام البلاستيكي
نحو الرحمة المتعارف عليها للطبيب العراف لقرية ،ا مساره وقد تملكهم اليأس والخوفلإرادة الله، إيمان قد وجهو
تشوتشوت.
لبلاستيكي المنسوج في الغوجو وعندما وصل المرضى، هيأت زهارا مكانا لهم، مكان ليناموا فيه على بساطها ا .15
الطيني المرتب ذي السقف المصنوع من القش الذي كانت تعيش فيه مع والدها وأقاربها. جلبت لهم الماء في الدلو
القوى ولا يمكنهم السير إلى الجدول ليغتسلوا. أعدت لهم الشاي مع الزهور المجففة ليساعدهم يللغسل فقد كانوا منهك
.، عندما خلعه القادة العسكريون وأنشأوا حكومة مؤقتة1974آخر أباطرة إثيوپيا. وانتهى حكمه عام : هايلي سلاسي 6
44
إلى عيونهم الملبدة بالخوف والإرهاق، شعرت بتقرحات جلدهم عندما أمسكوا بيديها وهي تسمعهم على النوم. نظرت
يهمسون "الحمد لله، بارك الله فيك يا أختي".
لم تكن القصة حقيقية طبعا، فليس نتانيل بطبيب عراف يملك قوى الأرواح الخارقة. كان إثيوبيا مسيحيا أرثذوكسيا .16
السنة ذاتها التي أطيحت ،1974دراسة الصيدلة عام بإكماله عناية من جامعة أديس أبابا تشهد مسلح بورقة مطوية ب
.فيها السلالة الإمبراطورية الإمبريالية القديمة من حكام الحبشة بإقصاء الإمبراطور هيلا سيلاسي وإنهاء حكمه
مستوردة ، يوزع بحماس الأدوية السوفيتية المتعاوناالإشتراكيون نتانيل ليخدم قضيتهم. فقد كان ن عي في تلك السنة، .17
من دكان حكومي صغير إلى ذوي الكبرياء من أهالي إثيوبيا الذين لم يرضخوا للاستعمار قط. بعد بضع سنوات وبعد
الشوارع بدماء أغرقت عناصر الرعب الاحمرأن من الخونة والمخربين وبعد 7الإشتراكي منغستوأن تخلص نظام
عالم ،غض نتانيل بصره وحصر تركيزه في عالمه المنظم، عالم الأدوية دة مقطوعة الرؤوس والأيدي، جثث هام
الحبوب والمساحيق والشراب والحقن.
لا تحصى من قوارير المسكنات والحبوب أعدادا كان نتانيل قد حاول التغافل عما يحصل من معاناة في المدينة وباع .18
السياسة ويستبدلها بالحديث عن حملات التلقيح والمضادات الحيوية حين كان المنومة. وكان يتجنب الخوض في
يحتسي القهوة في الأماسي مع أصدقائه من الجامعة. وذات ليلة، وبينما كان جالسا بإحدى المقاهي، قطع حديثهم
ة من مجموع أىفر الفسيحغريب فخرج نتانيل مسرعا إلى الشارع رنانا على نحو كان صوتا . صوت تكسر زجاج
الشباب يجرون مالك المتجر المجاور للصيدلية إلى الشارع. ثم سمع صرخة يليها هتاف غضب مخيف بعد أن ابتعد
عندما كان العنف 1984كان ذلك ربيع عام .مرمية وسط الطريق الشباب تاركين جثة مالك المتجر مقطوعة الرأس
الشرقية. امرآة المجاعة وانعدام النظام في صحارى إثيوبي
في صباح اليوم التالي، وحينما كانت الطرق مازالت تغطيها طبقة رقيقة من ضباب ما قبل الفجر، دخل نتانيل .19
الذي يلتف حول 8الصيدلية، وما انتشل منها سوى كتاب العقاقير المرجعي فخبأه تحت رداء الغابي الأبيض القطني
أجداده في المرتفعات.جذعه، وفر متجها إلى الغرب، إلى تشوتشوت موطن
وبعد مضي أكثر من عقد من الزمن، عندما رأى نتانيل أول مرة المرضى يقدمون على هذه القرية، وقد أرهقهم .20
المشي وغطاهم الغبار وأحبطهم فشلهم في معركة الصعود إلى الباص العمومي الذي تعمه الفوضى، كان يظن أنهم
الخوف في قرى أشد فقرا ، اكهتمل عائلات طردتهمعلم بمرضهم وكيف أيضا هاربين من موجة الإرهاب، ولكن حين
نفسه. بالقدرشعر بارتياح يصاحبه قلق
وليس عقاقير مستوردة، مثل جرعات الأدوية تقليدية عمل نتانيل قدر استطاعته على علاجهم فكان يعطيهم أدوية .21
كان يعطيهم بانتظام مزيج القات لمضغه تشوتشوت.المصنوعة في البيت والضمادات وهذا اكسبه احترام أهالي
.لشربه ليخفف عنهم آلامهم ثم يراهم يموتون أمام عينيه وهوعاجز القوى 9والتايج
له من تلك ذبنفسه فيقضي فيها ساعات طويلة باحثا عن ملايختلي ،املا معه إحباطهكان نتانيل يتوجه إلى الغابة ح .22
العيون المتوسلة به طالبة العون، كانت النباتات والأشجار تحيط به وتحميه وتعيد له في نهاية المطاف إيمانه بالحياة،
برب أنعم على العالم بالجمال والنظام المحكم. وفي أحد الأيام وبعد أن شاهد أمامه امرأة تفارق الحياة تاركة وراءها
جمهورية إثيوپيا ، ورئيس1987إلى 1974من إثيوپيا التي حكمت الشيوعية الطغمة العسكرية ،الجيش أبرز ضابط في: ستوغمن 7
.1991 حتى 1987من الديمقراطية الشعبية الغابي: رداء تقليدي للشعب الإثيوبي، وهو خفيف الوزن، منسوج من القطن يلف على الجذع خاصة في أيام البرد، أو يلف على الرأس. 8 : شراب من العسل المخمر.التايج 9