Thesis Schenk

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THE

NATURE

OF

THE GRAPHIC DESIGN PROCESS

WITHIN

THE

COMMERCIAL

ENVIRONMENT

WITH

PARTICULAR

REGARD

TO

THE

ROLE OF

DRAWING

Pamela Margaret Schenk

A

thesis

suhnitted

to CNAA

in

partial

fulfilment

of

the

requirements

for

the

degree

of

DOCTOR

OF

PHILOSOPHY

Institute

of

Advanced

Studies

MANCHESTEROLYTECHNIC

September 1989

No portion of the work referred to

in

this thesis

has

been

submitted

in

support

of

an

application

for

any other

degree

or

qualification

at

this

or any

other

institute

of

learning

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ABSTRACT

THE

14MRE

OF

THE (PAPHIC I)ESIGff

PSS WITHIN

THE

COMMERCIAL

MMUMM,, WITH PA riaxm R TO THE RUM OF 1I AWIN

Pamela

Margaret Schenk

This thesis describes

a study

of

the

role of

drawing

in

the

graphic

design

process

within

the

comnercial environment.

Drawing

usage

is

characterised

and

the

drawing

abilities

that

graphic

designers

need

to

acquire

in

order

to

be

able

to

use

drawing

more appropriately

are

examined.

The

conclusions

are set

out

in the

foam

of

a

taxonomy.

While

this

constitutes

the

major part

of

the

study,

consideration

is

also given to a review of current provision for drawing tuition on BA

Graphic

Design

courses and

the

place

of

drawing

in

the

curriculum

is

discussed.

A

sample

of

50

senior,

practising graphic

designers

broadly

representing

all

the

major

types

of work

and

levels

of

seniority

in

the

profession

was selected

for interview.

Observation

was made of

managerial

and

executive

procedures

and

designer s

drawings

were

analysed.

The

views

of

junior

designers,

design

educators

and

students

were

also canvassed, primarily

through

a postal

questionnaire

and

a short

prograrrrne of

interviews.

Conclusions

include:

1)

Many

of

the

essential

tasks

by

which

the

graphic

design

process

is

progressed

are

assisted

by

or

performed

through

the

utilisation

of

drawing.

2)

In

addition

to the

development

of

design

solutions,

drawing

is

used

by designers

to

perform

managerial

tasks

and

to

help

them improve

their

design

skills.

3) The use of drawing is affected by a complex range of

factors

including

the

nature

of

both

the

job

and

of

the

organisation

in

which

designers

work,

their

role

in the

design

team

and

their

individual

predilections.

4)

In

order

to

maximise

their

effective

utilisation

of

drawing,

designers

need

to

develop

both

a

wide

range

of

cognitive

and practical

drawing

abilities

and

appropriate

evaluative

criteria

for

drawings

and

drawing

usage.

5)

Designers

themselves

can

fail

to

realise

the

extent

to

which

they

depend

on

drawing,

dismissing

their

drawing

activities

as

not

being real

drawing.

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Aclarowle

g Its

I

would

like

to

record my particular

thanks to

Dr

John

Langrish

for

his

unfailing

help

and encouragement

throughout

the

research

programme,

and

to

Michael Yecmans

who

has

given

both

sympathetic

and

expert

guidance.

I

am

also

especially

indebted

to

all

those

designers,

educators

and

students

who

have

helped

me

in

the

collection

of

data

and

visual

material

for

this

study, and

to those

whose

advice

has

helped in

the

organisation

and

conduct

of

the

research, particularly

to

the

advisors

for

the

study,

Dr Mantz York,

who

has

contributed

to

the

development

of

the

methodology,

to

Tony Clayden

for

giving

the

benefit

of

his

considerable

experience of

degree

level

graphic

design

education,

and

to

Richard

Tilley

without whose experience and support much of

the

detailed

verification

of

the

data

would

not

have

been

possible.

Valuable

assistance

has been

received

at

various

times

during

the

conduct of

the

research and

the

preparation of

the

thesis

fron

several

members

of

the

academic

staff

of

Manchester

Polytechnic,

including

Derek

Schofield,

Ken Pearson

and,

in

particular,

Nigel

Barron

without

whose

very

positive assistance

and

support

it

would

not

have been

possible

to

conclude

the

study.

The

professional

and considerate

help

given

by

the

staff of

the

library

of

Manchester

Polytechnic

has

also

been

much

appreciated, as

has been

the

assistance

of

Terry

Waddington

in

photographing the original

drawings.

I

am very

grateful

to

those

who

have

allowed

their

drawings

to

act

as

illustrations

in

the thesis

and

particular

thanks

must

go

to

David

Crow,

Stephen

Raw, Geoffrey Winston

and

to

all

the

staff

of

the

CYB

Design

Consultancy.

Gina

Francis

and

Jane Preston

have

the thesis

but

also with many

organisation

and

presentation.

helped

not

only

with

the

typing

of

of

the

problematic

details

of

Finally my sincere thanks go to my husband Victor and my son Daniel,

who each,

in

his

own way,

helped

me

to

canplete

this

study.

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List

of

Conb

nts

Page

No.

List

of

Tahles

(Vii)

List

of

Figurm

UX)

T-i

St

Of

A

rx

iOeS

(x;

ii

Intucti

an

1

C1Q JER 1-

The

Baclýgxvýmd

and

Outline

of

the

Study

4

1.1

Introduction

4

1.2

Prelude

to the

study

4

1.3

Evolution

and

outline

of

the

study

6

1.4

The

context

of

the

study

8

1.5

Definition of the terms used in the study 9

U31M 2-

The Context

of

the

Study

12

2.1

Introduction

12

2.2

Graphic

design

and

the

role of

the

practitioner

12

2.3

The functional

aspects

of

drawing

20

2.4 The role of drawing in creative processes 27

2.5

The

use

of

drawing

in design

processes

33

2.6

The

historical

background

to

graphic

design

education

40

and

the

role

of

drawing

tuition

QJ

M3-

Methodology

51

3.1

Introduction

51

3.2

The

pilot

study

52

3.3

The

conduct

of

the

research

into

graphic

designers'

57

use

of

drawing

3.4

The

conduct

of

the

research

into drawing

tuition

69

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3.5

Consultation

and corroboration

73

QR4-

Graphic Designers Use of Drawing

74

4.1

Introduction

74

4.2

The

preparatory

phase

including

the

procedures

of

77

briefing

and collecting

reference

material

4.3

The

use

of

drawing

in

the

main

creative

phase

of

92

the

graphic

design

process

4.4

The

use

of

drawing

in

the

production

phase ,

153

including

the procedures of cam issioning and

preparing

for

production

4.5

Factors

that

modify

the

use

of

drawing in

the

graphic

166

design

process

4.6

Changes

in

the

use

of

drawing

187

CHU3JER

5-

The

Required

Drawing Abilities

and

the

189

Developmmt

of a

Taxczuny

on

the

Use

of

Drawing

5.1

Introduction

189

5.2

The

required

drawing

abilities of

graphic

designers

189

5.3

Evaluative

criteria

200

5.4

The

develognent

of a

taxonomy

on

the

use of

drawing

204

CHM3

Z6-

The

Oýanisati

on

and

Content

of

Drawing

223

MlitiCn in BA Level Graphic Design Hclucatian

6.1

Introduction

223

6.2

The

drawing

abilities

of

graphic

design

students

and

224

graduates

6.3

The

provision

of

drawing

tuition

on

BA

Graphic Design

227

Courses

6.4

Discussion

of

issues

raised

246

CHAPTM 7-

Discussion,

Qonclusicns

and

Six

stirns

for 251

Ftrtur

e

Work

7.1

Introduction

251

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7.2

The

nature

of

the

graphic

design

process

251

7.3

The

role

of

drawing

in

the

graphic

design

process

255

7.4

The

range and

develognent

of the required

drawing

260

abilities

7.5

Reccmnendations

for

curriculum

planning with

regard

263

to

drawing

tuition

7.6

Suggestions

for

future

work

267

1

fers

ices

270

following

page

278

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List

of

Tables

Table

Page

No.

No.

1

Use

of

drawing

while

accepting

briefing

80

2

Respondents'

methods

of

collecting reference

85

material

3

Methods described

for

the

development

of

visual

87

literacy

4

The

use

of

drawing

in

analysis

and

idea

generation

96

5

The

use of specific techniques in the procedures of

97

the

main

creative

phase

6

The

use

of specific media

in

the

procedures

of

the

98

main

creative phase

7

Specific

uses

of

drawing in

the

procedures

of

111

synthesis

and

development

8

The

re-use

and

use

of

drawings

for

the

purpose

of

125

evaluation

9

The

uses

of

drawing

in

the

procedures

of

130

presentation

10

The

uses of

drawing

in

the

procedures

of

production

161

11

Respondents'

use

of

drawing in

design

procedures

174

according

to

level

of seniority

12(a)

Rating

of

the

importance

of

drawing

ability

and

of

190

the importance

of

having

a

broad

appreciation

of

drawing to practising graphic designers

12(b)

Volunteered

descriptions

of

drawing

abilities

192

required

for

the

graphic

design

process

13

Responses

to the

question

Do

you

think

it

is

193

important

a graphic

designer has the

following

drawing

abilities?

14

Responses

to the

question

Do

you

think

it

is

194

important

a

graphic

designer has the

following

drawing

skills?

15

The

required

drawing

abilities

of graphic

designers

197

16

Problems

caused

by

a

lack

of

drawing

ability

199

17

Taxonomy

of

the

uses

drawing,

types

of

drawing

206

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produced

and

the

drawing

abilities

required

for

the

graphic

design

process

18

Drawing

activities

and

types

of

drawing

produced

216

19

Succinct

terms

employed

to

describe drawing

221

ability

in

the taxonany

20

The

drawing

abilities

of students

and new

graduates

225

21

The drawing

ability

designers

found difficult

to

226

acquire

22

Rating

of

the

importance

of

drawing

ability

to

229

practising

graphic

designers

23

Rating

of

the importance

of

drawing

ability

in

231

students

selected

onto

BA

graphic

design

courses

24

Yes

responses

to

the

need

for

breadth

in

aspects

231

of

drawing

ability

and

tuition

for

students

25

Purpose for drawing

tuition

ranked

first

232

26

Tuition for

subject

ranked most

important

233

27

Students views on the development of their

drawing

234

ability

and

the

need

for

further

drawing

tuition

28

Those

responsible

for

the

planning and

conduct

of

236

drawing

tuition

29

Scheduling

of

drawing

tuition in

1st,

2nd

and

3rd 237

years

of courses

30

Yes

response

given

when

questioned

on

what

238

methods

of

teaching

and

learning

about

drawing

are or should be used

31

Yes

response

to the

question

is

or

should

help

be

240

given

in developing

understanding

of

drawings

32

Yes

response

given

when asked

the

question

are or

241

should

students

be

encouraged

to

acquire

the

ability

to judge drawings

33

Yes

response

given

when

questioned

whether

242

tuition

is

or

should

be

given

to

develop

specific

skills/abilities

34

Yes

response

when

questioned on

how drawing

243

tuition

should

be

arranged

35

Yes

response

when

questioned

whether

specific

244

classes

are

or

should

be

organised

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List

Of

Figures

Figure

Page

No.

No.

la

Drawings

from

An

Introduction

to

Graphic

Design

21

(Bridgewater,

1987),

reproduced

same

size

lb

Drawings fron

Over

My

Shoulder

(Games

1960,22

p61),

reproduced

same size

2

Drawings

used

to

record

information

during

82

briefing (CYB

1989),

pencil,

reproduced

same size

3

Drawings produced to check understanding of the 83

brief

with

the

client

(CYB

1989), ink,

reproduced

same

size

4

Drawing

produced

to

pass

on

the

briefing

to

the 84

design

team

(CYB

1989),

pencil,

reproduced

with

50%

reduction

5

Drawings

used

to

collect

visual

reference

material

88

(CYB

1984-88),

pencil,

reproduced with

50%

reduction

6

Analysis

of

visual

reference

material

(CYB

1984- 89

88), ink

and

pencil, reproduced with

50%

reduction

7a

-

7b

Drawings

used

to

record visual

information

90/1

(Stephen

Raw

1988-89),

pencil,

reproduced

same

size

8

Worksheet

showing

development

of

ideas

(CYB

1989), 100

ink,

reproduced

with

75%

reduction

9a Ideas drawn on a C6 envelope (Geoffrey Winston 101

1984),

ink

9b

Ideas

drawn

in

notebook

(CYB

1984-88),

pencil,

102

reproduced

same

size

10

Early

idea

sheet

(CYB

1984-88),

pencil and

spirit

103

marker,

reproduced

with

50%

reduction

11

Double

spread

from

notebook

(David

Craw

1988),

104

ink,

reproduced

with

50%

reduction

12

Adaptations

and

revisions

to

drawings

(David

Crow

105

1988),

coloured

ink

and

marker,

reproduced

with

50%

reduction

13

Records

of

ideas

for future

reference

(Stephen 106

Raw 1989),

pencil,

reproduced

size

1

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14

Use

of

small

scale

drawings

for

early

ideas

(CYB

107

1989),

ink,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

15

Develorcnents

in

canposition and

form

(CYB

1984- 10888),

pencil

and

coloured

marker,

reproduced with

50

reduction

16

Drawing from

photostats

for

magazine

design

(A

la

114

carte,

1984),

ink,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

17a

-

17c

The

development

stages

of a magazine

spread

115/7

(Which?

1985),

17a

in

ink,

17b

in

pencil,

17c in

ink,

reproduced

with

a

50

reduction

18

Examples

of

the

means

by

which

the

x

height

is

118indicated

on

page

designs

(CYB

1984-88),

coloured

marker,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

19a

Indications

of

text typography

(CYB

1989),

marker

119

(

reversed)

,

reproduced

same

size

19b

Indications

of

display

typography

(CYB

1984-88),

120

coloured

ink, label

Tan

x

9an

20

Resolving letterform

through

the

use of many

121

drawings (David

Crow

1988),

ink,

reproduced same

size

21

Modifications

to

established

letterform

(CYB

1984-

122

88),

pencil,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

22a

-

22b

Freely

drawn

letterfonn (CYB

1984-88),

coloured

123/4

ink,

labels

7cm

x

Tan

23a

-

23b

progressive

refinement

in

presentation

drawings

135/6

(CYB

1984-88),

coloured

marker

and gouache

24

Client

presentation

drawings

with

revisions

(CYB,

137

1984-88),

coloured

marker

and gouache, reproduced

with

50

reduction

25a

-

25b

Sheets

of

drawings

produced

by

the

designer

138/9

evaluating

his

design

solutions,

ink,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

26

Drawing

produced

to

present

a

design

solution

to

a

140

magazine

editor

(Which?

1985),

coloured

pencil,

reproduced with 50 reduction.

27

The

final

design

solution

(Which?

1985), 141

photograph,

reproduced

with

50

reduction.

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28

Drawings

produced

for

in-house

presentations

(CYB

1984-88),

colour

ink

and

marker,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

29a

Drawing

used

for

client

presentation

early

in

the

progression

of

a

design

solution

(CYB

1984-88),

pencil

and

coloured

marker,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

29b

Drawing

used

for

client

presentation

at

a

later

stage

of

a

design

solution

(CYB

1984-88),

coloured

ink

and

gouache,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

30a

-

30b

Designers'

drawings

imitating

various

illustrative

styles

(CYB

1984-88),

coloured

marker

and

gouache,

10an

x

28cm

31a

-

31b

Drawings for

client

presentation

(CYB

1984-88),

coloured

ink,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

32

Drawings for

client presentation

(CYB

1984-88),

coloured

marker,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

33a

-

33b

Drawing

for

client

presentation

showing

the

implementation

of a

design

solution

(CYB

1984-88),

coloured

ink

and

marker,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

34

Drawing

for

client presentation

(Stephen

Raw

1988),

marker,

reproduced

same

size

35

Drawing

produced

to

cannission

illustrator

with

visual

reference

material

attached

(CYB

1989),

ink,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

36

Specification drawing

(Stephen

Raw

1988),

pencil

and

coloured

marker, reproduced

with

50

reduction

37a

Sheet

of

letterforms

from

which artwork

has

been

cut

(Stephen

Raw

1987), ink,

reproduced

same size

37b

Artwork

(Stephen

Raw

1987),

ink,

reproduced

same

size

37c

Printed design

(Stephen

Raw

1987),

print,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

37d

Artwork

(Stephen

Raw

1987),

ink

and

gouache,

reproduced same size

38a

-

38b

Examples

of

spatial

conventions

that

graphic

designers

employ,

ink

and

coloured marker,

reproduced

with

50

reduction

142

143

144

145/6

147/8

149

150/1

152

157

158

162

163

164

165

179/80

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39

Initial ideas for

the

design

of a

logo

type

(David

181

Crow 1988),

ink,

reproduced

with

50%

reduction

40a

Drawings

produced

for

client presentation

to

182

demonstrate

the

implementation

of a

corporate

identity

progranine

(CYB

1984-88), ink

and

coloured

marker,

reproduced

with

50%

reduction

40b

Drawings

produced

for

client presentation

to 183

demonstrate

the

implementation

of

a

corporate

identity

programme

(CYB

1984-88), ink

and

coloured

marker,

reproduced

with

50%

reduction

41a

-

41c

Part

of

a range

of

drawings

produced

in

184/6

conjunction with an academic

(Open

University

1984-86),

41a

in

pencil,

41b in

ink,

41c

in

coloured

marker

and photostats,

reproduced

with

50%

reduction

42

Graphic

designers

use

of

drawing in the

257

procedures of

the

graphic

design

process

[Note

:

sane

of

the

drawings

have

had

to

be

rotated

in

order

to

retain

as

much

of

the

quality

and

to

show

as

much

of

the

original

as

possible.

]

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LIST OF

APPENDICES

Appendix

I:

Interviews

and

Questiannaizm

a)

Interview

Structure

for

Use

with

Practising

Graphic

Designers

b)

Questionnaire

into

the

Attitudes to

and

the

provision

of

drawing

tuition

on

Graphic

Design

courses

c)

Questionnaire

for

Graphic

Design

Students about

the

provision

of

drawing

tuition

on

Graphic Design

courses

d)

Questionnaire

for

Graphic

Design Students

to

be

Conducted

with

Final

Version

of

Folder

Appendix

II

:

Main

i I.

Groups

a)

Practising

Graphic

Designers

b)

Educators

c)

Students

Appendix

III:

Individmls

Interviewed

or

moulted

Appendix

IV:

Venues

for

Case

Study

and

Visits

a)

Design

Consultancy

b)

Educational

Establishments

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This

study

is

essentially

about

designerly

practice

but in

addition

it

also

looks

at

aspects

of educational

preparation

for this

practice.

The

main

emphasis

of

the

work

is

an

investigation

of

the

ways

in

which

practising

graphic

designers

use

drawing

in

all

the

phases

of

the

design

process.

However

consideration

has

also

been

given

to

the

role

of

drawing

tuition

on

BA

Graphic

Design

courses

such

curriculum

implications

being

the

ultimate

object

of

this

analysis.

The main intention of the study has been to form a basis on which the

use

of

drawing

can

be

characterised

and

the

required

drawing

abilities

of

graphic

designers

may

be

established

by

undertaking

a

detailed

investigation

of

the

role

of

drawing

in

a

wide range

of graphic

design

activities.

However the

study also

raises

issues

about

the

development

of

these

abilities

on

graphic

design

courses

and

begins

to

develop

a

theoretical

approach

from

which educational

practice

may

be

considered.

The

intention

has

at no

point

been

to

provide

either

a

fonmla

for

a

core

curriculum

or

to

recaffnend a slavish

emulation

of

camnercial

values

as

a

basis

of educational practice;

rather

to

indicate

that

not

only

is

the

use of

drawing

intrinsic

to the

graphic

design

process

but

also

that

it

has

a

hitherto largely

unrecognised

specificity

and

complexity

in

the

professional

work

of

graphic

designers

and

that

an

appraisal

and categorisation

of

these

particularities

would

improve

the

intellectual

grounding

on

which

educational

practice

must

be

based.

Therefore

the

main

aims

of

the

study

can

be

summarised

as

follows:

-

1.

To

study

the

ways

in

which professional

graphic

designers

use

drawing

2.

To

identify

and

characterise

the different

kinds

of

drawing that

are

used

in

the

various

activities

of

the

graphic

design

process

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3.

To

identify

the

range

of

drawing

abilities

required

by

graphic

designers

to

enable

them

to

engage

in

all

the

activities

of

the

graphic

design

process

Given

that

the

ultimate

goal of

the

study

is

to

provide

a

basis for

the

re-evaluation

of

the

provision

of

drawing

tuition

in

degree

level

graphic

design

education,

the

following

aims

have

also

influenced

the

study:

-

4.

To

consider

if

there

are any ways

in

which

UK

degree level

graphic design education may not be providing adequate tuition

for

the

develognent

of

the

various

drawing

abilities

identified

under

3

5.

To

make

suggestions

for improvements

in

curriculum

planning with

respect

to

drawing

tuition

for

graphic

design

students

based

on

the

results

of

the

study

The

study

has

therefore

been,

of necessity,

broad in

scope and

essentially

qualitative, rather

than

quantitative,

raising

issues

about

both

professional

practice and educational

practice.

Every

effort

has

been

made

to

investigate

all

the

major

orientations

and

working

practices

within

the

graphic

design

profession.

The

use

of

drawing

has

been

observed

in

a wide range of

designerly

activity

over

a

four

year

period.

Over

two

hundred

drawings

have

been

collected

and

analysed,

and

many

more

have

been

seen.

Canpleted

postal

questionnaires

have

been

obtained

from

over

50

of

the

degree level

graphic

design

courses

in

the UK,

and

a

short

series

of

formal

interviews

with

design

educators and

questionnaires

with

students

has

been

supplemented

with many

useful

discussions

with

colleagues

and

students

over

the

period

of

the

research.

A

conscious

decision

was

made

to

limit

the

scope

of

the

study

to

graphic

designers

with

broadly-based

experience.

That

is to

say,

the

sample

has

not

included

certain

specialists

who

could,

taking

the

broadest

definition

of

graphic

design,

be included

in

the

profession,

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workers

have

not

been

included

as

such

in

the

sample,

although

designers

whose

work

extends

in

these

directions have.

The

study

has

concentrated

on

those

practitioners

who are responsible

for

the

management

and

conduct of

design

solutions

and

who

are

involved in

all

the

phases

of

the

graphic

design

process,

although

because

of

their

position

in

the

organisation

or

the

particular

orientation

of

their

work,

their involvement

may not

be

equally

spread

throughout

these

phases.

The

educational aspects

of

the

study

were

similarly

aimed at

investigating

areas of

educational

provision

aimed

at

generalists

(graphic

design

students) rather

than

specialists

(advertising,

typography, illustration students, etc. )

At

an

early

stage

in

the

research

programme

it

was apparent

that

the

drawing

abilities

of graphic

designers

included

the

capacity

to

appreciate

and understand

drawings

and

the

capacity

to

conceptualise

and

commission

drawn

images.

Therefore,

the

need

for,

and

the

development

of,

such

cognitive as

well

as

practical

drawing

abilities

has

also

been

considered.

The thesis

describes

the

development

of

a

research

project

that

was

conducted

over a

four

year period.

Chapter

1

explains

in

more

detail

why

the

study was undertaken

and

outlines

its

evolution

and conduct.

In

Chapter 2

the

study

is

placed

in the

context

of

relevant

established

knowledge,

and

the

methodology

of

the

research

is

explained

in

Chapter

3.

The

findings

made

on

the

use

of

drawing in

all

the

aspects

of

the

graphic

design

process

are

presented

in

chapter

4,

and

the

various

factors

that

influence

a

graphic

designer s

use

of

drawing

identified.

In Chapter

5

findings

about

the

required

drawing

abilities

of

graphic

designers,

together

with

the

evaluative

criteria

they

employ

for

their

use

of

drawing,

are

described,

together

with

the

construction

of a

taxonomy

that

sets

out

the

conclusions

of

the

study

into

graphic

designers

use

of

drawing.

Current

educational

provision

for

drawing

tuition

on

BA

graphic

design

courses

is

considered

in

Chapter

6.

Chapter

7

presents

the

conclusions

of

the

study,

discusses

the

main

issues

raised

and

presents

sane

ideas

for future

work.

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CHAPTER

1

The Backgroýmd

and

outLfne

of

the

Study

1.1

Introduction

In

this

chapter

the

background

to

and

motives

for the

study are

described,

and

the

link between

professional practice

and

educational

provision

is

clarified.

The

evolution of

the

research

program

e,

,

the

methodology

employed, and

the

broad

context

in

which

the

study

is

set

are all outlined.

1.2

Prelude to the

study

In

order

to

appreciate

the

underlying

structure

of

this

study

it is

important

to

note

that,

although

there

has been

same

shift

of

emphasis

in

the

focus

of observation,

the

original

motivation

for

the

study

has

continued to exert an influence. That

is to

say, while a concern

for

the

development

of

drawing

tuition

in

BA

level

graphic

design

education

originally

prompted

the

study,

at

an

early

stage

in

the

research

programme

it

became

apparent

that

it

was

essential

to

characterise

the

drawing

activity

of practising

graphic

designers

before

a

basis for

educational

practice

could

be

considered.

Nevertheless,

the

initial

objective,

namely

to

try

to

improve

drawing

provision

in

the

light

of

the

demands

of professional

practice,

has

continued

to

exert

a considerable

influence,

and

the

system

developed

to

categorise

graphic

designers

drawing

activity,

which

is

fully

described

in

Chapter

5,

has been devised

with

the

ultimate

intention

of providing

a

basis

from

which

suggestions

for

the

planning

of

drawing

tuition

may

be

considered.

Over

a period

of several years,

the

author s

experience

in teaching

both drawing

and

design

to

BA

graphic

design

students

led

to

a growing

concern

about

the

role and

nature

of

drawing

tuition.

Frequently,

it

was

found

that

apparent

improvements

in drawing

ability

during

drawing

classes

were

not

consistently

matched

with

the

students

use

of

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colleagues

in

other

institutions

tended to

confirm

that,

although

there

remained

a

firm

belief

in

the importance

of

drawing

in

the

curriculum

of

BA

courses,

there

was

no

general consensus

as

to the

nature

and

role

of

drawing tuition. Nor

was

there

any

agreement

on

the

way

drawing

abilities

should

be

developed in

preparation

for

professional

practice.

In

fact, it

became

clear

that

the

planning and

conduct

of

drawing

tuition

was

often an area of

conflict

and

disagreement.

Drawing

was

found

to

be

a

topic

on which

many

academics

expressed

strong

opinions

but

on

which

no

underlying

principles

could

be

agreed.

Discussions

with

ex-students and students returning

fron industrial

placement

provided

further

examples of confusion and

dissatisfaction.

Many

expressed

a

lack

of confidence

in

their

drawing

abilities

when

faced

with

working

in

a ccn nercial

environment.

They

had

found

that

they

were

not quick enough, nor accurate

enough.

Moreover,

they

found

it

very

difficult

to

carmunicate

their

ideas.

Camnents

fran

employers

of

graduates

also

directly

or

indirectly

referred

to

the

effects of

deficiencies

in

drawing

ability along similar

lines.

Therefore,

before formally

embarking

on

this

study,

various

specific

areas

of

concern

had

already

been

identified. The

conflicting

requirements

of other subjects were

seen

to

present

a challenge

to the

place

of

drawing

on

the

curriculum.

It

was

difficult

to

reach

agreement

about

the

content of

drawing

progranms,

or

on

the

required

drawing

ability

of

applicants and

when

students

work

was

impaired

because

of

a

lack

of

drawing

ability

it

was

difficult to

decide

on

the

best

ways

to

help

them.

These

areas

of concern may

be

sunnarised as

follows:

-

a)

Concern

about

the

place of

drawing

tuition

in

overall

curriculum

planning

b)

Confusion

about

the

content

and

range

of specific

syllabus

in

drawing

tuition

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c

Unresolved

establishment

of

criteria

for

recruitment

with regard

to drawing

ability

d

Uncertainty

about

how

to

direct

remedial

tuition

for inadequate

draughtsmanship

Therefore

,

there

was

a

gradual

realisation

that

conventional

approaches

to

drawing

tuition

on

BA

Graphic Design

courses

were

not

entirely

adequate

for

fostering

appropriate uses

of

drawing in

the

practice

of

graphic

design

disciplines

and

a

decision

was

made

to

undertake a formal research programme.

1.3

Evoluti

cn and

outline

of

the

study

Thus,

based

on

this initial

hypothesis

that

drawing

tuition

on

BA

graphic

design

courses

was

inadequate in

that

it did

not

entirely

meet

the

requirements

of professional

practice,

the

initial

aims of

the

study were mainly concerned with investigating the range of

drawing

abilities

that

graphic

design

students

will

require

for

professional

practice

and

exploring

other

possible approaches

to

drawing

tuition

for

degree

level

graphic

design

courses.

11

A

pilot

study was undertaken,

and

through the

preliminary

findings

gained

in

a

series

of

trial interviews

conducted

with

practitioners,

educators

and

students,

it became

evident

that

an enquiry

of a more

fundamental

nature

was required.

Fran

the

results

of

an

extensive

literature

search,

it

also

became

apparent

that the

way graphic

designers

use

drawing

in

practice

has

hitherto

not

been

sufficiently

well

explored

or articulated

to

allow

for the

construction

of a

theoretical

and

intellectual

framework

commensurate

with

the

needs of

degree

level

students.

Hence,

the

main

focus

of

attention

of

the

study was changed

to

an

investigation

and

exploration

of

the

ways

in

which practising

graphic

designers

use

drawing.

The

main

objective

became

to

characterise

fully

their

use

of

drawing

and

the

drawing

activities

that

they

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the

research,

consideration

has

also

been

given

to the

curriculum

implications

of

the

findings.

The

revised aims of

the

study are

described

in

the

Introduction.

Thus,

as

stated

above,

early

in

the

pilot

study

stage

(which

is

described

in

more

detail

in

Chapter

3,

Section

3.2.

),

the

need

for

a

major

change

of

emphasis was

identified.

Other

important

developments

also

stem

fron

this

period,

when

a number

of methods

of collecting

information

were

evaluated

and

many consultations with

key individuals

took

place.

A

decision

was made

to

conduct

a

two-part

research

prograrme to consider both the professional and educational aspects of

the

study.

The

variables

that

can

influence

a

professional

graphic

designer s

use

of

drawing

were

identified,

as were

various

key

issues

that

later

served

as a

basis

for

both

structured

and

focused

interview

programmes

and

for

co-ordinating

sane of

the

findings.

The two

investigations

were

conducted

together

over

a

four

year

period. A series of 50 structured interviews was conducted with

practising

designers

representing all

the

major

orientations

and

levels

of

seniority

in

the

profession,

and

representing

in

their

mode

or

place

of

employment

a wide cross-section

of

design

organisations.

In

addition,

a series of

20

more

informal

but

focused interviews

was

conducted

with

junior

designers,

and

3

with

marketing

personnel.

A

number

of

these

interviews

were

conducted

with a cross-section

of

personnel

in

one organisation

selected as

the

major

case

study.

This

organisation

was revisited

regularly

so

that

the

long-term

progress of

particular

jobs

and

the

effects of

the

gradual

evolution

of

the

organisation

itself

could

be

studied.

Part

of

the

case study

involved

observation

of work

in

progress,

attendance

at client

and

in-house

meetings,

and

the

analysis

of

job

bags

(folders

of

designers

drawings

relating

to the

progression

of

individual

jobs

or projects).

The

investigation

of

educational

practice was

based

mainly

on

a postal

questionnaire

but

also

included

several

visits

to

BA

graphic

design

courses

and

a short

programme

of

interviews

and

questionnaires

conducted

with

educators

and

students.

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1.4

The

context

of

the

study

With

the

growing appreciation

of

the

potential

for

wealth creation

through design,

increasingly

greater

emphasis

is

being

placed on

exploring

means

for

the

development

of

professional

and

business

skills

in

student

designers.

Exploration

of

the

central

role

of

drawing

in

the

graphic

designer's

professional

life,

including

not

only

the

activities

involved directly

in

design

and

innovation

but

also

those involved

in

design

management,

is

therefore

of

vital

importance

in

terms

of

the

student

designer

achieving

a

realistic

professional approach to the use of drawing. It is also becaning more

apparent

that

the

ability

to

use and

commission

drawings

must

be

considered

as part of

the

range of

business

skills

a

professional

catty

nication

designer

requires.

How, therefore,

may

a study

of

these

practical

and cognitive abilities

fit

into

the

broad

context

of

art

and

design

studies?

In

general, it is true to say that the consideration of

functional

aspects

is

well established

as an

approach

to

the

study

of

drawing

and

drawing

systems.

However,

the

part played

by

the

drawing

activities

of

graphic

designers in

the

varied

activities

that

they

perform

has

not

hitherto

been

fully

clarified.

The

role

of

drawing

in

the

developnent

of an

individual's

capacity

to

work

creatively

also

requires

due

consideration

in

any

study of

design

practice

and

an

investigation

of

its

part

in

the

development

of

visual

literacy

is

particularly

relevant

for

graphic

designers.

The

growing

appreciation

of

the

ways

of working

and

achieving

understanding

that

are

specifically

designerly,

and

the

function

of

drawing

as

a visual

'code'

or

'problem-solving

language',

equivalent

to

the

numerical

or

verbal

'codes'

of

other

problem

solving

disciplines

must

also

to

be

taken

into

account.

Moreover,

consideration

of

the

historical

develogTent

of

the

provision

for

drawing

tuition

on

graphic

design

courses

is

relevant

in

that it

aids

understanding

of

current

educational

practice.

All

these

issues have

been

addressed

in

this

present

study,

particularly

in

the

review

of

relevant

previous

work

in

Chapter

2.

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1.5

Definition

of

the

terns

used

in

the

study

Semantic

issues

have

caused

some

difficulties

and,

in

part,

have

influenced

the

approach

to

the

research.

Neither

the

representatives

of

the

academic

nor

of

the

commercial

environments

consulted

were

found

to

employ

broadly

agreed

terminology,

even

within

their

cn

respective

spheres.

Indeed,

part

of

the

field

work

within

the

commercial

environment

was

devoted

to the

identification

and

classification

of

ter inology

in

carmon use among graphic

designers.

This

is discussed

fully

in

Chapter

5.

The

problem

has

been further

compounded

by the

vocabulary

in

the

literature

which

tends to be

specific

to

particular

paradigms

or

disciplines,

or even

to

individual

authors.

Hence,

only

limited

use

could

be

made

of

research

methodologies

that

would

not

allow

for

a

checking

of

understanding

in

respondents.

Thus,

although

a postal

questionnaire

was

used as

an

efficient

way

of collecting

data from

respondents

in

widely spread

geographical

locations,

its

efficacy

was consequently

limited

and

the

scope of questions had to be restricted.

During

the

pilot study much

thought

was

given

to

whether

the

use

of

the

terns

drawing

was

most

appropriate

as

a general

term

for

the

activities

being

investigated.

Consideration

was also

given

to the

use

of

terms

like

rough

or

visual

known

to

be in

use

in

the

profession,

but

in

that these

terms

have

rather

specific

connotations

they were rejected for this purpose. Eventually the decision was made

to

use

the

generic

terns

drawing

because

it

was

the

only

one

that

encanpassed

the

full

range

of

activities under

consideration,

and

because

it

was

likely

to

have

a

broadly

equivalent

meaning

to

all

potential

respondents.

In the

event

it

proved

not

only

an effective

but

a useful

choice,

the

initial

reaction of

respondents

frequently

providing

an

early

insight

into

key

attitudes.

Care

has

been

taken in

presenting

the findings

to

distinguish,

where

appropriate,

between

the

act

of

drawing

itself

and

the

products

of

drawing.

The term

drawing

activity

has

been

used

as

a

general

term

to

refer

to

the

act

of

drawing

and

the

term

drawing

produced

(along

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products

of

drawing

activity.

The

term

graphic

designer

has

been

employed

in the

slightly

restricted

sense

described

in

the

Introduction,

to

refer

to

those

practitioners

who

are

involved

in

all

the

phases of

the

graphic

design

process,

but

not

to

specialists

like

illustrators

or

typographers.

The

tern

process

is

used

in

the

sense of a series

of

actions

broadly

directed

to

the

achievement

of an appropriate result.

The

graphic

design

process

is

described

as comprising

a

series

of

phases,

rather

than stages, to emphasise that it is linear

only

in very broad terms

and

includes

many

feedback

loops.

Within

these

phases

various

procedures

or courses

of action can

be

identified. The

term

task

is

used

to

denote

a piece

of

work,

a specific

undertaking

to

be

carried

out,

generally

forming

part

of

a

procedure

within

the

design

process.

Generally agreed terminology is available for specific procedures.

Fror

example,

terms

such

as

briefing

,

collection

of

reference

material ,

analysis , synthesis , evaluation ,

presentation ,

carnissioning ,

specification

and

art-work have

been

found

to

have

generally

agreed

meanings.

Designerly

tasks

are categorised

under

the

headings

Managerial ,

Executive

and

Self-Development .

The terns

Managerial is

used

when

tasks have

broadly

organisational

intentions.

Executive

is

used

to

denote

those tasks

that

are

instrumental

in

the

develognent

of

design

solutions.

The

term

Self-Developnent describes those

tasks

that

designers

engage

in

to

bring

about

improvements

in their

an

individual

abilities.

The terns

orientation

has

been

used

to

describe

the

particular

type

of

job in

which

the

designer

is

engaged,

that

is

whether

it

is,

for

example,

packaging

or

magazine

design,

etc.

The

term

job

has been

used

in

the

way

generally

accepted

in

the

profession

to

mean

a

specific

design

problem.

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The

terms

cognitive

and

practical

are

used

to

denote

different

types

of

drawing

ability.

The

teen

cognitive

is

used

to

denote

conceptual

and

intellectual

abilities

and

the

awareness

of

the

appropriate

use

of

drawing

in

the

design

process.

Cognitive

ability

also

includes

the

ability

to

appreciate

and

judge

the

quality

of

drawn

imagery,

whereas

the

term

practical

is

used

for

the

more

evident

abilities

like

manipulative

skills,

fluidity

and

media

handling,

and

technical

canpetence

in

the

use

of specific

equipment,

etc.

I

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(I P1

ER

2

'Ibe OQltext of the study

2.1

Introduction

As

explained

in

Chapter

1,

this

study

is

concerned with a number

of

related

topics,

namely

the

use

of

drawing

in

the

graphic

design

process,

the

drawing

abilities

graphic

designers

require

to

use

drawing

effectively,

and

the

means of

developing

these

abilities

within

BA

level

graphic

design

education.

In the

present

chapter

consideration

is

given

to

the

background

issues

on which

the

investigation

is based

and

areas of

established

knowledge

relevant

to

these

topics

are

examined.

Initially,

in

Section

2.2,

the

wide-ranging

responsibilities

of

graphic

designers

are

discussed

and various

accounts of

the

use

of

drawing

in

the

graphic

design

process are

considered.

In Section

2.3

sane

previous

studies

on

the

functional

aspects

of

drawing

are

examined,

and

in

Section 2.4

caranentaries

that

discuss

the

role

of

drawing

in

creative

processes

are

considered.

Section

2.5

deals

with

speculation

about

the

nature

of

design

processes,

together

with

the

'designer

codes'

that

include

drawing

and with

the

use

of

drawing

as a

problem-solving

language.

Finally,

in

Section

2.6, the

historical

background

to

the

development

of

drawing

tuition

on

graphic

design

courses

and

same proposals

for

alternative

approaches

to

current

art

and

design

educational

provision

are

discussed,

insofar

as

they

relate

to

the

present

study.

2.2

Graphic design

and

the

role

of

the

practiti,

aýer

The

difficulty

in defining

the

graphic

design

discipline is

noted

by

one

of

its

significant

theorists

and

practitioners,

Paul

Rand

(1985),

who

has

stated

that

the

'expression

graphic design is

rich

in

meaning

but

difficult

to

pin

down.

'

Nevertheless,

essentially

it is

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and

fit

this

material

together

-

and

make

it interesting.

'

As Ashwin

(1982)

indicates,

it

is

only

in

the

course

of

the

last

two to three

decades

that

the

teen

graphic

design

has replaced the expression

cannercial

art

but,

in

spite

of

being

in

caption usage,

it

cannot

be

seen

to have

'a

stable or

permanent

meaning.

'

Rawson's (1987)

definition

of

graphic

design

is

of

'the

arrangement

Of

flat

layouts

of

text

and/or

images

.....

and a

host

of

[other]

products

for

printing

processes'

and

Topalian

(1980)

is

similarly

pragmatic

with

his

description

of

two

dimensional design,

design

for

print

or,

more

globally,

communications

design .

Therefore,

the

role

of

the

graphic

designer

may

be

said

to

involve

the

manipulation

of

arrangements

of words

and

imagery

as part of

his

or

her

responsibility

for

the

expression

of

meaning

through

visual

relationships.

In

the

19th

Century

during,

a

'welter

of

invention,

innovation,

adaptation

and

experiment,

there

was

rarely

if

ever

one controlling

hand

or

intellect,

one

graphic

designer

at

the

centre'

(Ashwin,

1983)

and

it

was

only

during

the

early

years

of

this

century

that

the

importance

of

the

individual

designer

in

the

co-ordination

of pieces

of

graphic

cannunication

was

established.

The

range

of

work

with

which

graphic

designers

cane

into

contact

has

continued

to

grow over

recent

years.

In

1973,

Hofuran

(1973)

noted

that:

Whereas

a

few

years

ago

the

activities of

the

graphic

designer

were

mainly

restricted

to

the

creation of

posters,

advertisements,

packaging,

signs,

etc.,

his

work

has

now

expanded

to

embrace virtually

every

field

of

representation

and

design. (p38)

While

Goslett

(1978)

includes:

typography - book, magazine and newspaper, stationery,

annual

reports,

catalogues,

type faces

etc.

Lettering,

calligraphy.

Publicity

material-

advertisements,

booklets,

folders,

posters,

covers,

point

of

sale,

'stamps

etc.

TV

and

film

graphics,

trade

marks,

symbols,

packaging,

photography'

(p42)

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Therefore,

it

may

be

said

that

the types

of

design

problems

that

graphic

designers

are

required

to tackle

have becane

increasingly

varied, not only

in

terms

of scale and

format but

in

the

nature of

their

ccnnunication.

With

the

evolution

of

the

design

consultancy, and

the

additional

services

they

offer, a

less

piecemeal

approach

to

graphic

problems

has

developed.

As Steers

(1987)

points

out,

The

first

generation

concept

....

the

simple,

linear

problem-solving

model

does

not

hold

up.

It

is

increasingly

recognised

that

design

activity

is

a

complex

blend

of

logical,

pragmatic

and

intuitive

approaches .

The

graphic

designer,

therefore,

is

not

only required

to

provide

solutions

that

work

on

their

own

terms,

that

take into

account

the

technical

requirements

of

production

methods

and consider

costing

requirements,

but

also

that

relate

to less

clearly

quantifiable

visual or

sociological

contexts.

Cross

[N]

(1984),

in

reviewing

the

emergence

of

systematic

approaches

to

disciplines

like

urban,

architectural,

engineering

and

industrial

design,

cites

increasing

complexity

in

the

designer s task

concanitant

with

increasing

technological

change and

the

requirement

to

reduce

designer

error as generally prevailing

influences.

The

graphic

design

discipline

has

similarly

been

subject

to

growing

ccwplexity,

brought

about

not

only

by

developing

technology

(Craig,

1974; Dalley,

1980)

but

also

by

the

demands

of

a society

utilising

increasingly

sophisticated

ccmnunication

systems

and subject

to

an

increasingly

varied

diet

of

visual

imagery.

The

graphic

designer

may

therefore

be

engaged

in

a

set

of

interrelated

tasks

offering

their

clients

a co-

ordinated

service

tailored

to their

needs

(Olivs,

1985).

There

are

also graphic

designers

working

on

problems

with

a

particular

orientation

like in

packaging

or

editorial

design

who are

,

as

a

result,

subject

to

more

specific

sets of

constraints

(Bridgewater,

1987).

The

nature

of

these

specialist

orientations

must

of

course

be

taken into

account

when

considering

the

range

of responsibilities

of

graphic

designers.

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totally directed

by

others,

'What

he

has

to

say

-

the

content

of

his

work

-

is

usually

thought

up

by

sanebody

else'

(Guyatt, 1977),

or as

Rawson (1987) indicates in areas of specialisation 'such as book

design,

the

graphic

designer's

task

is

to

package

existing

material.

'

Games

(1960)

describes

the

role

as

one

of

a

co-ordinator:

...

let

me

call

the

graphic

designer

the

middle

man

of

communications.

He

informs

the

public on

behalf

of

his

client.....

[The]

three

vital

factors,

patron,

subject

audience,

are all

determined for him

by

the

man

paying

the

bill.

(p3)

and,

as

Black

(1983)

has

concluded, a

'designer

without

a

client

is

as

impotent

as an actor

declaiming

to

an

empty

theatre.

'

However,

for both

Guyatt

(1977)

and

Games

(1960)

the

process of

designing

can redeem a graphic

designer's

work, provided

he

or she

is

motivated

to

interact

with

the

given

material

of

the

job

and

not

just

to

act upon

it.

He

must

feel

able

to

give

it

the

stamp

of

his

own

authority

and

individuality,

creating

sanething

which

without

him

could

never

be.

By

investing

it

with

his

personality

and

outlook

he

can give

it

a

deeper

significance

than

is

possible

otherwise....

Personal

involvement

of

the

designer,

his

belief

in

what

he

is

doing,

is

to

my

mind

of

paramount

importance.

At

this

stage

he

stands

at

the

frontier

between

man and

man.

(Games

op.

cit.

p4)

Black

(1983)

stresses

the

contribution

of

the

individual

designer

to

an even

greater extent,

expressing

a

belief

that

even

those

designers

who

explore

the

solution of

design

problems

in

experimental,

even

irrational

ways, make

important

contributions.

'[They]

celebrate

the

unpredictability

of man'

and

thus,

enrich

the

shared

visual

vocabulary

of

the

profession.

Thus,

a

passive

or partially

felt

response,

a

simplistic

manipulation

of

given

elements

is

not

enough.

'[The]

designer's

task

is

to

restate

the

problem'

(Rand,

1985).

However,

this

restatement

needs

to take

place

in

terms

appropriate

to

the

media.

According

to

Dailey

(1980),

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reproduction,

and

the

social or

economic

constraints

placed

on

the

designer.

'

Part

of

these

constraints

for

many

designers

who

are

currently

in

practice

canes

from

the

requirement

to

work as part

of a

team,

and as

part

of

their

responsibility within

the team

a

designer

may

be

required

to take

on managerial

responsibilities.

In

reviewing

the

role

of a

designer

with

such responsibilities,

the

meaning

of

the

particular

terms

used

in

the

profession

(C.

N. A. A.,

1984)

and

a general

lack

of

definition

of

these

responsibilities poses problems.

The

teen

'design

management',

first

coined

by

Farr

(1966),

has

now

cane

to

have

rather wide

terms

of reference, although

initially

it

was

used

to

describe

a specific

range

of managerial

activities

within

canpanies.

The

application

of

the

definitions

suggested

by

Braidwood

(1987),

namely

that

'when

a minority

of

a manager's

time

is

spent

cannunicating

with

the

designers

for

whose

work

he is

responsible,

we

call

this

job

function

managing

design ;

when

a

majority

of a

specialist

managers

time

is

spent

supervising

designers

we

use

the

term

design

management ',

disregards

the

managerial

aspects

of a

practising

designer's

role.

In

spite

of

their

acceptance

that

'design

projects

involve

the

control

of

the

design

process

as well

as

the

production

of

designs'

(Topalian,

1984),

some

theorists

do

not

regard

designers

as

being

necessarily

the

best

choice

for

design

managers.

Indeed,

they

are

described

as

being

exceptional

among

the

professions

in

being

generally

unprepared

'to

abandon

their

profession

for

leadership

roles'

and

are

not

trained to

have

an

easy relationship

with

management

(Gorb,

1986).

Similarly,

Olins

(1985)

car

lairs

that

although

'some

designers

make good

design

managers

because

they

understand

what

design

can

do.

Most,

however,

don't.

The

disciplines

in

which

they

have been

educated

infrequently

bring

out

management

skills.

'

However,

Black

(1983)

discusses

the

need

to

establish

'a

basis

for

understanding

and

co-operation so

that

business

executives

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Clearly

practising

designers

are

required

to

function

in

managerial

roles

but

the

nature

of

these

roles

and

specifically,

for

the

purpose

of this study, the role of drawing in the performance of managerial

tasks

is

not

addressed

by

the theorists;

nor

are

more

appropriate

approaches

to its

tuition

as

part of

a

discipline

that

would

bring

out

management

skills.

How

then

may

the

day-to-day

working

practices

of

the

graphic

designer

be

assessed

within

the

context

of

the

complexity

and

variety

that

can

be

found

to

exist within the graphic design profession? Certainly

he

or

she

should

not

be

thought

of merely

as

a

go-between,

carrying a

message

fron

a

client

to

a customer

or

a

juggler,

demonstrating

his

skills

by

manipulating

various

ingredients

in

a

given

space

(Bridgewater,

1987).

The

role

of

the

graphic

designer

can

be

seen

to

be

varied

and

canplex.

Graphic design

problems

are wide-ranging, requiring

the

manipulation

of

words

and

images

in

two

or

three

dimensions, in

unitary

or

sequential

formats,

or

in

time-based

media.

Frequently

the

solution

of

these

problems

needs

to

be

considered

in

the

wider

context

of a

client s

business

and cannunication

requirements.

A

designer

may need

to

develop

a

specialist range

of

skills

for

particular

orientations

of

work,

or

conversely,

may

have

to

be

able

to

co-ordinate

a set

of

design

solutions

across a

range of

formats

or

media,

developing

the

requisite

specialised

or

broadly-based

technical

understanding

to

design

and

specify

for

the

relevant

production methods.

In

sate cases

their

responsibilities

may also

extend

beyond

the

executive

aspects of

their

role

to

take

in

managerial

responsibilities.

Essentially,

the

graphic

designer s

responsibility

may

be

seen

to

include

the

requirement

to

bring

his

or

her

own

individual

capacity

to

bear

on

the

development

of

design

solutions,

yet

to

do

this

within

the

relevant

constraints.

Let

us

now

consider

the

use

of

drawing

in this

canplex

role.

Guyatt

(1977)

indicates

that

central

to this

role

is the

designer s

capacity

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Clearly

a

designer....

helps

the

wheels

of

industry

go

round.

But

what

is

more significant

and particular

is that

he

is

able

to

do

this

through

his

response and

sensitivity

to

the

world

around

him......

This

in

a

designer,

can

trigger

off

the in¢naterial level

of

ideas

and

understanding,

enriching

him

and

his

work.

This

is

his hall-mark

and

his

peculiar

talent, that

the

look

of

things

turn him

on ,

be

they

man-made

or natural,

and

this

enables

him

to talk

their

language

and

understand

them.

(p8)

Unfortunately,

when

one starts

to

look for

examples

of

the

way

in

which

drawing

is

used

to

support

the

designer in this

'talking

the

language

of visual things' they are very

difficult

to

find.

Examples

of

graphic

design

in

production

are widely available

through

the

many

books

and

journals

that

deal

with

the

subject,

but

examples

of

the

preparatory

stages of

these

solutions are

very rarely

seen.

Although

the

complexity

of

design

procedures

and problem solving

is

generally

clearly

discussed

and

illustrated,

even

specialist

manuals

do

not,

for

the

most

part,

try

to

present an

analysis of

the

use

of

drawing

in

all

the

activities

in

which

graphic

designers

engage.

Games

(1960)

writes;

For

many years

I

have

made

a practice

of

keeping

all

progressive

sketches which go

to the

making

of

a

final

design.

Occasionally they

leave

their

portfolio

for

an

airing

at

lectures, but

mostly

remain

hidden fron

view

like

the

bulk

of an

iceberg,

while

the

final

design,

like

the

peak,

is displayed for

all

to

see.

(p8)

It

is

the

purpose

of

this

study

to

explore

the

bulk

of

this

'iceberg'

of

designerly

activity.

Descriptions

of

graphic

design

activity

are

often

found to

define

the

operations

of graphic

designers by

a

linear

model

of

the

graphic

design

process.

For

example,

Garland

(1966),

provides

a

map of

a

'Typical

sequence

in

production

of printed

matter'

which,

although

arranged

to indicate

stages

or

phases

of

developnent,

consists

essentially

of

descriptions

of

procedures,

eg

'specifying'

and

'ccmnissioning'.

In

a

few

sources

descriptions

of

the

graphic

design

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sketch ,

roughs ,

and

comprehensives

(Barker,

1959). Cabibi

(1973)

uses

descriptions

of

thumbnail

sketches ,

the

rough

or

visual ,

the

comprehensive and the mechanical or camera-ready copy , and

Ballinger

(1956)

describes

a

designer s

progress

through

the

process

in

terms

of

making

his

cam rough

sketches,

which

may

be

used

in

conferring ,

preparing

more complete

roughs

for

presentation

purposes,

procuring

or

preparing artwork and

preparing

the

final

mechanical

art

required

for

printing.

However,

these

descriptions

of

drawing

activities are rarely

considered

in detail.

It

is

only

in those texts

specifically

dedicated

to teaching

drawing

techniques

that

the

purpose and

utilisation

of

drawing

is

explored.

Even

here,

with

few

exceptions,

for

example

the

depiction

of

the

use

of

drawing for

planning

layouts

(Donahue,

1978),

presentation, specification

and production

techniques

tend

to

be

the

main uses

of

drawing

exemplified

(Lewis,

1978;

Twyford,

1981;

Kemnitzer,

1983;

Bridgewater,

1987;

Mulhern,

1988).

Indeed,

if

the

various

key

reference

books

and manuals

about

graphic

design

are

consulted,

it

soon

becomes

apparent

that

while

in

other

respects

they

provide

balanced

introductions to the

discipline,

they

give

little

information

on

the

specific

use

of

drawing,

if

they

mention

it

at all

(Garland,

1966;

Croy,

1972;

Craig,

1974; Dailey,

1980).

Disciplines that

are

specific

to

graphic

design,

like

typography

and production

methods,

receive

most attention,

thereby

perhaps

implying

that

the

acquisition

of specific

drawing

abilities

is

not

as

important.

Descriptions

of

the

production

of

presentations

roughs

rarely

discuss

in

any

detail

the

prerequisite

drawing

skills

for

their

production.

Dailey

(1980),

for

example,

gives

explicit

instruction

on

techniques

such

as

preparing artwork,

but

does

not

deal

with

the

problems

of visualising

ideas.

Where

attention

is

focused

on

exploring

basic

design

concepts,

the

rough,

free drawing

that

is

invariably

used

for

exploring

initial

concepts

is

neither

illustrated

nor

described (Mulvey,

1969;

Hofuran,

1973).

It

is

generally

only

among

descriptions

of

drawing

activities

for

the

advertising

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On

the

rare

occasions

where

descriptions

of

drawing

activity

are

to

be

found

the accanpanying images are clearly specially produced

illustrations

and are not

original

designer s drawings

(see

Fig.

1(a)),

thereby

creating

erroneous

impressions

of

the

ways

in

which

drawing

is

actually

used.

Thus, the

design

process

can

be

artificially

made

to

seem

systematic

and

linear

in

progression.

Games

(1960)

provides

rare examples

of

a graphic

designer s

drawing

activity.

(See

Fig.

1(b).

)

Therefore,

it

may

be

said

that,

although

many of

the

publications

dedicated

to

the

description

of graphic

design

practice

give

clear

indication

of

the

tasks

that

a graphic

designer

performs

in

the

development

of

design

solutions,

they

either

pay cursory

attention

to

the

use

of

drawing,

or

they

stage

a rather

inaccurate

depiction

of

its

use.

An

investigative

approach exploring

practice

fron

the

point

of view

of

the

practitioner

has

not

hitherto been

attempted.

In

addition,

while

there

are

numerous

manuals

supporting

the

development

of

specific

drawing

skills

and

techniques,

these

generally

concentrate

on

the

requirements

of

the

later

phases

of

the

graphic

design

process.

2.3

The

fimctir

7

aspects

of

drawing

One

of

the

important

elements

of

this

study

is

the

consideration

of

the

various

functions

that

drawing

performs

in

the

graphic

design

process

and

the

nature of

the

drawing

techniques

that

have

evolved

for

the

performance

of

these

functions.

Although,

as

stated

above,

specific

reference

to

graphic

designers

use

of

drawing

is

limited,

discussion

of

the

functional

aspects of

drawing

is

well

represented

in

the

literature

devoted

to

the

nature of

drawing

itself.

Caentary

about

the

nature

of

drawing

can

be

found

in

a

wide

variety

of

both

contemporary

and

historical

sources,

Hotter

(1968),

Rawson

(1969),

Ashwin

(1982),

Lambert

(1984)

and

Strauss

and

Felker

(1987)

represent

an

excellent

cross-section

of

different

approaches,

and

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