Thoughts Out of Tune Festinger, L. & Carlsmith, J.M. (1959)

Thoughts Out of TuneThoughts Out of Tune

Festinger, L. & Carlsmith, J.M. Festinger, L. & Carlsmith, J.M.

(1959)(1959)

Leon FestingerLeon Festinger

A research psychologistA research psychologist Highly influential in his fieldHighly influential in his field Proposed famous theory of Proposed famous theory of

cognitive dissonancecognitive dissonance

What is Cognitive What is Cognitive Dissonance? Dissonance? When you simultaneously hold When you simultaneously hold

two or more cognitions which are two or more cognitions which are psychologically inconsistentpsychologically inconsistent

This in turn creates discomfort This in turn creates discomfort and stress which motivates you to and stress which motivates you to change your attitude since change your attitude since behavior cannot be changedbehavior cannot be changed

This Opinion Shift is This Opinion Shift is Due to:Due to: Mentally rehearsing the speechMentally rehearsing the speech The process of trying to think of The process of trying to think of

arguments in favor of the forced arguments in favor of the forced position position

RewardsRewards

Additional studies were Additional studies were conducted that offered conducted that offered momentary awards to subjects for momentary awards to subjects for giving convincing speeches giving convincing speeches contrary to their own viewscontrary to their own views

It was found that larger the It was found that larger the rewards produced less attitude rewards produced less attitude change than smaller rewardschange than smaller rewards

Festinger’s Growing Festinger’s Growing TheoryTheory After India’s 1934 earthquake, After India’s 1934 earthquake,

rumors spread that areas outside rumors spread that areas outside danger zone would be hit with danger zone would be hit with additional and greater proportions additional and greater proportions (these rumors had no scientific (these rumors had no scientific foundation).foundation).

The rumors were not anxiety-The rumors were not anxiety-increasing, but anxiety-justifying.increasing, but anxiety-justifying.

The Result:The Result:

The cognition of fear was out of The cognition of fear was out of tune with lack of any scientific tune with lack of any scientific basis for their fear (cognitive basis for their fear (cognitive dissonance!)dissonance!)

They made their world fit with They made their world fit with what they were feeling and how what they were feeling and how they were behaving.they were behaving.

TaskTask

71 male, lower division, 71 male, lower division, psychology students participated psychology students participated thinking it was for measures of thinking it was for measures of performance (done for bias performance (done for bias responses)responses)

Task is scheduled for 2 hoursTask is scheduled for 2 hours Interview afterwards about their Interview afterwards about their

experiencesexperiences

MethodMethod

1st Task: They were given 12 spools 1st Task: They were given 12 spools in a tray. Empty it onto the table. in a tray. Empty it onto the table. Refill. Empty again with one hand at Refill. Empty again with one hand at for own pace for 30 minutes.for own pace for 30 minutes.

2nd Task: They were given a board 2nd Task: They were given a board with 48 squares. They were asked with 48 squares. They were asked to turn each peg a quarter of a turn to turn each peg a quarter of a turn clockwise and repeat for 30 minutesclockwise and repeat for 30 minutes

ExperimentExperiment

Subjects were randomly assigned to 3 Subjects were randomly assigned to 3 conditionsconditions

Control group: After tasks were Control group: After tasks were completed, were taken into another completed, were taken into another room to be interviewedroom to be interviewed

Subjects were taken from Group A Subjects were taken from Group A and B stating the person who and B stating the person who instructed the tasks called in sick instructed the tasks called in sick (cover story).(cover story).

Experiment Experiment Continued...Continued... The subjects that offered to join in The subjects that offered to join in

the experiment were to describe the experiment were to describe the experiment as “enjoyable, the experiment as “enjoyable, alot of fun, intriguing...”alot of fun, intriguing...”

Some subjects were paid $1 while Some subjects were paid $1 while others were paid $20 and called others were paid $20 and called into the room to wait for the into the room to wait for the incoming subject incoming subject

ResultsResults

Those subjects who were paid $1 Those subjects who were paid $1 for lying about the tasks were the for lying about the tasks were the ones who later reported liking the ones who later reported liking the tasks more, compared with both tasks more, compared with both paid $20 to lie and those who did paid $20 to lie and those who did not lie.not lie.

Average Ratings on Average Ratings on Interview Questions Interview Questions

QuestionQuestion Control groupControl group $1$1

groupgroup$20$20

groupgroup

1. How 1. How enjoyable tasks enjoyable tasks were (-5 to +5)were (-5 to +5)

-0.45-0.45 +1.35+1.35 -0.05-0.05

2. How much 2. How much learned (0 to learned (0 to 10)10)

3.083.08 2.802.80 3.153.15

3. Scientific 3. Scientific importance (0 importance (0 to 10)to 10)

5.605.60 6.456.45 5.185.18

4. Participate in 4. Participate in similar similar experiences (-5 experiences (-5 to +5)to +5)

-0.62-0.62 +1.20+1.20 -0.25-0.25

Festinger’s Festinger’s ExplanationExplanation People that engage in attitude-People that engage in attitude-

discrepant behavior (the lie), but discrepant behavior (the lie), but have strong justification for doing so have strong justification for doing so ($20), will experience only small ($20), will experience only small dissonance , and therefore, not feel dissonance , and therefore, not feel partially motivated to make change partially motivated to make change in their opinionin their opinion

Insufficient justification ($1)> Insufficient justification ($1)> greater dissonancegreater dissonance

Theory of Cognitive Theory of Cognitive DissonanceDissonance

Attitude-discrepant behavior

Sufficient justification for behavior

Dissonance small

Attitude change small

Attitude-discrepant behavior

Insufficient justification for behavior

Dissonance large

Attitude change large

Questions and Questions and CriticismsCriticisms Statistical analyses of the tape-Statistical analyses of the tape-

recorded experiment showed no recorded experiment showed no difference in the content or difference in the content or persuasiveness of liespersuasiveness of lies

Researchers such as Cooper and Researchers such as Cooper and Fazio and refined Festinger’s Fazio and refined Festinger’s Theory of Cognitive DissonanceTheory of Cognitive Dissonance

Cooper and Fazios’ Cooper and Fazios’ Four Steps for Four Steps for Cognitive DissonanceCognitive Dissonance 1. Attitude-1. Attitude-

discrepant behavior discrepant behavior must produce must produce unwanted negative unwanted negative consequences. consequences.

2. Personal 2. Personal responsibility must responsibility must be taken for the be taken for the negative negative consequencesconsequences

3. Physiological 3. Physiological arousal must be arousal must be presentpresent

4. The person must 4. The person must be aware that the be aware that the arousal arousal experienced is experienced is being caused by being caused by the attitude-the attitude-discrepant behaviordiscrepant behavior

Follow-up StudyFollow-up Study

““Illicit drugs and driving: Illicit drugs and driving: prevalence, beliefs and accident prevalence, beliefs and accident involvement among cohort of involvement among cohort of current out-of-treatment drug current out-of-treatment drug users” (2000)users” (2000)

By: Ian P. Albery, John Strang, By: Ian P. Albery, John Strang, Michael Gossop, Paul GriffithsMichael Gossop, Paul Griffiths

The aim of the studyThe aim of the study

A cross-sectional study used to A cross-sectional study used to try and explain why drug abusers try and explain why drug abusers continue to drive while under the continue to drive while under the influence after completing a influence after completing a court-mandated treatment court-mandated treatment program for previous drug-and-program for previous drug-and-driving infractionsdriving infractions

MethodMethod

210 current out-of-treatment illicit 210 current out-of-treatment illicit drug usersdrug users

131 male. 79 female131 male. 79 female Ages ranged from 16-59. Mean Ages ranged from 16-59. Mean

age of 30.51 yearsage of 30.51 years They were interviewed by a team They were interviewed by a team

of 17 privileged access of 17 privileged access interviewers (PAI)interviewers (PAI)

Method continued...Method continued...

Demographic information was takenDemographic information was taken Dependence was measured using the Dependence was measured using the

Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS)Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS) Illicit drugs and driving questions: They Illicit drugs and driving questions: They

were split into 4 sectionswere split into 4 sections 1. Comprised items which measured 1. Comprised items which measured

driving exposure and experience and driving exposure and experience and including length of full driving years and including length of full driving years and frequency in the past 12 monthsfrequency in the past 12 months


2. Measured frequency of personal 2. Measured frequency of personal illicit drugs and driving behaviour illicit drugs and driving behaviour during the previous 12 months and during the previous 12 months and what types of drugs used prior to what types of drugs used prior to driving driving

3. Concentrated on driving accident 3. Concentrated on driving accident involvement while under the involvement while under the influence and when not under the influence and when not under the influence. influence.


4. Measured the individuals beliefs 4. Measured the individuals beliefs and perceptions of the impairing and perceptions of the impairing effects of drugs on driving. effects of drugs on driving.

Two final items measured personal Two final items measured personal frequency of driving-related frequency of driving-related convictions and whether the drug user convictions and whether the drug user had ever been told by a doctor or had ever been told by a doctor or drug workers of the effects drugs drug workers of the effects drugs could have on driving performancecould have on driving performance

ResultsResultsDriving DemographyDriving Demography 68 of the sample held driver’s licenses on 68 of the sample held driver’s licenses on

average for 11.32 years. Males were over-average for 11.32 years. Males were over-represented at 81% vs. females at 19%represented at 81% vs. females at 19%

119 subjects reported having driven a 119 subjects reported having driven a vehicle at some point, 51 of whom did not vehicle at some point, 51 of whom did not hold a full driver’s licensehold a full driver’s license

Frequency of driving showed 48 to have Frequency of driving showed 48 to have not driven at all and 49 two or more times not driven at all and 49 two or more times a week.a week.

Illicit Drug UseIllicit Drug Use

The most commonly used drugs The most commonly used drugs were cannabis, alcohol, and were cannabis, alcohol, and heroinheroin

SDS scores were high on all drugs SDS scores were high on all drugs showing high dependency across showing high dependency across the boardthe board

Illicit Drug and Driving Illicit Drug and Driving BehaviorBehavior

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Cannabis StimulantsMethadone HeroinDrug Type

Accident InvolvementAccident Involvement

41.4% who had consumed drugs prior 41.4% who had consumed drugs prior to driving, reported having at least to driving, reported having at least one road accidentone road accident

Of these, 62.5% reported at least one Of these, 62.5% reported at least one accident after having consumed drugs accident after having consumed drugs before drivingbefore driving

Drivers involved in drug-impaired Drivers involved in drug-impaired driving accidents were less likely to be driving accidents were less likely to be involved in non-impaired accidentsinvolved in non-impaired accidents

Drug-Driving Beliefs Drug-Driving Beliefs and Perceptionsand Perceptions This study showed that perceptions This study showed that perceptions

of accident involvement and of accident involvement and impaired driving skills after drinking impaired driving skills after drinking alcohol in comparison to other alcohol in comparison to other drugs for drugs for frequent frequent and and sometimes sometimes frequency of illicit drugs and driving frequency of illicit drugs and driving (IDDF) groups were consistently (IDDF) groups were consistently more negative than for drivers who more negative than for drivers who reported reported never never IDDFIDDF

DiscussionDiscussion

Festinger explained this mentality Festinger explained this mentality and finding as denial because he and finding as denial because he stated that driving while using drugs stated that driving while using drugs after enduring a lengthy treatment after enduring a lengthy treatment program would likely create a great program would likely create a great deal of uncomfortable cognitive deal of uncomfortable cognitive dissonance that could be resolved by dissonance that could be resolved by a major attitude shift about the a major attitude shift about the drugs.drugs.

Discussion continued...Discussion continued...

It may also be that lack of awareness It may also be that lack of awareness of outcomes drug-driving, unlike of outcomes drug-driving, unlike drink-driving is to blamedrink-driving is to blame

However, reports from IDDF testing However, reports from IDDF testing showed frequent drug-driver users to showed frequent drug-driver users to be aware and said to have been be aware and said to have been informed previously on drug-driving informed previously on drug-driving yet still continue to perceive alcohol a yet still continue to perceive alcohol a bigger riskbigger risk

Are You The Master Are You The Master Of Your Fate?Of Your Fate?

Rotter, J.B. (1966)Rotter, J.B. (1966)

Julian Rotter Julian Rotter

One of the most influential One of the most influential behaviorists in psychology's behaviorists in psychology's historyhistory

Proposed that individuals differ a Proposed that individuals differ a great deal in where they place great deal in where they place the responsibility for what the responsibility for what happens to themhappens to them

Locus of ControlsLocus of Controls

When you interpret the consequences When you interpret the consequences of their behavior to be controlled by of their behavior to be controlled by luck, fate, or powerful others, this is luck, fate, or powerful others, this is an an external locus of controlexternal locus of control

When people interpret their own When people interpret their own behavior and personality behavior and personality characteristic as responsible for characteristic as responsible for behavioral consequences, it is an behavioral consequences, it is an internal locus of controlinternal locus of control

The Social Learning The Social Learning Theory of Locus of Theory of Locus of ControlsControls Behaviors in childhood that were Behaviors in childhood that were

followed by rein forcers establish an followed by rein forcers establish an expectancy of a desired reinforcerexpectancy of a desired reinforcer

Rotter claimed that the totality of Rotter claimed that the totality of your specific learning experiences your specific learning experiences creates in you a generalized creates in you a generalized expectancy about whether expectancy about whether reinforcement is internally or reinforcement is internally or externally controlledexternally controlled

MethodMethod

Rotter designed a scale containing Rotter designed a scale containing paired statements. One statement paired statements. One statement reflecting an internal locus while the reflecting an internal locus while the other externalother external

You choose a statement which you You choose a statement which you believed to be more true rather than believed to be more true rather than the other (personal belief)the other (personal belief)

Contains 23 items with 6 filler Contains 23 items with 6 filler questionsquestions


Rotter called his test the I-E ScaleRotter called his test the I-E Scale He examined I-E Scale scores in He examined I-E Scale scores in

relation to individuals’ interactions relation to individuals’ interactions with various events in their lives. with various events in their lives. They found significant correlations They found significant correlations between the scores and situations between the scores and situations involving gambling, political activism, involving gambling, political activism, persuasion, smoking, achievement persuasion, smoking, achievement motivation, and conformitymotivation, and conformity

Results:Results:GamblingGambling Individuals identified as internals by the Individuals identified as internals by the

I-E Scale tended to prefer betting on I-E Scale tended to prefer betting on sure things and liked intermediate oddssure things and liked intermediate odds

Externals would wager more money on Externals would wager more money on risky bets and would tend to engage in risky bets and would tend to engage in shifts in betting called gambler’s fallacy shifts in betting called gambler’s fallacy (betting more on a number that has not (betting more on a number that has not come up for a while on the basis that it come up for a while on the basis that it is due)is due)

Political ActivismPolitical Activism

Findings indicated that those who Findings indicated that those who participated in marches and joined participated in marches and joined civil rights groups were significantly civil rights groups were significantly more oriented toward an internal more oriented toward an internal locus of controllocus of control

This derived from questioning of This derived from questioning of African American students in the U.S. African American students in the U.S. About activities related to the civil About activities related to the civil rights movement (1960s)rights movement (1960s)

PersuasionPersuasion

2 groups were taken. (one highly 2 groups were taken. (one highly external, the other highly internal)external, the other highly internal)

Both shared similar views about Both shared similar views about fraternity and sorority systems on fraternity and sorority systems on campus and asked to change another campus and asked to change another students attitude about the students attitude about the organizationsorganizations

Internals were more successful and Internals were more successful and more resistant to manipulation more resistant to manipulation

SmokingSmoking

Smokers tend to be significantly Smokers tend to be significantly more external that nonsmokersmore external that nonsmokers

Individuals who quit smoking after Individuals who quit smoking after the original Surgeon General ‘s the original Surgeon General ‘s warning appeared on cigarette warning appeared on cigarette packs were more internally oriented, packs were more internally oriented, even though both internals and even though both internals and externals believed the warning to externals believed the warning to be truebe true

Achievement Achievement MotivationMotivation A study of 1,000 high school A study of 1,000 high school

students that found a positive students that found a positive relationship between an internal relationship between an internal score and 15 out of 17 indicators score and 15 out of 17 indicators that included plans for college, that included plans for college, time spent on work, and how time spent on work, and how interested the parents were in the interested the parents were in the students’ workstudents’ work

ConformityConformity

A test developed by Solomon Asch, in A test developed by Solomon Asch, in which a subject’s willingness to agree which a subject’s willingness to agree with a majority’s incorrect judgment with a majority’s incorrect judgment was evidence for conforming behaviorwas evidence for conforming behavior

Subjects were allowed to bet with Subjects were allowed to bet with money (provided by the experimenters) money (provided by the experimenters) on correctness of judgmentson correctness of judgments

Internals conformed significantly less Internals conformed significantly less than the externals didthan the externals did


Three potential sources for the Three potential sources for the development of internal-external development of internal-external orientations are suggested: Cultural orientations are suggested: Cultural differences, socioeconomic differences, differences, socioeconomic differences, and variations in styles of parentingand variations in styles of parenting

In cultural differences: Ute Indians, In cultural differences: Ute Indians, Mexican Americans, and Caucasians Mexican Americans, and Caucasians were compared. The Ute Indians were were compared. The Ute Indians were more external and whites more internalmore external and whites more internal


These findings suggest that a lower These findings suggest that a lower socioeconomic position predicts socioeconomic position predicts greater externalitygreater externality

Rotter did not provide supportive Rotter did not provide supportive research for styles of parenting but research for styles of parenting but suggested that parents who administer suggested that parents who administer rewards and punishments that are rewards and punishments that are unpredictable and inconsistent develop unpredictable and inconsistent develop an external locus of controlan external locus of control

Rotter Hypothesis of Rotter Hypothesis of Internal Locus of Internal Locus of controlcontrol 1. Gain information 1. Gain information

from the situation in from the situation in their life in order to their life in order to improve future improve future behavior in those behavior in those situations or similar situations or similar onesones

2. Take initiative to 2. Take initiative to change and improve change and improve the conditions in lifethe conditions in life

3. Place greater 3. Place greater value on inner value on inner skill and skill and achievement of achievement of goalsgoals

4. Be more able 4. Be more able to resist to resist manipulation by manipulation by othersothers

Follow-up StudyFollow-up Study

““Psychological Adjustment to Cancer Psychological Adjustment to Cancer in a Collective Culture” (2000)in a Collective Culture” (2000)

Lina N.N. Sun and Sunita Mahtani Lina N.N. Sun and Sunita Mahtani StewartStewart

They examined the associations They examined the associations between social support, health locus between social support, health locus of control, and nasopharyngeal of control, and nasopharyngeal patientspatients

Looking at the Looking at the VariablesVariables Social support: important predictor of Social support: important predictor of

emotional adjustment. It is used as a emotional adjustment. It is used as a coping strategy and decreases stress. coping strategy and decreases stress. This includes support from both family This includes support from both family members and medical professionalsmembers and medical professionals

Perceived control: Important in Perceived control: Important in buffering the effects of stressors. buffering the effects of stressors. Studies suggest internal beliefs are Studies suggest internal beliefs are more adaptivemore adaptive

(continued)...(continued)...

Individualistic predisposition to Individualistic predisposition to experience distress or negative affect: experience distress or negative affect: Hong Kong’s sample place less emphasis Hong Kong’s sample place less emphasis on independence although it is on independence although it is “modernized” (non-Western values). “modernized” (non-Western values). They also have access to good public They also have access to good public care at nominal costcare at nominal cost

*Cross-cultural studies suggest Chinese *Cross-cultural studies suggest Chinese individuals to more “external believers”individuals to more “external believers”

MethodsMethods

152 nasopharyngeal cancer patients 152 nasopharyngeal cancer patients (NCP) (NCP)

105 males. 46 females.105 males. 46 females. Age ranged from 15-78 years. Age ranged from 15-78 years.

Average age: 45.5Average age: 45.5 Average educational level was Average educational level was

secondary and incomes reflected a secondary and incomes reflected a middle and lower-middle class middle and lower-middle class populationpopulation

MeasuresMeasures

All measures were administered in All measures were administered in ChineseChinese

Demographic information: gender, Demographic information: gender, age, education level, family income, age, education level, family income, time since diagnosis, etc.time since diagnosis, etc.

Social support measures: Was Social support measures: Was measured on size of network, amount measured on size of network, amount of social activity, and resilience of social activity, and resilience (quality) of support(quality) of support

Measures continued...Measures continued...

Locus of control: An 18-item Locus of control: An 18-item Multidimensional Health Locus of Multidimensional Health Locus of Control was developed to assess Control was developed to assess health-related beliefs. Three constructs health-related beliefs. Three constructs used were : “Internal”, “Chance”, and used were : “Internal”, “Chance”, and “Powerful Others”“Powerful Others”

Coping strategies: COPE consists of 28 Coping strategies: COPE consists of 28 items measuring 12 different subscales items measuring 12 different subscales derived on a theoretical basisderived on a theoretical basis


Psychological well being: They used Psychological well being: They used the Chinese version of the General the Chinese version of the General Health Questionnaire. Consists of Health Questionnaire. Consists of statements describing various statements describing various symptomssymptoms

Neuroticism: 11-item Chinese Neuroticism: 11-item Chinese Neuroticism Questionnaire. Example: Neuroticism Questionnaire. Example: “In general are your feelings easily “In general are your feelings easily hurt” with yes/no responseshurt” with yes/no responses


Domains and intensity of cancer-Domains and intensity of cancer-related stress: Patients indicated their related stress: Patients indicated their appraised level of stress in 4 specific appraised level of stress in 4 specific cancer-related stressors:cancer-related stressors:

1. Fear and uncertainty about the 1. Fear and uncertainty about the futurefuture

2. Limitations in physical ability, 2. Limitations in physical ability, appearance, or life style due to appearance, or life style due to cancercancer

(continued)(continued)

3. Acute pain, symptoms, or 3. Acute pain, symptoms, or discomfort from illness or discomfort from illness or treatmenttreatment

4. Problems with family or friends 4. Problems with family or friends related to cancerrelated to cancer

ResultsResults

Gender did not correlate with Gender did not correlate with adjustment variablesadjustment variables

Use of Social Support: Participants Use of Social Support: Participants reported using support more reported using support more frequently when stressors were seen frequently when stressors were seen as uncontrollable. Families were also as uncontrollable. Families were also the most frequent source of social the most frequent source of social interaction than with friendsinteraction than with friends

Results continued...Results continued...

The size of the social network and the The size of the social network and the frequency of social interaction did not frequency of social interaction did not matter, however, the quality of the matter, however, the quality of the support didsupport did

The only domains that contributed The only domains that contributed variance to the depression score were variance to the depression score were the domains of physical ability, the domains of physical ability, appearance, and life style limitations, appearance, and life style limitations, and of problems with friends and familyand of problems with friends and family

Results...Results...

Health locus of control and Health locus of control and adjustment: Contrary to adjustment: Contrary to prediction, internal locus of prediction, internal locus of control was associated positively control was associated positively with depression with depression


These finding support that social These finding support that social relationships are important relationships are important barometers of well being in Chinese barometers of well being in Chinese populations, and should themselves populations, and should themselves be considered outcome variablesbe considered outcome variables

Internal Locus of control are Internal Locus of control are associated positively with adjustment associated positively with adjustment whereas chance locus of control whereas chance locus of control relates negatively relates negatively


Although at certain levels it would Although at certain levels it would contradict, Hong Kong culture is contradict, Hong Kong culture is collective and their belief that inner collective and their belief that inner causes (correct thoughts, wishes) can causes (correct thoughts, wishes) can have important effects.have important effects.

““Feng Shui” which is part of “Chance” Feng Shui” which is part of “Chance” beliefs are typically accompanied by a beliefs are typically accompanied by a set of prescriptions to increase control, set of prescriptions to increase control, rather than feelings of absence of controlrather than feelings of absence of control

Limitations of the Limitations of the StudyStudy In-depth interviews may have In-depth interviews may have

revealed additional variablesrevealed additional variables The issue of causality cannot be The issue of causality cannot be

addressed as the study was done addressed as the study was done cross-sectionalcross-sectional

The patients were limited to the The patients were limited to the public hospital of Hong Kong and did public hospital of Hong Kong and did not include any private or other not include any private or other hospitalshospitals

Thoughts Out of Tune Festinger, L. & Carlsmith, J.M. (1959)

Documents

fear cognitive dissonance

forced position slide

hours task

attitude change

rewards additional studies

smaller rewards

bias responses task

scientific basis