Thomas Campbell’s Propositions · Web viewScriptural Teachings on the Church. OT background. Humanity was created male and female, in God’s image. We were created as social creatures,

1 Scriptural Teachings on the Church

OT background

Humanity was created male and female, in God’s image. We were created as social creatures, to live together as a community, and it is in this way that humanity represents God and exercises dominion. Our social identity is essential to our intended purpose. Also, the placement of Adam and Eve in the garden of Eden expresses the intent for humanity to serve as a priesthood, to have fellowship with God and to mediate between God and the rest of creation. This is the original purpose of humankind, which would become the purpose for the church.

Because of sin, God can achieve His purpose through us and for us only by redeeming us. The first phase of God’s plan for redemption of humanity was to choose Abraham to be the father of a special people, called out from the rest of the world – a people to whom He would especially reveal Himself, and through whom He would bring salvation to all peoples. This idea of being called out from the world is the meaning of “church” (ekklesia).

Through Moses, God delivered His chosen people from Egyptian bondage, and made a covenant with them at Mt. Sinai, establishing them as a holy nation. In like manner, God has also delivered His church from the bondage of sin, making a new covenant that establishes the church as a holy nation, a royal priesthood, whose citizenship is in heaven.

God then made a promise to David that he would have a descendant who would rule over an everlasting kingdom (2 Samuel 7:12-16). This promise of the Messiah (“Anointed One”) and His kingdom, which is most prominent in the Psalms and in Isaiah, is fulfilled in Jesus the Messiah and those who acknowledge Him as their Lord. But He is not only the majestic King seated on the throne of David, He is also the humble, suffering Servant (Isaiah 53). Jesus Christ and His church fulfill the kingdom promises, partly in this age, and in totality in the new creation. The goals, values and principles of the kingdom are to be embraced and manifested in the church. We reign with Him, but as a suffering servant.

Due to the unfaithfulness of Israel, it is only a remnant that would be delivered from Babylonian captivity, and only a remnant that in the end would be saved, as proclaimed by the prophets. This remnant is fulfilled in the church, which includes those Jews who received the Messiah. The church is thus the successor to Israel, a faithful remnant defined by their faith in Jesus: those who receive Him as Christ and Lord.

The Gospels

In the synoptic Gospels, the teachings and ministry of Jesus are primarily about the kingdom – that it has arrived, with power, in Jesus. He did not come to abolish the law or the prophets, but to fulfill (Matthew 5:17). By the same principle, the church does not abolish Israel, but fulfills Israel. Further teachings about the kingdom are that it is not of this world, and that its complete establishment over all the earth awaits His return, at the end of the age. Meanwhile, we are to live in accordance with the kingdom, as citizens of the kingdom, and being always prepared and ready for the return of the King. Matthew, especially, concludes with a powerful and concise statement from Jesus about the church’s mission, and our empowerment to carry it out: “All authority has been given to Me in heaven and on earth. Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy spirit, teaching them to observe all that I commanded you; and lo, I am

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with you always, even to the end of the age.” (Matthew 28:18-20)An important function of the church, addressed in Matthew 18:15-20, is self-discipline.

See also 2 Thessalonians 3:6,14-15; Galatians 6:1; Titus 3:10-11; 2 John 10. These passages show the proper procedure for dealing with sin in the church, and the assurance that leadership decisions on excommunication are authorized by the Father. An example of exercising discipline is found in 1 Corinthians 5:1-5,9-13; 2 Corinthians 2:5-11; and examples of failure to exercise needed discipline are in Revelation 2:14-15,20-23.

In Jesus’ priestly prayer (John 17) He asks for unity among His people, in order that the world will know that the Father had sent Him. He also asserts that His people are not of the world, but He asks that the Father not take them out of the world. These are crucial guidelines for how the church should live: 1) in unity, 2) not of the world, but 3) nevertheless in the world. Nearly all the church’s shortcomings can be traced to failures on these three counts: divisions, worldliness, and attempts to isolate ourselves from tribulations in the world. Regarding unity, it is to be a unity that is visible to the world, to give testimony. An abstract unity of the “invisible church” is of no value for the world. Secondly, Jesus was in the world, in that the Word became flesh, totally sharing our burdens and griefs. But He was not of the world, in that all He did and said was from the Father. Similarly, because we love God, we are not of the world. But because we love our neighbors, we are in the world. Because of Paul’s love for God, He desired to depart, to be with the Lord. But because of Paul’s love for his neighbors, he was willing to remain (Philippians 1:23-24). To avoid being of the world is to have the wisdom from above, rather than earthly wisdom (James 3:13-18). To be in the world is to have a living faith (James 4:26), a faith that does good and useful work.

Furthermore, our methods and tactics should be consistent with our goals and values. A church that relies on tactics that are of the world, regardless of how worthy the goals, is a church that is of the world. This means that in our evangelism and church-growth strategies, there should be no place for force, or manipulation, or pandering to selfish worldly desires (felt needs). We rely rather on the power of the pure and authentic gospel and the power of the Spirit (Romans 1:16; 1 Corinthians 1:18-25; 2:1-5). These are our weapons of warfare (Ephesians 6:10-17).

Acts of the Apostles

The apostles, and the early church, continue the works of Jesus Christ, by the Spirit (Acts 1:4-5; 2:1-4, 16-21, 33-38; 3:6-8,16). The presence of the kingdom, and its power, are thus now located in the church, as it had previously been in the person of Jesus (see John 14:12). They were devoted to the apostles’ doctrine, fellowship, breaking of bread and prayer (Acts 2:42), and they held all things in common, because they were of one heart and soul (Acts 2:45; 4:32-35). Foundational to our fellowship and worship and all that we do is a devotion to the apostles’ doctrine, which means all subsequent teachings in the church must be critiqued against that standard. All teachings must be evaluated against the original teachings found in New Testament scripture. As John later said, test the spirits (1 John 4:1).

As the church grew, it became necessary to appoint others, in addition to the apostles, to assume officially delegated responsibilities. The apostles therefore directed the people to select from among them seven men to put in charge of serving food to the needy, so the apostles could devote their time to prayer and the ministry of the word. The whole congregation then selected seven men full of faith and of the Holy Spirit to be in charge of those tasks. One

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important principle presented here is that the appointments were by the whole congregation, indicating their reliance upon the leading of the Spirit, through a Spirit-filled congregation. The power and authority of the church comes from the Spirit, manifested and revealed primarily through the entire congregation, which then establishes and supports the leadership of the church. The grace and power of God in the church arises from the bottom-up, not flowing from the top-down.

A special emphasis is placed on extending the kingdom beyond the Jews: Philip preached the word to Samaritans (Acts 7:4-24); Saul was converted and commissioned especially to go to the Gentiles (Acts 9:1-19); and Peter was sent to preach the gospel to Cornelius (Acts 10:1-48). It was thus revealed that “God is not one to show partiality, but in every nation the man who fears Him and does what is right is welcome to Him.” (10:34-35).

At the end of Paul’s missionary journeys, he spoke to the elders of the Ephesus church: “Be on guard for yourselves and for all the flock, among which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers, to shepherd the church of God...”: (Acts 20:28). An important point we can draw from this is that his main concern, regarding the responsibility of elders, is that they protect the church from false teachings. Secondly, we note that there is no distinction between “elder” (presbyter), “overseer” (bishop), and “pastor”. They are interchangeable titles for the same office.

Epistles

Paul advocates for unity: for Jews and Gentiles to accept one another in the church (Romans 1:16; 15:7-12; Ephesians 2:14-19), for there to be no partisan divisions (1 Corinthians 1:10-17; 3:3-9), and for there to be no other ethnic or social distinctions in Christ (Galatians 3:28). James also admonishes that we should not show favoritism for the rich over the poor (James 2:1-7). In Ephesians 4:1-6, Paul exhorts us to fulfill this intended unity. It is a unity supplied by the Spirit (Ephesians 4:3), and based ultimately upon there being one God: “There is one body and one Spirit, just as also you were called in one hope of your calling; one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all who is over all and through all and in all.” These appeals for unity among all kinds of people seriously call into question the practices in many churches of focusing on a target audience, and of depending upon a variety of small clique-groups for “fellowship”.

Paul describes the church as the body of Christ, with its various members performing different functions, but all working together under one head, and each one essential to the health of the entire body. There is to be a diversity of gifts and ministries, but unity of purpose (Romans 12:3-8; 1 Corinthians 12:12-31; Ephesians 1:22-23; 4:4-13; Colossians 2:19). Since the gifts and associated ministries are given and distributed by the Spirit (1 Cor 12:4-11), the exercise of those gifts should not be stifled by an authoritarian leadership.

Paul speaks of the church as the fulfillment of Israel (Romans 2:28-29; 4:16; 9:6-8; Phil 3:3; Galatians 3:7,29; 6:16). As the true spiritual descendants of Abraham, the church is a family: Jesus’ true brothers and sisters (Matthew 12:46-50), and the children of God (John 1:12; 1 John 3:1). The author of Hebrews also presents the church as fulfilling Israel’s destiny and the kingdom promises: “You have come to Mount Zion and to the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem, and to myriads of angels, to the general assembly and church of the firstborn who are enrolled in heaven...” (Hebrews 12:22-23). Similarly, Peter says: “you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for God’s own possession...” (1 Peter

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2:9). This supports the important reformation doctrine of the priesthood of all believers (see also Revelation 1:6; 5:10). Our access to God depends in part upon this priestly function of fellow believers. We serve as priests for one another. Another aspect of fulfilling the old covenant is in regard to the tabernacle and the temple. Both Paul and Peter describe the church as the temple of the Spirit, the dwelling place of God on earth (1 Cor 3:16;6:19-20; 2 Cor 6:16; Ephesians 2:20-22; 1 Peter 2:4-5).

Paul also describes the church as the bride of Christ, in that the relationship between husband and wife is analogous to that between Christ and the church (Ephesians 5:25-33). This is consistent with the teachings in the gospels that describe Christ as the bridegroom (Matthew 25:1-13; Mark 2:19; John 3:29) and the vision in Revelation 21 of the holy city, prepared and adorned as a bride. Just as husband and wife become one flesh in marriage, so Christ and His church shall become united. Notice that the bride is the entire church, meaning that individuals participate in this union with Christ, only by being a part of the church.

Regarding leadership in the church, Paul gave instructions to Timothy and Titus on the qualifications of elders and deacons (1 Timothy 3:1-13; Titus 1:5-9), emphasizing spiritual maturity, moral integrity, and teaching ability. Peter also gave instructions regarding elders (1 Peter 5:1-3), that they should shepherd the flock voluntarily, not for sordid gain, and not as “lording it over” the flock, but by being examples to the flock. Notice that all New Testament references to elders/pastors/bishops assume that there is a plurality of elders for each church, with no elders exercising authority over more than one church. There is to be only one layer of “middle management”, and they are to be in direct contact with all their people.

Revelation

In the letters to the seven churches, in Revelation 2 and 3, we see the standards by which Christ judges the church. He expects the church to be holy and faithful, in resisting the cultural pressures to compromise with idolatry and immorality. He insists also that we keep the greatest commandments: to love God and to love one another. His harshest criticism is for Sardis (which had a name that it was alive, but was dead) and for Laodicea (who thought they were rich, but were in fact spiritually impoverished). Those who were persecuted in the world were blessed by God, and those who were comfortable and prospering in the world were under God’s judgment. This is in line with Paul’s teachings that God’s strength is manifested in our weakness (1 Cor 2:2-5; 2 Cor 12:9), and that we should boast in Christ only (1 Cor 1:31; 2 Cor 10:17). These are the criteria of “success” that we should apply to our churches in this day. We should seek to be like Smyrna and Philadelphia, not Sardis and Laodicea.

In all of the visions of revelation, we see that the church: 1) suffers persecution; 2) is spiritually protected by God; and 3) reigns with Christ, even while engaged in the spiritual warfare. This is what it means to be “in the world”. We suffer with Him, in order that we may be glorified with Him (Romans 8:17).

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2 The Early Church – Expansion and Persecution

Expansion

The New Testament gives some indication of the spread of the Christian faith during the first century, through Paul’s missionary journeys, and due to the travels of Jews of the dispersion who visited Jerusalem for the feasts – especially those who were there for Peter’s Pentecost sermon. There were surely many evangelistic missions and church plantings throughout the empire that were not recorded in the New Testament. During the 2nd century, Christianity became firmly established in the Gallic Greek-speaking communities of Lyons (Irenaeus) and Vienne. By the 3rd century, the church was well established in southern Spain; and in Italy, Christianity spread beyond Rome into the central and southern regions. In North Africa, Carthage became an early and important church, with Latin language and culture.

The most prominent churches of the eastern Mediterranean were in Antioch, Alexandria and Ephesus. Churches were established mostly in Hellenistic, Greek-speaking communities. But most of Greece, especially Athens, held to their traditional philosophy and cults. By the beginning of the 4th century, parts of scriptures had been translated into non-Greek vernaculars, laying the foundations for the native Egyptian (Coptic) church. Gregory / Thaumaturgus (“Worker of Wonders”), of Pontus, was converted by Origen, and became bishop of Neocaesarea in 240. It was said that Gregory began with only seventeen Christians, but at his death there remained only seventeen pagans in the whole city.

Before the end of 3rd century, churches had also become established outside the Roman empire, particularly in the Tigris-Euphrates valley, on the borders of Persia. There was a mass conversion of Armenia late in the 3rd century, led by Gregory the Illuminator. He converted the king, and the population then rapidly followed by adopting the new faith. This is an example of a group adoption of the Christian faith engineered by their accepted leaders. There is also a strong tradition that the apostle Thomas established churches in India.

Persecution

Initially, the Christian Way was regarded as a Jewish sect. Therefore, Rome accorded the Christians the same special tolerance as they had practiced towards the Jews, and persecutions of Christians were primarily instigated by the Jews. The first significant Roman persecution was by Nero. In 64 AD, a great fire devastated much of the city of Rome, and rumors circulated that Nero was responsible. Tacitus, the historian, wrote: “In spite of every human effort, of the emperor’s largesse, and of the sacrifices made to the gods, nothing sufficed to allay suspicion nor to destroy the opinion that the fire had been ordered. Therefore, in order to destroy this rumor, Nero blamed the Christians... Thus, first those who confessed [that they were Christians] were arrested, and on the basis of their testimony a great number were condemned, although not so much for the fire itself as for their hatred of humankind.... Before killing the Christians, Nero used them to amuse the people. Some were dressed in furs, to be killed by dogs. Others were crucified. Still others were set on fire early in the night, so that they might illumine [the gardens].”

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During the time of the emperor Domitian (81-96 AD), there was a persecution of both Jews and Christians, primarily in Rome and in the province of Asia. Regarding the persecutions in Rome, First Clement speaks of “the continuous and unexpected evils which have come upon us.” In regard to Asia Minor, it was the occasion of John’s exile, and Revelation describes Rome as “the great harlot ... drunk with the blood of the saints and the blood of the martyrs of Jesus” (Rev. 17:1,6).

From this time on, it was clear to Rome that Christianity was a separate religion from Judaism, and so they were no longer shielded from Roman laws requiring allegiance to their gods and to the emperor. Christians confessed Jesus Christ as Lord (kurios), instead of Caesar, and regarded Caesar as the anti-Christ, and were thus considered to be hostile to the state. Christians were regarded as “atheists” and anti-social because they refused to worship the pagan gods or participate in their ceremonies. They were therefore considered a threat to the community, by weakening social cohesion, and displeasing the gods.

Correspondence between the Emperor Trajan (98-117) and Pliny the Younger (imperial legate in Bithynia) indicated that Christianity was officially prohibited. If Christians recanted, they were to be spared; but if they resisted, they were to be executed. Pliny’s practice was to offer them three opportunities to recant, while threatening them with death. If they refused, he had them executed, not so much for being Christians as for their obstinacy (contempt of court). Throughout the second century, and part of the third, it was imperial policy not to seek out Christians; but if they were brought before the authorities, and they refused compliance, they would be punished.

In 107 or 108 AD, Ignatius, the elderly bishop of Antioch, was condemned to death by the imperial authorities. Since festivities were being planned in Rome, Ignatius was sent to the capital so that his death might provide entertainment for the people. On his way to martyrdom, he wrote seven letters. Christians in Rome were considering the possibility of freeing him from death, but he wrote to them: “I fear your kindness, which may harm me. You may be able to achieve what you plan. But if you pay no heed to my request it will be very difficult for me to attain unto God.” He wanted them to pray, not that he be freed, but that he may have the strength to face every trial... “so that I may not only be called a Christian, but also behave as such.” Ignatius wanted to become a witness: “If you remain silent about me, I shall become a word of God.”

In 155 AD, Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, was arrested. The judge insisted that he worship the emperor, promising that if he would swear by the emperor and curse Christ he would be free to go. But Polycarp replied: “For eighty-six years I have served him, and he has done me no evil. How could I curse my king, who saved me?” He was therefore sentenced to be burned at the stake. After he was tied to the post in the pyre, he looked up and prayed out loud: “Lord Sovereign God... I thank you that you have deemed me worthy of this moment, so that, jointly with your martyrs, I may have a share in the cup of Christ.... For this... I bless and glorify you. Amen.” Many years earlier, Ignatius of Antioch had advised young Bishop Polycarp regarding his duties as bishop and the need to be firm in his faith. Now Polycarp showed himself a worthy recipient of Ignatius’s advice, and a follower of his example.

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Septimius Severus (193-211) issued an edict in 202 forbidding conversions to Christianity, leading to a new wave of persecutions. The father of Origen, in Alexandria, perished in this persecution. Origen, who was an adolescent at the time, desired to share his fate, but was prevented by his mother. In the following year, in Carthage, five young catechumens, some in their teens, were arrested for converting, and would be executed at the military games celebrating the emperor’s birthday. They included a 22-year old woman, Perpetua, who was nursing an infant child, and her servant, Felicity, who was pregnant. Perpetua’s father tried to persuade her to save her life by renouncing her faith. But she replied that she had the name of Christian, and this could not be changed. Felicity was concerned that she would not be allowed to suffer martyrdom with the others, because the law prohibited the execution of a pregnant woman. She prayed that she would not be spared the punishment, and her prayer was answered when she gave birth at 8 months, prior to the scheduled games. Seeing her moan in childbirth, her jailers asked how she expected to be able to face the beasts in the arena. Her answer is typical of the martyrs: “Now my sufferings are only mine. But when I face the beasts there will be another who will live in me, and will suffer for me since I shall be suffering for him.” In the arena, they were hit and thrown about by a wild cow. Finally, the two bleeding women stood in the middle of the arena, bid each other farewell with the kiss of peace, and died by the sword of an executioner.

The early Christians generally held that one should not willfully seek martyrdom; it was not something that one chose, but something for which one was chosen by God. Those who were so chosen were strengthened by Christ who suffered with them, and for that reason were able to stand firm. Tertullian had declared that the blood of the martyrs was a seed, for the more it was spilled the greater the number of new Christians.

Decius became emperor in 249 and issued anti-Christian edicts that authorized renewed persecutions. It was part of a religious campaign for the restoration of ancestral religions that were being particularly undermined by Christianity. What was at stake, as Decius saw it, was the survival of Rome itself. Those who refused to worship the gods were guilty of high treason. Edicts commanded all citizens to sacrifice to the gods, and those who obeyed were given certificates of compliance. Many Christians complied; others simply purchased certificates from officials, without compliance. Others refused and were imprisoned, including Origen, the bishop of Rome, and the bishop of Jerusalem. The latter two perished in prison, and Origen died less than a year after release as a consequence of the tortures he endured.

Valerian (253-260) instituted a new wave of persecution in 257 AD. The bishops were singled out and commanded to do homage to the pagan gods, under pain of exile. Christians were threatened with the death penalty if they went to any meetings of the Church, or visited a Christian cemetery. In 258, an edict ordered the death of all bishops, priests and deacons; all Christians of high rank in the state had their property confiscated, and were executed if they did not renounce the faith. In Rome, the bishop was taken while teaching in one of the catacombs, and he and four of his deacons were slain. In Africa, Cyprian was beheaded. In Spain, a bishop was burned at the stake in an amphitheater with two of his deacons. This wave of persecution ended in 260 when Valerian was captured at war with the Persians. His successor, Gallienus, reversed his father’s policy and issued edicts of toleration for Christianity.

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Diocletian, in 303 AD, issued a decree to destroy church buildings, burn sacred books, demote Christians from places of honor, and enslave Christian servants who would not renounce their faith. Rulers of the churches were ordered to be imprisoned: they were offered release if they sacrificed to the pagan gods, and tortured if they refused, sometimes resulting in death. A fourth edict was issued in 304 by Maximian, joint emperor with Diocletian. This persecution lasted more than a decade. Some Christians renounced their faith to avoid imprisonment and torture, others sent pagans to sacrifice for them, but there were others who kept the faith and bore the punishments.

In 312, Constantine led his army from Britain to invade Italy, and was marching towards Rome to confront his rival Maxentius. He later reported to Eusebius that he had a vision of a cross of light in the heavens, with the inscription: “Conquer by this”; and in a later dream God appeared to him, commanding him to make a likeness of the cross and use it as a safeguard in all encounters with his enemies. In response, Constantine made a standard with the cross and the letters Chi and Rho, for the name of Christ. Using this standard, Constantine was the victor in the battle and took possession of Rome. In 313, in Milan, he issued an edict of toleration on behalf of Christianity. This did not make Christianity the sole religion of the state, but it guaranteed protection - that there would be no more persecution. His successors continued this policy, and the era of Roman persecution came to an end.

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3 The Early Church – Doctrine

Early Worship and Practices

Early Christians generally gathered for worship in private homes, but there was also an early custom of gathering at the tombs of the faithful (the catacombs). This was mainly because the church could not own property, but funeral societies were allowed, which could own cemetery property. The Didache (~ 65 - 80 AD) gives valuable insight to the teachings and practices of the late first-century church. It has many quotes and allusions to the New Testament, especially teachings of Jesus in the gospels. It is dominated by moral teachings and instructions for worship, intended primarily as preparation for baptism.

Issues of Doctrine

The earliest letter that we have from a church leader, outside of the New Testament, was Clement of Rome’s 1st letter to Corinth (~ 95 AD). This letter was in response to the Corinthian church removing their presbyters from office. Clement says that they had no right to do this, and that they should re-instate them to office.

Two other noteworthy Apostolic Fathers are Ignatius (35-107) of Antioch and Polycarp (69-155) of Smyrna. On his way to martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote seven letters to churches, providing counsel on several issues. Polycarp, a disciple of the apostle John, wrote a letter of exhortations to the Philippians. These letters confirm the continuity of the Apostles’ doctrine, and have several quotes from New Testament scripture.

Accusations against ChristiansTheir enemies slandered Christians, claiming their worship was an orgiastic celebration,

including the sacrifice of babies. They were also charged as atheists, in that they did not recognize any of the Greek or Roman gods. Furthermore, the high-cultured pagans regarded them as an ignorant rabble, holding foolish doctrines, especially the resurrection. This hostility was deeply rooted in class prejudice. The cultured and sophisticated could not accept that the Christian rabble could know a truth that was hidden from them.

It was the task of the apologists to refute these charges. Their rejection of the pagan gods was no different than that of the greatest Greek and Roman philosophers and poets, who believed there was only one invisible God. To the objections raised against the final resurrection, the apologists invoked divine omnipotence. If God made all bodies out of nothing, why would it be impossible for the same God to create them anew?

Heresies within the ChurchGnosticism — The Gnostics claimed to have access to secret teachings of mysteries, handed

down orally from the apostles to an initiated elite. Their doctrine, related to Docetism (to seem), was that the flesh and all physical creation are essentially evil, and salvation depends upon using their secret knowledge to liberate the spirit from the body. Therefore, Jesus was spiritual and only seemed to be in the flesh.

Marcionism -- Marcion (85-160) profoundly disliked both Judaism and the material world. According to him, the God and Father of Jesus is not the same as Yahweh of the Old Testament. Over against Yahweh, and far above him, is the Father-God of Christians. He

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rejected or radically reinterpreted the doctrines of creation, incarnation, and resurrection. He was expelled from the church in Rome for his heresies, and he responded by organizing his own rival splinter church with its own scripture. The orthodox church condemned this heresy, but Marcionite churches nevertheless continued into the fifth century.

Montanism — Montanus (~172) and his followers claimed that their movement was the beginning of a new age, marked by a new outpouring of the Spirit and new prophesies. They expected Christ would soon return and would establish the 1,000-year reign. This was rejected by the church as a heresy, because the Spirit was in fact poured forth on Pentecost, as recorded in Acts, which was the beginning of the new age.

In response to the heresies, the first elements of the Apostles’ Creed were written, probably in Rome, around the year 150. It was used as a “symbol of the faith”, to exclude those who followed Gnosticism and Marcionism. One of the main uses of this “symbol” was in baptism, where it was presented to the candidate as a series of three questions: 1) Do you believe in God, the Father almighty? 2) Do you believe in Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who was born of the Holy Ghost and of Mary the Virgin, who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, and died, and rose again at the third day, living from among the dead, and ascended unto heaven and sat at the right of the Father, and will come to judge the quick and the dead? 3) Do you believe in the Holy Ghost, the Holy Church, and the resurrection of the flesh?

The Greek word pantokrator, usually translated as “almighty,” literally means “all ruling.” This means that there is nothing—certainly not the material world—which falls outside of God’s rule. The second question emphasizes Jesus’ bodily existence, in the flesh. The doctrine of the resurrection opposes the Gnostic view that salvation is a liberation of the spirit from the body.

The church also appealed to the argument of Apostolic succession - pertaining to succession of teachings, through the bishops, in their public teaching – in order to oppose the Gnostic claims of secret teachings to an elite. The point was to show that the bishops of the time were indeed the true heirs of the apostles’ doctrine.

Canon of ScriptureThe official recognition of the canon was primarily motivated by the need to reject Gnostic

teachings, and to ensure the inclusion of inspired books that Marcion had rejected. In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of exactly the same books that would formally become the New Testament canon. The first council that accepted this canon was the Council of Rome (382). It was not an imposition by leadership, but was an acknowledgement and ratification of what the church had already accepted.

Justin Martyr (100-165) claimed that there were several points of contact between Christianity and pagan philosophy. He claimed that the human mind can understand reality because it shares in the Logos or universal reason that undergirds all reality. This Logos has come in the flesh, and is “the true light that enlightens” everyone (John 1:9,14). Justin opened the way for Christianity to claim whatever good it could find in classical culture.

Irenaeus (Bishop of Lyons) (130-202) taught that we are to be instructed by the “two hands” of God: the Word and the Holy Spirit. The goal of this process is what he calls “divinization”— to make us ever more like the divine. Irenaeus reflects the sort of theology that will become dominant in his native area of Asia Minor as well as in Syria, a theology dominated by the story of what God has done, is doing, and will do.

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Clement of Alexandria. (150-215 AD) was convinced that there is only one truth, and that therefore any truth to be found in Plato is the same truth that is revealed in Jesus Christ and in scripture. Philosophy was given to the Greeks just as the Law was given to the Jews. Both lead to the ultimate truth, now revealed in Christ.

In the Latin-speaking West, Tertullian, of Carthage (155-240), is the first exponent of a theology profoundly concerned over moral issues. Arguing as a lawyer, he said that once one has found the truth of Christianity, one should abandon any further search for truth. A Christian who is still searching for further truth lacks faith. “What does Athens have to do with Jerusalem? What does the Academy have to do with the Church?” He was the first to explain the trinity by the formula “one substance and three persons.” Likewise, when discussing how Jesus Christ can be both human and divine, he speaks of “one person” and “two substances” or “natures,” the divine and the human.

Origen, of Alexandria (~ 185-254 AD), opened and led a school of philosophy. The spirit of Origen’s theology is very similar to that of his teacher, Clement. He related Christian faith to the philosophical tradition that was then current in Alexandria, Platonism. Origen rejected the doctrines of Marcion and of the Gnostics, that the world is the creation of an inferior being; but he concluded that the existence of the physical world—as well as of history—is the result of sin. At this point there is a marked difference with Irenaeus, for whom the existence of history was part of the eternal purpose of God.

One of the issues the church faced in the aftermath of persecutions was the question of the lapsed (those who denied the faith to avoid persecution) and how they should be restored. This was a cause of division, and the most significant splinter group was the Donatists, in North Africa. They held to a more restrictive view about who could be restored to fellowship. They regarded the holiness of the church as consisting in the holiness of its members; while the orthodox catholic church saw it as grounded in the holiness of its Lord. The Donatists said the authority of a priest or bishop depended upon his personal holiness; for their opponents, such authority was derived from the office.

After the edict of Milan, a series of imperial edicts granted the church and its leaders special privileges, such as tax exemption and the right to bequeath property to the church. Because of this, the church eventually owned vast lands and other riches, and the new privileges, prestige and power granted to church leaders led to acts of arrogance and corruption. Also, Christian worship began to be influenced by imperial protocol: use of incense, luxurious garments for “priests,” and designation of the communion table as an “altar”. Eusebius described with great joy and pride the ornate churches that were being built. The result was a clerical aristocracy similar to the imperial aristocracy. Riches and pomp were seen as signs of divine favor, and the advent of Constantine and of the peace he brought was regarded as the final triumph of Christianity over its enemies. The church now became overwhelmed by those requesting baptism, and was unable to give them proper training and supervision. Many of the new converts brought with them beliefs and customs that the earlier church would have considered unacceptable.

For many, especially Christians from the lower classes, these developments were not a blessing, but rather a significant loss – they saw it as a corruption of the church. What these Christians had always hated in the Roman Empire was now becoming part of the church. The fourth century therefore witnessed a massive exodus of the most devout Christians to the deserts of Egypt and Syria to live a solitary life of poverty and piety. They later assembled into communities, which was the beginning of monasticism.

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Arius (256-336) and Arianism. — The bishop of Alexandria, Alexander, clashed over several issues with Arius, who was one of the most popular presbyters of the city. The main issue at stake was whether the Logos, the Word of God, was coeternal with God. The phrase that eventually became the Arian motto, “there was when He was not,” aptly focuses on the point at issue. Arius claimed that the Word was not God, but the first of all creatures. This false teaching also raises the question of how it is that Christ saves. For Alexander, Christ has achieved our salvation because in him God has entered human history and opened the way for our return to him. This is possible only if Jesus Christ, the Word, is fully God.

Council of Nicea - 325 AD. — Constantine convened a council of bishops to settle several issues, the most pressing and difficult being the teachings of Arius. The resolution they adopted clearly rejected Arianism: “We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of all things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only-begotten of the Father, that is, from

the substance of the Father, God of God, light of light, true God of true God, begotten, not made, of one substance [homoousios] with the Father, through whom all things were made, both in heaven and on earth, who for us humans and for our salvation descended and became incarnate, becoming human, suffered and rose again on the third day, ascended to the heavens, and will come to judge the living and the dead.

And in the Holy Spirit. “But those who say that there was when He was not, and that before being begotten He was

not, or that He came from that which is not, or that the Son of God is of a different substance or essence [ousia], or that He is created, or mutable, these the Catholic church anathematizes.”

This formula provided the basis for what is now called the Nicene Creed. The main point is that the Son was begotten “from the substance of the Father.” And the key word here is homoousios (of the same substance), meaning that the Son is just as divine as the Father. However, the Arian debate and division in the church continued for several years, due largely to interventions from the emperors and consequent political intrigues. It was not until the Council of Constantinople (381 AD) that this Nicene rejection of Arianism was universally adopted by church leadership.

Athansius (Bishop of Alexandria) (295-373) taught that the central fact of Christian faith is the incarnation of God in Jesus Christ. In the Arian controversy, Athansius was the chief advocate of the Nicene creed. He argued that our salvation requires a new creation, a radical reformation and restoration, which can be performed only by God. The full deity of Son and Spirit are therefore essential to salvation.

The Cappadocians (Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nanzianus) also made crucial contributions to the defense of the Nicene creed, culminating in the first canon of the Council of Constantinople (381 AD), which definitively rejected the Arian heresy. This canon also explained the Trinity as one divine essence (homoousios) in three persons (hypostasis), thus establishing the full deity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

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4 Early Medieval Church, 400 - 1200 AD

Augustine

Augustine (354 - 430) lived during the turbulent times of the barbarian invasions that brought down the Roman Empire. In the “Confessions”, Augustine describes his childhood and youth as focused on sinful and vain pursuits. In his youth, he was consumed with pride and worldliness, living with a mistress who bore him a son. He later became convinced of the vanity of his ways, and embarked on a spiritual quest for meaning. As he said in the beginning of his Confessions, which was written in the form of a prayer to God: “You made us for Yourself, and our heart is restless until it rests in You.” A more accurate reading is “You have made us to journey towards You…”. He was on a pilgrimage, seeking God. He first turned to the Manichean religion – a mystical Persian religion that explained evil as the eternal material world of darkness, alongside the good spiritual world of light. After several years of study, he concluded that this cannot be the answer.

He then became a student of Ambrose, bishop of Milan, and finally became convinced of the Christian gospel. But he struggled within himself, unwilling to give up the pleasures of the world. He prayed: “Give me chastity and continence; but not too soon.” His conversion occurred when he randomly opened a book of scriptures and read from Romans 13:13-14: “Not in reveling and drunkenness, not in debauchery and licentiousness, not in quarreling and jealousy. But put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh, to gratify its desires.” At that point he unreservedly repented, and was later baptized. He sought to lead a quiet, meditative life, but God had other plans. While at a church service in Hippo, the bishop preached about how God always sends shepherds for the flock, and then asked the congregation to pray for God’s guidance in case there was among them someone sent to be their minister. The congregation responded exactly as the bishop had hoped, and Augustine, much against his will, was ordained to serve as a priest in Hippo. Four years later, the bishop died, and Augustine became his successor.

Among his teachings were opposition to the strict fatalistic determinism of Manichaeism. Free actions are an exercise of our own free will; and this free will is the source of evil, opposing the one true and good God. Also, to deal with the violent conflicts between Catholics and Donatists, he developed the “Just War Theory”: 1) war is never just when its purpose is to satisfy territorial ambition, or the mere exercise of power; 2) a just war must be waged by properly instituted authority; and 3) even in the midst of the violence that is a necessary part of war, the motive of love must be central.

Another heresy that he opposed was the teachings of Pelagius, who claimed that when a person attains knowledge of the truth they have the power of will to obey. Augustine realized, however, that we are in bondage to sin, which has power over our will. It is only by God’s grace that we are liberated and enabled to come to Him, to accept His grace. The initiative in conversion is not human, but divine. Eventually Pelagianism was rejected by the church. Augustine further claimed that God’s grace is irresistible. This aspect of his teaching has ever since been a matter of theological controversy and dispute.

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The Visigoths, under Alaric, invaded Italy, and in 410 AD they sacked the city of Rome. Augustine’s book “The City of God” was largely motivated by this cataclysmic event. He was responding to the accusation from pagans that Rome had fallen because the city had become Christian, abandoning the traditional Roman gods. He says that there are two cities: the city of God, built on the love of God, and the earthly city of man, built on the love of self. Only the city of God is permanently enduring; all that is earthly passes away.

This leads him to a consideration of time and eternity. In the Confessions, Augustine questioned: “What is time? If no one asks me, I know what it is. If I wish to explain it to him who asks, I do not know.” He also writes: “What time could there be that you had not created? You made it, for time could not pass before You made time”. The significance is that in his own very turbulent and unstable time in history, it was important to know that God is not subject to time, but that He is the supreme Lord of time, and this can be the case only if He is the creator of time. When everything about us is unstable and falling apart, we can find stability in the eternal God who created time.

In his questioning and search for understanding, Augustine was not only seeking the peace that comes from trusting God, but also a deeper love of God that comes from deeper knowledge. To know Him is to Love Him; to know Him better, is to love Him better. Beyond the concerns about particular issues or problems, the development of doctrine addresses these higher objectives of building up our faith and our love. This was particularly the case for Augustine.

The Papacy and East vs. West

Leo the Great (400 - 461) was the first Bishop of Rome to fully consider himself to be the head of the church (Peter’s successor). He filled the power vacuum left by the weak and ineffective Roman emperor. When Atilla the Hun invaded Italy (453), Leo negotiated and persuaded him not to attach Rome; two years later, when the Vandals attacked, he was able to persuade them not to burn the city. After the last Roman emperor was deposed, in AD 476, the political authority and responsibilities of the papacy in the western church continued to increase, and in 800 AD, it was Pope Leo III who crowned Charlemagne as emperor of a new empire.

In the East, the Byzantine emperors in Constantinople maintained political control, and the bishops were obliged to submit to the emperors’ frequent interventions in church policies and doctrinal disputes. This difference in the political situation, as well as the differences between Greek and Latin cultures, resulted in increasing division between the eastern and western churches, with the final official schism between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches taking place in 1054.

Doctrinal Developments

Pope Gregory (590-604 AD) promoted celibacy for the clergy and confirmed several speculative doctrines that had previously been marginal: purgatory, penance/absolution, and mass as a repeating of the sacrifice of Christ. The abbot of Corbie, Radbertus (785-865), taught that when the bread and wine are consecrated, they are transformed into the body and blood of the Lord. This was controversial at the time, and the fully developed doctrine of

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transubstantiation was not officially adopted until the Fourth Lateran Council, 1215 AD. These doctrinal innovations, imposed by politicized bishops, are all contrary to the Apostles’ doctrine. This is in sharp contrast to the earlier teachings and creeds of the church fathers, who were seeking to simply clarify scriptural teachings, expressing a broad consensus of genuine theologians.

Islam and the Crusades

An Arabian merchant, Mohammed (570 - 632), claimed to have received a revelation from God, spoken through the archangel Gabriel, who commanded him to “recite” (meaning of “Koran”) what was spoken to him. He thus wrote down precisely, in the Koran, the words spoken by Gabriel. There are five basic mandatory acts for Muslims, referred to as the five pillars of Islam: 1) confession of faith that there is only one God, and Mohammed is His prophet; 2) ritual prayer five times per day; 3) almsgiving; 4) fasting during Ramadan (month that Koran was given); and 5) pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims are commissioned by the Koran to establish a kingdom, and to expand its rule over the earth, using warfare and violence as needed. And this is precisely what Mohammed and his successors did. Islam, as taught in the Koran, is indeed a religion of violence. Taking advantage of the chaotic political situation after the fall of Rome, they established their rule over North Africa, southern Spain, Palestine, Syria, Persia and Asia Minor. The success of the Islamic conquest was partly due to people perceiving it as a liberation from their political oppression, and their disenchantment with a corrupted Christendom that often favored the rich over the poor, as well as tolerating superstitions and idolatry. The consequence for Christians in these Islamic regions was that although they were allowed to worship, evangelism and conversions were prohibited by law.

As a reaction to the Islamic threat, Christianity in Europe became more tolerant of military actions, and more willing to endorse military campaigns. In 1095 AD, Pope Urban II launched the first crusade to retake the Holy Lands. “I say it to those who are present. I command that it be said to those who are absent. Christ commands it. All who go thither and lose their lives, be it on the road or on the sea, or in the fight against the pagans, will be granted immediate forgiveness for their sins. This I grant to all who will march, by virtue of the great gift which God has given me.” The armies were raised, and the crusaders successfully invaded the holy lands, taking Jerusalem in 1099. There was nothing glorious about this campaign; it was shamefully brutal, totally unworthy of the name of Christ. The Christians held control for a century, but the Muslims regrouped and, under the leadership of Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt, they took back Jerusalem in 1187. All the following crusades were dismal failures, with tragic loss of lives, bringing further dishonor to Christ and His church. The era of the crusades, ending with the 8th crusade in 1270, was a terrible low point in church history, resulting in the understandable animosity of Muslims ever since. Instead of overcoming evil with good, the “Christians” answered Islamic violence with their own violence, indisputably contrary to NT scripture. The world is still suffering the consequences.

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5 The High Medieval Church, 1000 - 1450 AD

Anselm (1033 – 1109), Archbishop of CanterburyAnselm is regarded as the founder of scholasticism, which attempts to explain revealed truth in a rational system - an exercise in “philosophical theology”. It is an approach that starts with revelation, accepted by faith, but uses reason to deepen our understanding. “I do not seek to understand that I may believe but believe that I might understand. For I believe this: unless I believe, I will not understand." He intended "an active love of God seeking a deeper knowledge of God".

One of Anselm’s original contributions was his ontological argument for the existence of God. An abbreviated form of this argument is: “By definition, God is a being than which none greater can be imagined. A being that necessarily exists in reality is greater than a being that does not necessarily exist. Therefore, God necessarily exists in reality.” The validity of this argument, or various modifications of it, is still a matter of serious debate.

Anselm also developed a new explanation of atonement: the satisfaction theory of atonement.Fallen humanity has offended God, and divine justice demands restitution for sin, but human beings are incapable of providing it. Justice demands infinite restitution for the offense against God’s infinite dignity. Full recompense could therefore only be made by Jesus, as a sinless being both fully divine and fully human. His crucifixion has infinite worth, thus satisfying the demand for infinite restitution. This explanation is an alternative, or complement, to the earlier teachings (Christus Victor) that the atonement is a victory over Satan achieved by Christ by His willing submission to death, and then overcoming death in resurrection. The relative value of these two explanations is a matter of theological dispute to this day.

On the subject of God’s foreknowledge and human free will, Anselm taught that eternity is an overarching present, all beheld at once by God, thus permitting both his "foreknowledge" and genuine free choice on the part of mankind. Pertaining to the importance of free will, he said: “Remove grace, and you have nothing whereby to be saved. Remove free will and you have nothing that could be saved.”

Other important scholars of this period were Peter Abelard (1079-1142), Peter Lombard (1100-1160), Bonaventure (1221-1274), Duns Scotus (1266-1308) and William of Ockham (1285-1347).

Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) founded the Franciscan order, which embraced extreme poverty and humility, with a primary mission of preaching the gospel and serving the poor. He said: “Remember that when you leave this earth, you can take with you nothing that you have received - only what you have given: a full heart, enriched by honest service, love, sacrifice and courage.” A prayer of Francis:

“Lord, make me an instrument of thy peace. Where there is hatred, let me sow love, Where there is injury, pardon; Where there is doubt, faith;

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Where there is despair, hope; Where there is darkness, light; And where there is sadness, joy. O Divine Master, Grant that I may not so much seek To be consoled as to console, To be understood as to understand, To be loved, as to love.

Dominic (1170-1221), motivated by the need to oppose heresies, established a monastic order devoted to both a disciplined, humble life-style, and rigorous scholarship and teaching. It was known as the “Order of Preachers”. Their main objective was preaching, teaching, and study, and poverty was seen as a means to that end (teaching by example, for credibility). He said: “We must sow the seed, not hoard it.”“A person who governs his passions is the master of the world. We must either rule them, or be ruled by them. It is better to be the hammer than the anvil.”

Universities and Scholasticism. Communities of scholars were formed, which became the forerunners of universities. The first major universities were at Paris (1150 - ) and Oxford (1096 - ). They were established as guilds of scholars, organized to defend the rights of their members, and to certify the level of proficiency achieved by their students. Both Franciscans and Dominicans participated as teachers in the universities. A form of theology known as Medieval “scholasticism” developed in the universities, which continued the tradition of the philosophical theologies of Anselm, Abelard and Lombard, applying reason to questions of faith. An important new element in their teaching was the works of Aristotle, made available by Latin commentaries produced by the Islamic scholar Averroes (1126-1198). There were two general schools of thought: 1) The Dominicans (Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas) who placed greater emphasis on reason, creating a synthesis of Aristotle and Christian revelation; and 2) The Franciscans (Bonaventure and Scotus), who de-emphasized reason, and turned to the older tradition of Augustine and Anselm, with influences from Neoplatonism.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), a Dominican scholar at the university of Paris, attempted to synthesize Aristotelian philosophy with the articles of Christian faith. In accordance with Aristotle, he accepted natural sensory perception as a valid source of knowledge, in contrast to the Platonic reliance upon an inner knowledge of abstract ideas. He taught that such knowledge from “reason” provides all humanity with a limited portion of truth, but it must be supplemented by revelation, received by faith, to attain a full knowledge of truth and full knowledge of God. Faith and reason complement rather than contradict each other, each giving different views of the same truth. This approach is summed up by the assertion that “grace perfects nature”. What is revealed through nature is the starting point, and it is then perfected, or brought to completion, by the grace of God’s supernatural revelation. His two most important works were “Summa Contra Gentiles” and “Summa Theologica”.

Aquinas defined ethics by identifying the moral virtues, which are the “good [qualities] of mind whereby we live righteously”. He listed four natural virtues and three supernatural virtues. The four natural (cardinal) virtues are:

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1) Prudence - wisdom, discretion; “right reason with respect to action”. It is an intellectual aptitude and ability to know how to achieve what is good; how to deliberate and choose well.2) Temperance - Moderation of passions; exercising restraint, control, self-discipline. Setting aside present pleasures for the sake of the long-term good. To not do that which is wrong, even when naturally desired.3) Courage - Accepting present difficulties, pain and loss, or risk thereof, for the sake of righteousness and the long-term good. Includes endurance and bold confrontation of opposition. To do that which is right, even when not naturally desired.4) Justice - Giving to others what they deserve, what is their due - fairness. Seeking the common good for a community, and what is good for individuals.

The three supernatural virtues are faith, hope, and love.

He also listed five divine attributes: 1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form.2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. 3. God is infinite. That is, God is not limited. 4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of essence and character.5. God is one, without diversification within God's self.

War and PestilenceDuring the late Middle Ages, the growth of centralized monarchies went hand in hand with the rising power of bankers and merchants, and corresponding weakening of the land-owning nobility. Out of this process there developed several modern states. France, England, and the Scandinavian countries were the first to be united under relatively strong monarchies. This nationalism in turn undermined the papal claims to universal authority. Conflicting national interests led to what is known as the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1475), primarily between England and France, but involving several European allies.

During this war, Joan of Arc (1412-1431) claimed to have received visions instructing her to support Charles VII and recover France from English domination. The king sent her to the siege of Orleans as part of a relief army, where she distinguished herself as the heroine of the engagement. She was wounded by an arrow between the neck and shoulder while holding her banner in the trench outside les Tourelles, but later returned to encourage a final assault that succeeded in taking the fortress. The English retreated from Orléans the next day, and the siege was over. In May 1430, she was captured by a group of French nobles allied with the English. She was later handed over to the English and put on trial, before an ecclesiastical court, for claiming to receive orders from heaven, for insisting that these orders were given to her in French, and for dressing as a man. After finding her guilty, she was burned at the stake on 30 May 1431, at about nineteen years of age.

Another event that set the stage for the life of the church in the later Middle Ages was the Great Plague of 1347. There had been climate changes that historians now call “the little ice age”, which reduced agricultural production, increased famines, and in general left the population more vulnerable to disease. Consequently, there ensued a devastating outbreak of the Bubonic plague. In a few months, between 1348 and 1350, the plague swept the entire

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continent. According to some estimates, 40 – 50% of the population died of the plague or of related causes.

Among the general populace, the “Black Death” encouraged superstition. Since death was always at the threshold, life became merely a preparation for death. Many went on pilgrimages to the Holy Land, to Rome, or to Santiago. Those who were too poor to contemplate such long journeys went on pilgrimages to local shrines. This all led to an increased veneration of relics and encouraged a trade in supposed relics.

Another consequence was increased anti-Semitism. Christians could not understand why the plague seemed to make less headway in Jewish neighborhoods. It may be that there were more cats and fewer rats in those areas, because among Christians cats had been associated with witchcraft. However, at the time of the plague they accused the Jews of poisoning the wells from which Christians drank. They responded with violence and massacres. In February 1349, the citizens of Strasbourg murdered 2,000 Jews. In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated. By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed.

The Papacy. As the power of the French Kings increased, the political power of popes was correspondingly diminished. In 1309 Pope Clement V began residing in Avignon, a papal city on the border of France. For nearly seventy years, while still claiming to be bishops of Rome, the popes would generally remain in Avignon. This period, often called the “Avignon Papacy” or the “Babylonian Captivity of the Church,” was marked by their willingness to serve as tools of French policy. Those countries that were at war with France grew accustomed to seeing the papacy as a foreign power allied with France, leading them to resent the papacy. The Avignon Papacy ended in 1376 with the death of Boniface VIII. This was followed by a schism in the Western Roman Church when the papacy returned to Rome under Gregory XI on January 17, 1377. After his death in 1378, he was succeeded by rival popes: Urban VI in Rome and Clement VII in Avignon. This schism continued until Pope Martin V was elected, in 1417.

Gothic Cathedrals. - Romanesque architecture began to be supplanted by Gothic in 1140. It featured pointed arches rather than semicircular ones, and “ribbed” vaults and “flying buttresses” to support the roof. This allowed the construction of much higher churches, with thinner walls, and made it possible to have very large windows of stained glass.

These advances in architectural expression can be seen as both encouraging and giving voice to a genuine other-worldly piety among the ordinary people, but it was a faith that had become severely corrupted by worldly and highly politicized hierarchical leadership. As they had previously been manipulated into fighting in the crusades, they were now manipulated into superstitions and anti-Semitism, and they were starved for the Apostles’ doctrine.

The Holy Spirit was nevertheless preserving and encouraging a faithful remnant. In the monasteries and universities there were serious and devout students of the word, who were keeping the faith alive. They would be the seeds of reformation.

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6 The Reformation, Part I (1450 - 1550 AD)

The Papacy At the close of the Medieval period and the beginning of the Renaissance, the papacy became increasingly corrupt. The office was often purchased by bribes to the cardinals; nepotism became customary; many popes openly maintained concubines; they accumulated great wealth by receiving bribes for bishop appointments and selling indulgences (gifts to the church to obtain a reduction of time in purgatory). Much of the wealth was used for Vatican buildings, commissioning of works of art, and for military campaigns. Consequently, there was widespread popular dissatisfaction and criticism of these abuses of power.

John Wycliffe (1330-1384), of England, contended for most of the doctrines that would later be adopted by the Protestant Reformation. He and his followers (Lollards) rejected the Catholic teaching of transubstantiation, and he reduced the number of the sacraments. He also taught that the authority of scripture supersedes the authority of the bishops and the pope. After his death, there was soon a substantial number of people who held similar beliefs, and who set out to translate the Bible into English and to preach the Christian faith. They were convinced that the Bible belonged to the people and should be returned to them.

John Huss (1362-1415), of Bohemia (modern Czech Republic), led a reform movement against the moral abuses of the Catholic hierarchy. He and his associates were familiar with the writings of Wycliffe, and were sympathetic to most of his teachings. At first, he had no intention of altering the traditional doctrines of the church, but only of restoring Christian life, and particularly the life of the clergy, to its highest ideals. But he later came to the conclusion that the doctrines of the church must also be reformed: “Therefore, the pope is not the head, nor are the cardinals the whole body of the holy, Catholic and universal church. Only Christ is the head, and his predestined are the body, and each is a member of that body.” He claimed that the Bible is the final authority by which the pope as well as any Christian is to be judged. A pope who does not obey the Bible is not to be obeyed.

Pope John XXIII proclaimed a Crusade against Naples, and determined that it would be financed through the sale of indulgences. Huss spoke out against this, saying that to sell what comes only from God is usurping God’s power. He was also incensed by the notion of a war among Christians being sanctified simply because it suited the pope’s ambitions.

Consequently, on June 5, 1415, Huss was summoned to the Council of Constance (1414-1418). Its leaders wished to have him submit to the council, and declared that all he had to do was recant his heresies. This Huss could not do, for then he would be admitting that he as well as his followers had been a heretics. When he was tied to the stake, they gave him a last chance to recant, and once again he refused. He then prayed aloud, “Lord Jesus, it is for thee that I patiently endure this cruel death. I pray thee to have mercy on my enemies.” He was heard reciting the Psalms as he died.

Erasmus (1466-1536) was a Dutch Catholic priest and scholar in the humanities. He was critical of Catholic abuses, but did not align with the protestant reformers; he continued to recognize the authority of the pope and sought to reform the church from within. Perhaps his most important contribution was the creation of a new Greek and Latin text of the New

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Testament. His texts were used by Luther for his German translation, and as the basis for the text used to produce the Geneva and King James Versions in English.

William Tyndale (1494-1536) produced the first English Bible translated directly from Hebrew and Greek texts. It was the first English translation to use Jehovah as God's name (as preferred by English Protestant Reformers), the first English translation to take advantage of the printing press, and the first of the new English Bibles of the Reformation.

Martin Luther (1483-1546) Luther, who called himself a “Hussite”, was in agreement with others before him regarding objections to Catholic moral abuses and doctrinal deviations from scriptures, but he was primarily and most passionately driven by his personal struggle with sin and guilt. Sin was a condition, a way of being, which went far beyond the individual sins one could confess to a priest. Thus, the very sacrament of penance, which was supposed to bring relief, actually left him in a state of despair.

A particular experience relating to this issue was when celebrating his first mass. He was gripped by terror upon thinking that he was holding and offering nothing less than the very body of Christ. That feeling of terror then became increasingly frequent, for he felt unworthy of God’s love, that he was not doing enough to be saved. In order to be saved, one must confess one’s sins, and Luther had discovered that, in spite of his best efforts, his sin went far beyond what he could confess.

In 1515, Luther began lecturing on the Epistle to the Romans. He was struck by the text of Romans 1:17, which declares that, in the gospel, “the righteousness of God is revealed.” According to this text, the gospel is the revelation of the righteousness—the justice—of God. But it was precisely the justice of God that Luther found unbearable, for justice condemns all sin. How could such a message be gospel, good news? The resolution to this, the breakthrough insight, was that the “righteousness of God” is actually the declaration of righteousness that is given to those who live by faith. Both faith and justification are the work of God, a free gift to sinners. This led him to his distinctly original contribution to the theology of the reformation: that justification is by faith alone (by grace through faith). Lutheran theology is distinguished from other Protestant confessions mainly in that this one principle is accepted as foundational to everything else. He concluded from this that we never outgrow our need for continuing repentance and justification. Christians are continually both sinners and justified by faith.

Another doctrinal issue of importance to Luther was the difference between a theology of the cross and a theology of glory. He believed that God’s highest self-disclosure takes place in the cross of Christ, and that must be our core message (see 1 Cor 1:18-25). This can be seen as a question of eschatology: that our glorification lies in the future, in the new creation, rather than being realized in the present age.

The event by which his teachings broke through to become a movement was his public posting of “Ninety-Five Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences”, on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg. It was to publicize a lecture, where he attacked the sale of indulgences and its theological presuppositions. The particular sale of indulgences that prompted Luther’s protest had been authorized by Pope Leo X, to fund the completion of the Basilica of Saint Peter. The man put in charge of the sale of indulgences in Germany was the Dominican John Tetzel, who made scandalous claims about his wares. Those who wished to

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buy an indulgence for a deceased loved one were promised that, “as soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.”

Printers soon spread copies of the Ninety-five Theses throughout Germany, in both their original Latin text and in a German translation. It obtained much greater notice, and opposition, than Luther had anticipated. Consequently, the following Edict of Worms was issued by Emperor Charles V: “Luther is now to be seen as a convicted heretic. He has twenty-one days from the fifteenth of April. After that time, no one should give him shelter. His followers also are to be condemned, and his books will be erased from human memory.” For his protection, Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, had him escorted to Wartburg castle. While in hiding there, he wrote his German translation of the Bible.

Regarding God’s word, Luther contended that when God speaks, that which is uttered is also created. God’s Word creates something in us and in all creation. That creative and powerful Word is Christ, whose incarnation is both God’s greatest revelation and God’s greatest action. The Bible is the Word of God because in it Jesus, the Word incarnate, comes to us. Catholics argued that the church had authority over the Bible. Luther responded that it was neither the church that had made the Bible, nor the Bible that had made the church, but Jesus Christ, the Word, had made both the Bible and the church.

Regarding the sacraments, he taught that there are only two sacraments: baptism and communion. He rejected transubstantiation, but he believed that the true physical body of Christ is present during the act of communion — that the bread is still bread, and the wine is still wine, but now the body and blood of the Lord are also with them.

Pertaining to relations between church and state, he taught that there are two kingdoms: that of the world, exercising civil authority, and the church, exercising spiritual authority, with distinctly separate realms and methods. It is therefore wrong for faith to seek to impose itself upon the world by means of civil authority. And in the kingdom of the gospel, civil authorities have no power.

In 1524, a peasant rebellion broke out in Germany. The peasants sought relief from heavy taxes, an end to serfdom, and fair trials, basing their claims on the authority of Scripture. When their demands were not met, they took up arms. The princes responded by resoundingly crushing the revolt, and it is said that more than a hundred thousand peasants were killed. Catholic princes blamed Lutheranism for the rebellion, and henceforth had little tolerance for Protestants within their territories.

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) of SwitzerlandZwingli’s reformation was not a direct result of Luther’s; rather, it was a parallel movement

that soon established links with its counterpart in Germany. He reached conclusions similar to those of Luther through rigorous study of Scripture, according to the methods of the humanists. His experiences also led him to zealous outrage against the superstitions that passed for Christianity, against the exploitation of the people by some leaders of the church, and against mercenary military service. He objected to the popes as the leader of the church; he opposed practices and doctrines such as purgatory, indulgences, veneration and intercession of saints, celibate clergy, monasticism, fasting and abstinence. In his “67 Articles”, he taught salvation by faith alone, and that all necessary knowledge for a Christian comes from the Bible, without church tradition.

Zwingli held that the presence of Christ in the elements of communion is symbolic, as a memorial, and that the effectiveness of the sacrament is in the faith of those who partake. This

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is in opposition to Luther, who believed that Christ was physically present. Luther and his successors were singularly focused on the incarnate Christ as the one who justified us in regard to the law. Zwingli and his successors in the reformed tradition acknowledged an equally important role of the Spirit, who liberates us from sin, and reconciles us by union in Christ. One might say that the Lutherans have read only the first four chapters of Romans, but Zwingli and his successors had finished the book. Another point of difference is that Luther sought to maintain separation between church and state, while Zwingli thought the church had a duty to use the state to implement God’s will.

Zwingli insisted on a simple and austere form of worship, one that would not attract the believer to materialistic things through the senses. Zwingli insisted that all practices that had no explicit scriptural support must be rejected. This led him, for instance, to suppress the use of organs in church, for such instruments were not found in the Bible. He thought that nothing should be allowed to lead the mind away from the central task of hearing the Word of God. Even communion should not be celebrated too frequently, for it could detract from the Word, and therefore he preferred that it be celebrated only four times a year.

Anabaptists, who called themselves the brethren, insisted on the need for a congregation of true believers, in contrast with the multitudes who called themselves Christian simply because they had been born in a Christian country and had been baptized as infants. They didn’t want to merely reform the church; they wanted to wholly restore it to its initial purity and simplicity. In order to be truly obedient to Scripture, the reformation begun by Luther must go much further in separating ourselves from the ways of the world.

In 1527, Anabaptist leaders issued the Confession of Schleitheim, stating their fundamental practices and principles. The first such principle was that baptism should only be administered to those who have repented and who believed in Christ. Infant baptism must be rejected. Because of this, their enemies began calling them “Anabaptists”, which means re-baptizers. They also rejected the use of “the sword” as well as the giving of oaths, meaning that true believers must not participate in any activity connected with warfare or civil service. The Sermon on the Mount must be obeyed literally. Menno Simons, a Dutch Catholic priest, joined a Dutch Anabaptist fellowship in 1531, and eventually his followers came to be called Mennonites.

The somewhat “radical” Anabaptist doctrines, plus their refusal to support either military or civil government service, provoked intense opposition from Catholics and many Protestants, as well as from government officials. Persecution spread throughout Switzerland and Germany. There were probably more martyrs during these Anabaptist persecutions than during the three centuries of Roman persecution prior to Constantine.

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7 The Reformation, Part II (1550 - 1700 AD)

John Calvin (1509 - 1564), from Noyon, France, was the most important systematizer of Protestant theology in the sixteenth century. In 1535, Protestants were forced to leave France, and he moved to Basel, Switzerland. In 1536 he wrote a short manual, the “Institutes of the Christian Religion”, to summarize some of the main points of Protestant doctrine. He followed this with expanded later editions, and the final, definitive Institutes, in 1560, consisted of four books: 1) the Father, as creator, provider and sustainer; 2) the Son, who reveals the Father; 3) the work of the Holy Spirit; and 4) the church and the sacraments. This was the first comprehensive exposition of Protestant doctrine, and has been an important resource for theology ever since. Calvin gave more attention to several aspects of Christian faith that Luther had virtually ignored—in particular, the doctrine of sanctification.

The main issue of controversy among Protestants was the manner of the presence of Christ in communion. Calvin affirmed that the presence of Christ in communion is real, but spiritual. This means that such presence is not merely symbolic, nor is communion a mere devotional exercise; rather, there is in it a true divine action for the church that partakes of the sacrament. On the other hand, this does not mean that the body of Christ descends from heaven, nor that it can be present in several altars at the same time, as Luther claimed. The net result was a growing distance between those who followed Luther and those who accepted Calvin’s teachings, who were then called “Reformed” in distinction from the Lutherans. The deeper theological issue behind this difference was Calvin’s view that the finite (anything in the creation) cannot contain the infinite (i.e. God). Luther’s position was that the doctrine of the incarnation, that the Word became flesh, in fact demands that we accept the presence of the infinite within the finite. Calvin emphasized the great gulf between the Creator and the creation, while Luther emphasized the gracious union between God and Man accomplished in Jesus Christ. Both points are true and important, and their reconciliation remains a difficult mystery.

Calvin’s theological influence was soon felt throughout Europe. Eventually, a number of churches appeared—in the Netherlands, Scotland, Hungary, England and France—that followed his teachings. In most of these countries, Calvinism was joined with a zeal for reforming society, for they were convinced that it was their duty to make the civil government conform to the law of God.

In England, the break from Rome was initially driven by political motives: to establish an independent church of England. This was later followed up with the adoption of Protestant doctrines. Catherine, the wife of Henry VIII, was barren. In order to produce an heir, Henry appealed to the pope for an annulment, but the pope would not grant it. In order to obtain church approval for annulment and remarriage, he took measures to cut off ties with Rome, and to establish an independent church of England. In 1534 Parliament enacted laws forbidding the payment of contributions to Rome, ruled that Henry’s marriage to Catherine was not a true marriage, and that the king was the “supreme head of the Church of England.” This was opposed by Thomas Moore, the Chancellor, who was subsequently executed for treason.

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Up to this point, what had taken place was little more than a politically-motivated schism, with no attempt at reformation. But there were many in England who felt the need for true reformation, and who saw this as the opportunity to achieve it. Such ideas of reformation were supported by Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury. Cranmer had ordered that the Bible be translated into English, and by royal decree a great English Bible had been placed in every church, at a place where all could read it.

Henry VIII was then succeeded by Edward VI, and the next six years was a period of great advances for the cause of the reformers. The cup in communion was restored to the laity, members of the clergy were allowed to marry, and images were withdrawn from the churches. But the most important religious achievement was the publication of the Book of Common Prayer, whose main author was Cranmer, and which gave the English people a liturgy in their own language.

Mary I, a Catholic, became queen in 1553. She began a series of increasingly repressive measures against the Protestants, and in 1554 England officially returned to obedience to the pope. Open persecution of Protestant leaders became the policy of the kingdom, and she became known as “Bloody Mary”. Cranmer was declared a heretic and was executed. Mary died in 1558, and was succeeded by her half-sister Elizabeth, who reversed the policies of her predecessor. Many who had left the kingdom then returned, bringing with them Zwinglian and Calvinist ideas they had learned on the Continent. Her ideal was a church whose practices were uniform, thus uniting the kingdom in common worship, but in which there would also be great latitude for varying opinions. There would be no place for either Roman Catholicism or extreme Protestantism, but any moderate form of Protestantism would be acceptable, as long as it participated in the common worship of the Church of England. Ever since that time, this has been characteristic of the Anglican Communion.

In Scotland, there had long been followers of the doctrines of the Lollards and the Hussites, and in the early 16th century the ideas and writings of Luther and other reformers were introduced to Scotland. The Scottish Parliament issued laws against those writings, and against those who sought to spread Protestant teachings. But, in spite of persecution, the new doctrines continued gaining adherents.

John Knox (1513—1572), a student of theology, was ordained a priest in 1536, and became the preacher of the Protestant community in St. Andrews. He was to become the main spokesman for the cause of reformation in Scotland. During one of the episodes of increased persecution against Protestantism, Knox fled to Switzerland, where he was able to spend some time in Geneva with Calvin. In spite of their persecutions, the Protestants in Scotland persisted, and in 1558 organized themselves into a church. At their request, Knox returned to Scotland, and helped to organize the Reformed Church of Scotland. They later became known as Presbyterians.

Protestant churches sprang up throughout Europe, usually encountering violent opposition from the Catholics. After years of violent conflict, the Scandinavian countries - Denmark, Norway and Sweden - became Lutheran, the Netherlands became Reformed Protestant, and Belgium and Luxembourg became Catholic.

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In France, the Protestants were known as “Huguenots”, and they were severely persecuted by the Catholics until the end of the 17th century. On St. Bartholomew’s Day, August 24, 1572, the king authorized a total purge of Protestants in Paris, which became known as St. Bartholomew’s massacre. Similar events then occurred in the provinces throughout France, ransacking Protestant homes and killing entire families. In 1598, the king issued the Edict of Nantes, ending the wars, and granting the Huguenots freedom of worship and security in all places where they previously had churches, except in Paris. But Huguenot rebellions in the 1620s resulted in the abolition of these political and military privileges. Under Louis XIV, persecution increased, and in 1685 Protestants were no longer legally recognized, and the Huguenots were forced to leave the country. The Huguenot refugees fled to Protestant states such as England and the Dutch Republic, and many left Europe and emigrated to places like South Africa, Brazil and North America (e.g. New Amsterdam).

The Catholics, in response to the Protestants, convened the Council of Trent, which was held intermittently from 1545 to 1563. In this “counter-reformation”, the Catholic church instituted some reforms to address the immorality and power abuses by the pope and their bishops, and sought to clarify and definitize their doctrines as well as to condemn what they claimed were Protestant heresies. The resulting canons and decrees were the prevailing authority for Roman Catholics until the Vatican Council of 1869.

Jacobus Arminius (1560-1609) was a distinguished Dutch pastor and professor. A dispute arose between him and one of his colleagues, Francis Gomarus, on the topic of predestination. According to Arminius, predestination was based on God’s foreknowledge of those who would later have faith in Jesus Christ. Gomarus, on the other hand, claimed that faith itself is the result of predestination, so that before the foundation of the world God decreed who would have faith and who would not. Arminius responded that the great decree of predestination was that Jesus Christ would be the mediator and redeemer of humankind. That was indeed a sovereign decree, in no way dependent on human response. But the divine decree having to do with the final destiny of each individual was based, not on the sovereign will of God, but rather on divine foreknowledge.

In 1610, the party that supported Arminius issued a document of Remonstrance, and hence they became known as “Remonstrants”. The first article of this document rejected needless speculation about the cause of the divine decree of predestination. The second article affirms that Jesus died for all human beings, although only believers actually receive the benefits of his passion. It also said that humans can do nothing good on their own account, and that the grace of God is necessary. “As to the manner in which this grace operates, it is not irresistible, for it is written that many resisted the Holy Spirit.” Finally, the fifth article discusses whether or not those who have believed in Christ can fall from grace. They simply claimed that biblical teaching on this point is not clear.

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Their opponents, in the Synod of Dort, of 1619, condemned Arminianism. The canons of the Synod of Dort affirmed five doctrines that the Remonstrants could not accept:

1. Total depravity of human nature (thorough corruption)2. Unconditional election3. Limited atonement4. Irresistible grace5. Perseverance of the saints (that the elect cannot fall from grace)

An English acrostic for these points is TULIP. The Westminster Confession, adopted in 1648 as the confession of faith for the Church England, espoused a very similar theology.

After the synod of Dort, severe measures were taken against the Remonstrants. Almost a hundred Arminian ministers were ordered to leave the Netherlands, and many others were deprived of their pulpits. Those who insisted on preaching Arminianism were condemned to life imprisonment. The major impact of Arminianism did not take place through the Remonstrant churches, but rather through other groups and movements—such as the Methodists.

In England, two movements that opposed the Anglican church were the Puritans and the Baptists. The Puritans sought to “purify” the church of England of Roman Catholic practices. They had much in common with the Scottish Presbyterians, but sought greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal piety. The Congregational churches are descended from the Puritans. Another reform movement in England was initiated by John Smyth (1570-1612), an Anglican priest who came to reject infant baptism, in favor of believer’s baptism. In 1609 he formed one of the earliest “Baptist” churches. The Baptists also rejected the use of formal, prepared liturgies, and adopted a two-fold leadership of Pastors and Deacons.

Two important Puritan authors of the 17th century were John Bunyan and John Milton. John Bunyan (1628-1688) wrote “The Pilgrim’s Progress”, an allegory of a Christian’s spiritual journey. John Milton (1608-1674) is known especially for the epic poem “Paradise Lost”. These classics of literature have ever since been profoundly influential for Christian thought and piety.

It is said that there is nothing more powerful than an idea whose time has come. But the eyes of faith see even more than the power of an idea in this history of the Reformation. We see the hand of God, the works of His Spirit. We see providence.

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8 Personal Faith

The Renaissance (1300 - 1600) was a period marked by the rise of “humanism”, in the sense of renewed appreciation of past human achievements (especially of classical Greece and Rome), and of human potential. This was especially expressed first in the arts and then in the sciences. An important development in this period was an increased attention to individual identity, rather than one’s group identity defined by the institutions of church and state. Two major consequences of these changes were in regard to:

1. Our source of knowledge a. individual access to scripture instead of relying on authoritative church traditionb. scientific observations and theorizing about nature, instead of simply accepting the

authority of church tradition (and Aristotle) 2. Our salvation and relationship with God, placing more emphasis on personal faith and

sanctification, rather than on church membership and sacraments

The Renaissance was followed by the Enlightenment, generally thought of as beginning with Descartes (1596-1650), and developed especially by John Locke (1632-1704). This movement further emphasized the human-centered perspective, relying on sensory experience and reason as the foundation for all knowledge. This was the beginning of the “modern” age. In the enlightenment, individualism was taken to a greater extreme of a human-centered quest for truth, through reason, rather than the God-centered acceptance of revelation.

The scientists of this period, from Galileo (1564-1642) to Newton (1643-1727), were devout believers. They did not reject God or revelation, but they did claim that scripture should be interpreted in accordance with a rational understanding of nature, not solely in submission to church authority. For Newton, “the regular motion of the planets made it reasonable to believe in the continued existence of God." Newton also upheld the idea that "like a watchmaker, God was forced to intervene in the universe and tinker with the mechanism from time to time to ensure that it continued operating in good working order." He thus accepted occasional interventions by God, but held to a much weaker view of God’s providence than is revealed in scripture. Similarly, Descartes viewed "the cosmos as a great time machine operating according to fixed laws, a watch created and wound up by the great watchmaker." Others were later led to see the mechanistic laws of nature as being sufficient to explain all things, with no need for God to ever intervene. This view, known as Deism, accepted a creator-god who can be derived from human reason, much like that of Aristotle, but rejected revelation and any interaction between deity and the world. This was the “religion”, for example, of Thomas Jefferson.

Pietist movements - Pietism was a reaction against both the dogmatism of the theologians and the rationalism of the enlightenment philosophers, which are contrasted to the living faith of true Christianity. Philip Jakob Spener (1635–1705), a Lutheran pastor in Germany, outlined a program for the development of piety. He appealed to the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers, placing less emphasis on the differences between laity and clergy, and more on the common responsibility of all Christians. He did not attack the doctrines of the church, but he held that doctrine is no substitute for personal faith. Scriptures should be read with a spirit of

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devotion and piety. He emphasized sanctification, and the contrast between what society expects of its members and what God requires of the faithful.

In 1722, the spiritual descendants of the Bohemian Hussites, in Moravia, fled persecution and found refuge in Saxony (in eastern Germany). In 1727, their community underwent a dramatic revival experience that they considered to be a special visitation of the Holy Spirit, similar to that on Pentecost in Acts. The community grew rapidly and became the center of a major movement for Christian renewal and mission. They were the first Protestant church body to begin missionary work. An example is their mission to the Mohicans in the colony of New York, leading to the first native Christian congregation in the U.S. In 1741 they founded another mission in Pennsylvania, on Christmas Eve, and named it Bethlehem. They are also noted for forming many small renewal groups within existing churches, which encouraged personal prayer and worship, Bible study, confession of sins and mutual accountability.

John Wesley (1703-1791), of Oxford, was ordained as an Anglican priest in 1728. He later became the leader of a religious group that other students mocked as a “holy club” and—because of their methodical style of life— called them “Methodists.” In 1735, Wesley set sail for the New World, having been invited to serve as a pastor in Savannah. On board were a contingent of Moravians, setting out on a mission to preach to the Indians of Georgia. On this voyage, the weather turned against them, and the ship was soon in dire straits. The mainmast split, and panic would have overwhelmed the crew, had it not been for the unbelievable calm of the Moravians, who sang throughout the ordeal. Meanwhile, Wesley came to the bitter realization that he was more concerned about himself than about his fellow travelers. After the storm, the Moravians told him that they could behave so bravely because they did not fear death; and the young Wesley thus began to doubt the depth of his own faith.

After reaching Savannah, Wesley asked the Moravian Gottlieb Spangenberg for advice regarding his work as a pastor and as a missionary to the Indians. In his diary, he left a record of that conversation: He [Spangenberg] said, “My brother, I must first ask you one or two questions. Have you the witness within yourself? Does the Spirit of God bear witness with your spirit, that you are a child of God?” [see Romans 8:16] I was surprised, and knew not what to answer. He observed it, and asked, “Do you know Jesus Christ?” I paused, and said, “I know he is the Savior of the world.” “True,” replied he; “but do you know he has saved you?” I answered, “I hope he has died to save me.” He only added, “Do you know yourself?” I said, “I do.” As a postscript to that conversation, the young Anglican pastor commented: “But I fear they were vain words.”

Wesley failed in his ministry in Georgia and was forced to leave. Confused and bitter, he returned home to England. He there contacted the Moravians, and one of them, Peter Boehler, became his religious advisor. On May 24, 1738, Wesley had the experience that changed his life: “In the evening I went very unwillingly to a society in Aldersgate Street, where one was reading Luther’s preface to the Epistle to the Romans. About a quarter before nine, while he was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation: and an assurance was given me, that he had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death”. After that experience, Wesley no longer doubted his own salvation.

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Wesley then organized societies of Christians to meet for regular Bible study and devotions. This was a movement to teach and lead others into a similar revitalization of faith. His teachings were in accordance with Anglican orthodoxy except for the issue of predestination and free will: he preferred the Arminian position instead of orthodox Calvinism. These societies at first met in private homes, but later had their own buildings. He had no interest in founding a new denomination. He always took for granted that Methodist meetings would serve as preparation to attend Anglican worship and take communion in it. But the breach was unavoidable. According to English law, non-Anglican worship services and church buildings must be officially registered as such. In 1787, Wesley instructed his preachers to register, and thus the first legal step was taken toward the formation of a separate church.

During the American War of Independence, most of the Anglican clergy had been Loyalists, and after independence most of them had returned to England. This made it difficult—and sometimes impossible—for the inhabitants of the new nation to partake in communion. To meet this need, in 1784, Wesley ordained two lay preachers as presbyters for the new country, and he made the Anglican priest Thomas Coke their superintendent—equivalent to a bishop. This signaled that Methodism had effectually become a separate church.

Kierkegaard (1813 - 1855) was a Danish philosopher/theologian, who objected to what he considered as two major problems in the church: 1) the arrogant idea that all things could be explained and understood by human (Hegelian) philosophy; and 2) the complacency of Christendom, relying on birth-membership in the state church for salvation (cheap grace). He called for a “leap of faith” that surpasses all possible rational understanding, and entailing deep personal commitment to God: a faith-commitment that transcends reason.

One of his philosophical points was that existence precedes essence, thus giving priority to concrete human reality over abstract thought, and highlighting the importance of personal choice and commitment. For this he is considered the father of existentialism. He said we should live according to fully internalized values and faith, instead of easy or pragmatic submission to the external pressures of society and human authority: i.e., to be authentic. These ideas of deep personal faith and commitment were closely aligned with that of the Moravians and Methodists and others who sought for personal piety. In later years, in the 20th century, he became profoundly influential among theologians of all denominations.

Roger Williams was a Puritan pastor who arrived in Massachusetts in 1631. He refused, however, to serve as a pastor in Boston, because the civil authorities in that colony had the power to enforce commandments concerning an individual’s relationship with God. He was convinced that magistrates should be granted authority to enforce only those commandments that had to do with the ordering of society. He employed the metaphor of a "wall of separation" between church and state. Williams considered it "forced worship" if the state promotes any particular religious idea or practice, and “Forced worship stinks in God's nostrils." He considered Constantine to be a worse enemy to Christianity than Nero, because the subsequent state support corrupted Christianity and led to the death of the Christian church. He described the attempt to compel belief as "rape of the soul" and spoke of the "oceans of blood" shed as a result of trying to command conformity.

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Williams also believed that the land the colonies occupied belonged to the Indians, and that the entire colonial enterprise was unjust and illegal. He was also one of the first to contend for the abolition of slavery. Williams thus became unpopular in Boston, and he was eventually expelled from Massachusetts. He then settled in Narragansett, on lands that he bought from the Indians. There he founded the colony of Providence on the principle of religious freedom. In this new colony there would be a clear separation between church and state. The church that Williams established in Providence became the first Baptist church in America (1638).

North America experienced the same Pietistic currents that were present in Germany and England, and so many American colonists felt that a personal religious experience was of great importance to Christian life. This movement was greatly expanded in 1734, at the beginning of the “Great Awakening” in Northampton, Massachusetts. This awakening spontaneously arose from powerful preaching, as people enthusiastically responded with a deep conviction of personal sin, and a commitment to a new life. The pastor there was Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758), a staunch Calvinist who had been trained at Yale and was convinced of the need for a personal experience of conversion. Although he was heartened by the genuine faith-response of the people, it took him by surprise, and he found some of the emotional excesses to be problematic and unsubstantial. Edwards believed that emotion was important, but should not eclipse the need for right doctrine, rational worship and lasting commitment.

If the conversion experience was of such great importance, this raised doubts regarding infant baptism. Therefore, many Congregationalists and Presbyterians eventually rejected infant baptism and became Baptists. The Great Awakening also led both Baptist and Methodist preachers to the Western frontier. It was they who took up the task of preaching to the Western settlers and organizing their religious life. For that reason, these two groups became the most numerous in the newly settled areas.

Denominationalism - In America’s pluralistic society, where tolerance was necessary for political survival, the church was thought of as an invisible reality consisting of all true believers. The visible churches, or denominations, were regarded as voluntary organizations that believers create and join according to their convictions and preferences. The very word “denomination” indicates that the various churches are seen simply as different names given to Christians. This situation was certainly preferable to the European system of a visible “unity” enforced by the state. But it was still deficient in that these visible denominations often did not accept one another as Christian brothers and sisters. They refused communion and fellowship to one another on the basis of their differing preferences. The visible church was thus divided. This set the stage for another movement in early 19th century America: a movement to attain Christian unity based on a more thorough restoration of early church doctrine and practices. This is now referred to as the Stone-Campbell movement, which led to the Christian Churches / Churches of Christ / Disciples of Christ.

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9 Unity and Restoration

The Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement began on the American frontier in the early 19th century, during the Second Great Awakening. This historic revival phenomenon, and the freedom of the frontier, presented both the need and the opportunity to rise above the bitter sectarianism of the time, and to seek ways to make Christian unity a visible reality. Such was the goal of this movement to restore the church of the New Testament.

Second Great AwakeningSince the American Revolution, Christianity had been on the decline, especially on the frontier. It was a time marked by religious indifference. Methodist bishop Francis Asbury wrote about the frontier settlers: “When I reflect that not one in a hundred came here to get religion, but rather to get plenty of good land, I think it will be well if some or many do not eventually lose their souls.” The minutes of the frontier Transylvania Presbytery noted the “prevalence of vice & infidelity, the great apparent declension of true vital religion in too many places.” Rampant alcoholism and avaricious land-grabbing were matched by the increasing popularity of both universalism (the doctrine that all will be saved) and deism (the belief that God is uninvolved in the world). Methodist James Smith feared that “the universalists, joining with the Deists, had given Christianity a deadly stab hereabouts.” In the 1790s the population of frontier Kentucky tripled, but the already meager Methodist membership decreased. Responding to this challenge, churches and pastors devoted themselves to prayer—at prayer meetings, at worship, and at national conventions. In 1798 the Presbyterian General Assembly asked that a day be set aside for fasting, humiliation, and prayer to redeem the frontier from “Egyptian darkness.” The answer to these prayers is seen in the 2nd Great Awakening: a dramatic increase in conversions and church membership, fueled by a series of revival camp meetings on the American frontier, from about 1790 - 1840.

Barton W. Stone (1772-1844) was a “New Light” Presbyterian, born in Maryland, and ordained as a pastor in 1798. He was assigned to the Cane Ridge Church in Kentucky. In the spring of 1801, Stone went to Logan County, Kentucky to observe first-hand the revival meetings of James McGready. Stone commented: “The scene to me was new and passing strange. ... Many, very many fell down, as men slain in battle, and continued for hours together in an apparently breathless and motionless state—sometimes for a few moments reviving, and exhibiting symptoms of life by a deep groan, or piercing shriek, or by a prayer for mercy most fervently uttered. ... With astonishment did I hear men, women, and children declaring the wonderful works of God.”

In August 1801, Stone hosted an annual Communion service in Cane Ridge, hoping for a similar response. Eighteen Presbyterian ministers participated, as well as numerous Methodists and Baptists. During the meeting multiple ministers would preach at the same time in different locations within the camp area, some using stumps, wagons and fallen trees as makeshift platforms. It was an extraordinary event. With as many as 20,000 participants, this camp meeting proved to be the most important religious gathering in all of American history.

Various views were expressed over the value of these revivals and revival preaching. Stone himself had reservations, but he affirmed that much good resulted despite some questionable

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aspects. He especially commended the manner in which the Holy Spirit worked through the preachers when the revivals were in full sway. The results were a powerful acceptance and affirmation of the gospel. “The good so far exceeded the evil, the latter almost disappeared. I saw the religion of Jesus more clearly exhibited in the lives of Christians then, than I had ever seen before or since to the same extent.”

After the Cane Ridge revival, he was accused of departing from Calvinism, for it revealed his new-found “Arminian” conviction that salvation is for anyone who responds to the gospel with faith. Consequently, in 1803, Stone and a few other Presbyterian ministers formed the independent Springfield Presbytery. But the revival aroused in him an intense longing for Christian union, and he concluded that the existence of the Presbytery was partisan, hindering such union. Therefore, he and fellow reformers published the “Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery”. This tract willed that "this body die, be dissolved, and sink into union with the Body of Christ at large." It expressed the desire for Christian union and identified the Bible as the only standard of Christian faith and practice. More specifically, this document:

1. Denies any distinction between clergy and laity2. Repudiates the power of synods over the church3. Asserts selection of preachers by the calling of the Holy Spirit4. Calls for congregational government5. Urges universal application to Bible study (individual responsibility of all)

They also agreed to take "no other name than Christians", on the basis that it was "the name first given by divine authority to the disciples of Christ." By 1810 there was a fellowship of like-minded Christians with a membership of approximately 20,000. They came to be known as the “Christian Connection” or "Christian Church."

Thomas Campbell (1763 - 1854), of Ireland, was ordained a minister in the Scottish Seceder Presbyterian Church, and emigrated to western Pennsylvania in 1807. He came into conflict with the church leadership over points of Calvinist doctrine and for offering communion to other Presbyterians who were not “Seceders”. He therefore withdrew from the Presbytery, and formed “The Christian Association of Washington”, as a means of promoting reform and union among Protestants. In 1809 he published the “Declaration and Address”, which stated the aims of the Association. The main points of this document were:

1. The church is essentially, intentionally and constitutionally one2. There ought to be no uncharitable divisions among congregations3. There ought to be no creeds required as terms of communion4. The New Testament is the constitution for worship, discipline and government of the

church5. No human authority has power to impose new ordinances for the church.

In 1810, he applied for admission into the Pittsburgh Synod. The Synod refused, and Campbell was then forced to organize the Association into a separate church.

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He was then joined by his son, Alexander (1788-1866), who had independently come to the same conclusions. In accordance with the “Declaration”, they sought to reclaim “the ancient order of things”. Some of their conclusions were that

1. the Lord’s Supper should be observed weekly 2. baptism is for believers, by immersion, for the remission of sins 3. the pre-requisite for baptism is the simple confession that Jesus is the Christ, not

requiring consent to other creeds or confessions, nor requiring evidences of a conversion experience

4. each church should be independently governed by its own elders.

Walter Scott: In 1827, Walter Scott was appointed evangelist for the Mahoning Baptist Association of northeastern Ohio. In those days, the feelings and mental exercises of the penitent were considered the primary signs of conversion, rather than a change of conduct and obedience to the Word of God. Based on his Bible studies, Scott became convinced that this was a mistaken emphasis.

Scott also stressed that faith was not produced internally by the Spirit, as most evangelicals believed, but objectively, by the word – the Gospel testimony establishing Jesus' messiahship. "The Spirit...was uniformly given to those who believed and obeyed the Gospel, not to produce faith, but to reward it.” In Scott's thinking, the Spirit was received after persons heard the gospel and obeyed. “In fine, it will be shown in regard to the Holy Spirit, that he was not sent to dwell in anyone in order to make him a Christian, but because he had already become a Christian.”

He then developed a five-finger exercise to present the plan of salvation [see Acts 2:37-38]:

1. Faith2. Repentance3. Baptism4. Remission of sins5. Gift of the Holy Spirit

Walter Scott was instrumental in bringing together the followers of Barton Stone and of Alexander Campbell. In 1832, the “Christian” movement associated with Stone merged with the “Disciples” movement led by Campbell, resulting in one Restoration Movement. This Movement has since produced three main branches of churches: the Churches of Christ (non-instrumental), the Christian Churches (Independent), and the Disciples of Christ.

One of the early leaders of the movement, “Racoon” John Smith, addressed the participants in the 1832 meeting of the Disciples and the Christians: “Let us then, my brethren, be no longer Campbellites or Stoneites, New Lights or Old Lights, or any other kind of lights, but let us come to the Bible, and to the Bible alone, as the only book in the world that can give us all the light we need."  

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10 Modernity and Beyond

Modern developments in philosophy, the sciences and history have presented new challenges to the church. In response, several theologians introduced radically new interpretations of scripture and the gospel in an attempt to make the Christian message more understandable, relevant and defensible in the modern era. Others reacted against these proposals, regarding them as unacceptable compromises of the gospel. This is the continuing tension between the need to be effectual in the world, without becoming of the world. These were not generally conflicts between denominations, but conflicts within every denomination, resulting in splits and offshoots, generally between those who are modern/liberal versus evangelical/conservative.

Following the 2nd Great Awakening, those churches committed to continuing the revivalist movement, who placed a special emphasis on winning converts to Christ, became known as Evangelical. They focused their message especially upon the gospel of Christ crucified, and resurrected. This was in the tradition of those churches that sought genuine personal faith and commitment, and individual knowledge of and devotion to scripture. This is in contrast to the more traditional churches who focused on sacraments (infant baptism and communion), adherence to creeds, and submission to the authority of an institutional hierarchy.

One of the developments, in the early 19th century, was the Holiness movement, among the Methodists. They advocated “entire sanctification”, by which one can obtain spiritual perfection. They considered this to be a special second work of grace, subsequent to baptism. Within this movement, near the end of the 19th century, there were some who experienced what they regarded as a baptism of the Spirit, by which they received special gifts, especially tongues and healing. They taught that this was the third work of grace. Several Pentecostal denominations arose from this movement, including the Church of God, the Assemblies of God, and Foursquare Gospel Church. Although it is right to seek sanctification, and to desire gifts (for service), it is a mistake to regard any particular experiences or gifts as evidence of achieving a higher status of spirituality. Such beliefs and practices invite the kinds of problems that afflicted the church of Corinth (see 1 Cor 12-14).

In Europe, in response to criticisms from their surrounding culture, various theologians tried to make the Christian faith more palatable to the modern world. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) sought to do this by removing the most objectionable ideas from Christian teachings, especially the supernatural elements. He decided the essence of religion lies neither in rationally defended doctrine, nor in ethics, but in feeling: specifically, the feeling of absolute dependence on God. Jesus had a supreme and exemplary God-consciousness, he argued, and “To believe is not to believe in Christ, but to believe as Christ.” This approach was in line with the Romantic movement’s reaction against the rationalism of the Enlightenment.

Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930), the son of an orthodox Lutheran theologian, also considered miracles to be impossible. For him, the essence of Christianity is the fatherhood of God, the brotherhood of man, and “the infinite value of the human soul.”  Harnack was an advocate for the “social gospel”, and believed he was preserving the Scripture’s ethic of love and justice by discarding dead doctrines and religious forms. As for Jesus’ death, Harnack claimed “No

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significance can be attributed to a single event of this kind” and he regarded the resurrection as simply “incredible.” Similarly, Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976) argued that the church must demythologize its message, discarding the “husk” of the supernatural, in order to highlight the Christian call to existential “authenticity”. Paul Tillich (1886-1965), another Existentialist (influenced by Martin Heidegger), said human philosophy should pose the questions and set the agenda for theology. This approach allows the world to define the rules of the game. It is another path that gives the world the upper hand, and thus compromises the true gospel message.

These are all proposals that discard or weaken the scriptural gospel of Christ, the Son of God, crucified and resurrected, in favor of another “gospel” that might be easier for the world to accept. Employing the methods of “higher criticism”, they rely on human philosophy and sciences as the supreme authority for criticizing and interpreting scripture. They also define humanity’s need for salvation in terms of our “felt needs”, rather than the problem of sin as revealed in scripture. They replaced the mission of proclaiming a gospel of individual salvation from sin and death with a social-gospel mission of building a world of social justice. Nineteenth-century liberalism was optimistic about this mission, about historical progress, about building God’s kingdom on earth.

One reaction against these teachings was from Karl Barth (1886-1968). He opposed liberalism largely because he was pessimistic about historical progress, due to WW I and his experiences with Nazism. His teachings, which became known as “Neo-Orthodoxy”, proposed a radical separation between the realm of reason and the realm of revelation and faith. He concurred with “liberals” and the enlightenment that much of what appears in scripture is contrary to reason; but he said it nevertheless contains God’s word, and is the means of encounter with His word.

Barth makes some valid points about the inadequacy of reason, but his doctrine on how we “encounter” God’s word is faulty, contrary to the overall scriptural teaching. The Bible grounds itself in history, and regards nature as revealing God’s attributes, declaring His glory. The power for salvation is in Jesus’ historical death and resurrection, not in our personal encounter with an ineffable and irrational “word of God”. If you eliminate the role of human reason, you eliminate the only means for truly receiving the gospel. The correct answer must somehow reconcile and integrate all of human knowledge and all of God’s revelation, both from His word, and from His creation. Barth’s neo-orthodoxy simply gives up on this task.

In 1910, as a defense against liberalism, the Presbyterian Church General Assembly published five fundamentals of the faith:

1. Inspiration and infallibility of scripture2. Virgin birth of Jesus3. Atonement for sin by Christ’s death4. Bodily resurrection of Jesus5. Historical reality of the miracles of Jesus

Within the decade, those who supported these fundamentals became known as “fundamentalists”. Some groups later added a few other fundamentals, such as belief in Jesus’

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second coming, and a belief in “young-Earth creationism” (in opposition to Darwinian evolution).

Another belief often associated with Fundamentalism is “Dispensationalism”. It is a particular interpretation of Revelation and other prophetic scriptures and the old-covenant promises regarding Israel. It is a doctrinal system developed by John Nelson Darby (1800-1882) and popularized in the Scofield Reference Bible (1909). This doctrine claims that there will be a rapture of the church prior to the Great Tribulation, that there will then be a mass conversion of Jews to Christ at the end of the Tribulation, and this will be followed by a millennial kingdom on earth, with the restored Jewish nation and temple. This basically teaches that the plan for salvation of Jews is separate from the church. This 19th century innovation is in direct conflict with the clear teachings of Paul about Israel and the church (see Romans 11). It is a great misfortune to the church that these false teachings have become so popular.

Some of the fundamentals of fundamentalism can serve as a simple litmus test for excluding most modernist false gospels. But, as with any “creed”, it inevitably leads to false interpretations and applications, and to further divisions in the church. Most evangelicals today rightly object to this approach of building one’s entire system of faith upon a few selected fundamentals. It elevates a few human interpretations and opinions as foundations, or axioms, that are to be immune from any challenge by the facts or by reason. That is no way to arrive at the fullness and purity of truth. It is certainly no way to seriously engage and persuade the world, to accomplish our mission in the world.

A better answer to both liberalism and to neo-orthodoxy is that provided by Wolfhart Pannenberg (1928-2014), who pointed to one foundational “fundamental” belief: the resurrection of Jesus Christ. There is in fact excellent historical evidence for the resurrection, and this is the one event that is the key to understanding everything else. It is the one event that radically transforms our understanding of and interpretation of all history, all revelation, all human knowledge. Everything is different because of the resurrection. This is a principle totally in line with scriptural teaching, especially as seen in 1 Corinthians 15:1-8. It is the basis for the simple confession that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, without asserting other credal statements that can lead to false paths and unnecessary divisions.

Another more recent challenge to the church is post-modernism. This is a movement that rejects many of the principles of the Enlightenment. It claims, rightly, that empirical knowledge and human reason are incapable of establishing absolute truth. But it incorrectly denies the possibility of revelation, or any other means of approaching absolute, universal truth. It rather claims that every tribe or ethnic group or interest group can assert their own truth-claims based on their own power-interests. They regard the competition of beliefs and ideas to be purely a matter of power politics. It is a philosophy of pluralism and relativism.

Christians have responded to post-modernism in three ways:

1. Embracing the new ideas uncritically, leading to compromising and changing the gospel into many different “gospels” that promote the political or economic interests of various groups. This has been the rationale behind liberation theology, black theology, feminist

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theology, post-colonial theology. This effectively denies that God has revealed one eternal purpose applicable to all peoples.

2. Total rejection, thus returning to human reason as foundational to all truth. The problem with this is both the inadequacy of finite humanity, and the corruptions of human sin. Any foundation that gives priority to human reason will be faulty and divisive.

3. An intermediate option of “radical orthodoxy” (or “post-foundationalism”), which rejects the use of human knowledge as a foundation, but insists that there is nevertheless absolute authoritative and universally applicable truth revealed by God, and rationally understandable by humanity. We are incapable of knowing anything totally and perfectly, but we can, and should, use natural knowledge and reason as far as they can take us, being also attentive to His word and His Spirit to properly discern and interpret. We must always maintain the humility to receive instruction and to accept correction. By this we can come sufficiently close to the truth to receive sound practical instruction for life. We thus avoid the arrogance of the Enlightenment or the despair of Post-modernism. The scriptures continually remind us of our weaknesses, but His grace is sufficient, and He has given us a word that has power and authority over all peoples and for all time.

Church history shows that there are many paths that lead to errors and divisions – many false gospels. But there is no need to despair in finding the true narrow path. We can take encouragement from Deuteronomy 30:11-14

“For this commandment which I command you today is not too difficult for you, nor is it out of reach....But the word is very near you, in your mouth and in your heart, that you may observe it.”

The key is to humbly listen to His word, and to His Spirit, without adding or taking away.

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11 The Path to Holiness and Unity

In today’s church, there is a tremendous variety of teachings and opinions - regarding beliefs, practices, and church organization and leadership - resulting in divisions into many denominations, and divisions within denominations. This does great harm to our witness to the world, and it is confusing to Christians trying to find their way through the maze. Most of these differences trace back to the earliest years of the church, and fall under the following topics:

Nature / grace (or reason / revelation) Jesus Christ as human and as God The Trinity Church leadership and organizational structure Sovereignty of God and human free will Unity of the church vs holiness / purity Being in the world, but not of the world How to be saved (grace/faith vs works), or to receive grace How to have assurance of salvation – objective or subjective evidences Accepting and accommodating people vs. the gospel demand for self-denial The End times (Eschatology): what is now, what is later

For most of these topics, there are two positions which appear to be in opposition, but which should somehow be held together. The extreme positions on either side are clearly in error, and the truth lies somewhere in the middle. But the church has been unable to agree on any of the middle-ground truths.

It can be agreed that the Apostles’ doctrine/scripture is foundational. But problems and differences in interpretation remain, as well as the question of how much weight to give to natural revelation and church teachings (tradition). It is clear that something else is required. Fortunately, the scriptures make it abundantly clear what that “something else” is: the indwelling Spirit of God. To be led by His Spirit is absolutely crucial to finding truth and achieving unity. Neither creeds nor authoritative leaders can substitute for this work of the Spirit.

In Romans chapter 7, Paul talks about the helpless bondage of God’s people under the old covenant. But in chapter 8, he declares that we have now been set free and empowered by the Spirit. He describes this as the contrast between living according to the flesh and living according to the Spirit.

“For those who are according to the flesh set their minds on the things of the flesh, but those who are according to the Spirit, the things of the Spirit. For the mind set on the flesh is death, but the mind set on the Spirit is life and peace, because the mind set on the flesh is hostile toward God; for it does not subject itself to the law of God, for it is not even able to do so, and those who are in the flesh cannot please God. However, you are not in the flesh but in the Spirit...” - Romans 8:5-9a

This gift of the Spirit fulfills the prophecy of Jeremiah, that the law would be written upon their hearts.

“But this is the covenant which I will make with the house of Israel after those days,” declares the Lord, “I will put My law within them and on their heart I will write it; and I will be their God, and they shall be My people.” - Jeremiah 31:33

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Just prior to His ascension, Jesus told His disciples to wait to be clothed with power, by the Spirit, before initiating the new covenant.

“Gathering them together, He commanded them not to leave Jerusalem, but to wait for what the Father had promised, ‘Which,’ He said, ‘you heard of from Me; for John baptized with water, but you will be baptized with the Holy Spirit not many days from now.’”- Acts 1:4,5

The church of the new covenant could not be instituted without the Spirit, for it cannot perform its mission without the Spirit.

In his second letter to the Corinthians, Paul defends his ministry of the new covenant, as a ministry of the Spirit rather than of the “letter”. He says: “the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life” - (2 Corinthians 3:6) and “where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty” (2 Corinthians 3:17). He further says that the old covenant revelation of God, through Moses, was obscured by a veil. But under the new covenant, by the Spirit, the veil is taken away. We can behold His glory; we can know God. Compare similar teaching in 1 Corinthians 2:6-16. This too is a fulfillment of Jeremiah 31.

The conclusion is that one cannot know God, or know the full truth from God, without the Spirit. This is because anyone without the Spirit is under the bondage and deception of Sin. But the Spirit of liberty delivers us from this bondage, and the Spirit of truth lifts the veil, delivering us from deception. The Spirit sanctifies, cleansing our motives and priorities. He gives us a God-centered perspective, rather than the natural human-centered (and sinful) perspective. Even though we still receive the content of knowledge from nature and from scripture, the Holy Spirit places us in a position for a proper perspective, and He cleans the windows, so we can see the underlying truth of all things.

What must we do, then, to allow the Spirit to do His work? Paul told the Ephesians: “Be filled with the Spirit, speaking to one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing and making melody with your heart to the Lord; always giving thanks for all things in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ to God, even the Father; and being subject to one another in the fear of Christ.” - Ephesians 5:18-21

These are some of the ways to become “filled with the Spirit”: worshiping with one another, giving thanks to God, and submitting to one another, in Christ. It is in our relations with God and His people. It is by putting into practice all that He has asked us to do. It is by walking according to the Spirit, that we become more filled with the Spirit.

Another way to express this is to say that sanctification, allowing Him to cleanse us, makes us into a more suitable dwelling place for His Spirit. This is a life-long cyclical process of being cleansed by the Spirit, living according to the Spirit, and becoming more filled by the Spirit. The second letter of Peter gives us a good summary of this sanctification and growth process:

“Now for this very reason also, applying all diligence, in your faith supply moral excellence, and in your moral excellence, knowledge, and in your knowledge, self-control, and in your self-control, perseverance, and in your perseverance, godliness, and in your godliness, brotherly kindness, and in your brotherly kindness, love. For if these qualities are yours and are increasing, they render you neither useless nor unfruitful in the true knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ.” - 2 Peter 1:5-8

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What, then, will a Spirit-filled church look like? It will first of all bear the fruit of the Spirit (Galatians 5:22-23), consisting especially of love. Other characteristics that arise from walking according to the Spirit are the following:

Holiness United diversity Honoring Christ Free exercise of gifts in ministries Servant leadership Not of the world Teachings validated by coherence and integrity

Accepting and giving heed to the Spirit means accepting all the different ways and means by which He speaks. As said in Hebrews, God has spoken in many ways; we should therefore be attentive in many ways. It has been said that all truth is God’s truth. We need to attend not only to scripture, but also to teachings and traditions of the church (past and present), human culture and philosophy, and to nature (sciences). We can learn something of value from any and every source of knowledge or experience. God’s Holy Spirit can lead us into truth through all of these channels, if we listen and observe with discernment. In fact, we are unavoidably under the influence of all these sources of knowledge. The only question is whether we will apply thoughtful, Spirit-led discernment.

“Beloved, do not believe every spirit, but test the spirits to see whether they are from God, because many false prophets have gone out into the world.” - 1 John 4:1

Paul also spoke of this to the Thessalonians: “But examine everything carefully; hold fast to that which is good; abstain from every form of evil.” - 1 Thess. 5:21-22.

The conclusion is to rely on and trust in the Spirit as the assured way, and the only way, to find truth and holiness and unity for the church. And it is the Spirit, working with and through God’s word, Who leads each of us into a church body where we can have a faithful and fruitful walk of mutual service. In all this, remember Paul’s instructions to the Ephesians:

“Be diligent to preserve the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace. There is one body and one Spirit, just as also you were called in one hope of your calling; one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all who is over all and through all and in all.” - Ephesians 4:3-6

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