Ghent University Faculty of Arts and Philosophy Language variation and gender throughout the 20 th century. A historiographical study Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of “Master in de Taalen Letterkunde: Engels ” by (01002261) Daryen Vandeputte Supervisor: Prof. dr. K. Willems 20152016 Cosupervisor: dr. L. De Cuypere
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Ghent University
Faculty of Arts and Philosophy
Language variation and gender throughout the 20th
century. A historiographical study
Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of “Master in de
Taal-‐en Letterkunde: Engels ” by (01002261) Daryen Vandeputte
Supervisor: Prof. dr. K. Willems 2015-‐2016
Co-‐supervisor: dr. L. De Cuypere
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Abstract
The aim of this master’s thesis is to investigate how the discussion about language
variation and gender evolved from the beginning of the twentieth century until the
present day. To this end, five older sources published in the first part of the twentieth
century are analysed and compared with one another: Om kvinnospråk och andra ämnen
(About women’s speech and other topics) (Cederschiöld, 1900), Otto Jespersen’s chapter
thirteen “The Woman” of Language, Its Nature, Origin and Development (1922), A.F.
Chamberlain’s Women’s Languages (1912), Men’s and Women’s Language by the hand of
P.H. Furfey (1944) and Louis Gauchat’s L’unité phonétique dans le patois d’une commune
(1905). These sources are, moreover, contrasted with relevant comparable studies
published since the second half of the twentieth century, in particular since 1975, the
year in which Robin Lakoff published Language and Woman’s Place, and, in doing so, put
the gender-‐issue definitively on the map of linguistic variation research. The analysis
shows that in general, there are not many differences among the older publications. For
the most part, they lack empirical evidence to support their claims. These claims are,
moreover, often contradicted by contemporary research. This is true for all sources from
the first part of the 20th century that are analysed, except for the work of Gauchat
(1905). Throughout his work, the reader is provided with empirical data that support
the hypotheses of Gauchat and are based on empirical sociolinguistic research. As a
result, his findings are often in agreement with findings of present-‐day research. In
general, there are far less “absolute truths” on language variety and gender emerging
from present-‐day research than there were claimed to be in the first part of the
twentieth century. However, the work of Gauchat forms an exception to this conclusion.
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Preface
This study was developed in the context of achieving the degree of “Master of Arts in
Linguistics and Literature: English”. I would like to use this opportunity to briefly thank
a number of people for their support and assistance while writing this thesis.
I would like to start of by expressing my gratitude towards my supervisor and co-‐
supervisor, prof. dr. K. Willems and dr. L. De Cuypere, respectively. They have guided me
throughout the process of creating the thesis until the end. For their guidance, their
support, their help, their advice, their answers to my questions and especially their
patience, I am very grateful.
A very special thank you is in order for my aunt, who has helped me with the
layout and in doing so, she has saved me from a lot of frustrations.
I would also like to thank my family, who have had to put up with my mood
swings and nervous breakdowns, for their unconditional love and support. More
specifically, I would like to thank my sister, who was writing her thesis at the same time,
for her support when I needed it the most. On a final note, I would very much like to
thank some of my fellow students who took the time and effort to proofread parts of the
thesis. Their guidance and assistance have proven to be indispensable, without it I
would not have been able to write the thesis.
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Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... 3 Preface ................................................................................................................................................ 4 Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................. 5 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 6 2 Bio-‐bibliographical background ......................................................................................... 9 2.1 Johan Gustav Christoffer Cederschiöld (1849-‐1928) ......................................................... 9 2.2 Otto Jespersen (1860-‐1943) .......................................................................................................... 9 2.3 Alexander Francis Chamberlain (1865-‐1914) .................................................................... 10 2.4 Paul Hanly Furfey (1896-‐1992) ................................................................................................ 10 2.5 Louis Gauchat (1866-‐1942) ........................................................................................................ 11
3 Status Quaestionis ................................................................................................................. 12 4 Theoretical Background ...................................................................................................... 15 5 Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 18 6 Discussion and Results ........................................................................................................ 21 6.1 Pronuncation ..................................................................................................................................... 21 6.2 Vocabulary .......................................................................................................................................... 27 6.3 Courtesy/politeness ....................................................................................................................... 31 6.4 Primitive languages ........................................................................................................................ 38 6.5 “Women’s” Language ..................................................................................................................... 39 6.6 Conservative Language ................................................................................................................. 41 6.7 Oral Sources ....................................................................................................................................... 46 6.8 Speed of thought .............................................................................................................................. 48 6.9 Speed of utterances ........................................................................................................................ 50 6.10 Emotions vs. rationality in speech. ........................................................................................ 53 6.11 Taboo ................................................................................................................................................. 55 6.12 2nd/foreign language learning ................................................................................................. 58 6.13 Adverbs ............................................................................................................................................. 59 6.14 Non-‐verbal communication ...................................................................................................... 61 6.15 Pronouns .......................................................................................................................................... 62 6.16 Diphthongs ...................................................................................................................................... 63
No two languages are the same, yet there is more than just variation between different
languages, there is also variation within one and the same language. Variation within the
same language is a phenomenon that occurs on a number of different levels, though
some of them might be more obvious than others. Sociolinguists discovered that there
are a number of factors that influence the way in which one speaks. It depends on what
social class one belongs to, the education one received, the neighbourhood a person
grew up in, his or her age and occupation, etc. All of these factors influence our speech,
and as a result, it can be found that two neighbours will not speak the exact same
language. One of those factors, and perhaps the most influential one when talking about
language variety, is gender. At some point, everybody has probably noticed that a man
and woman with similar social backgrounds do not speak exactly the same language.
Intuitively we assign women with a higher-‐pitched voice, and there are certain phrases
and expressions that would probably be regarded as strange when spoken by a man.
These are just two examples of a wide range of differences in the speech of men and
women. According to the Online Dictionary of Language Terminology (ODLT) a
genderlect is “a variety of speech (i.e. a register or a sociolect) that is specific to either
males or females” (“Genderlect”, 2015). Although this term was not coined by Deborah
Tannen herself, it only really gained acknowledgement after she used it for her
“Genderlect Theory”, which stated that men and women have a different way of making
conversation, with neither one being the right one, or superior over the other; they
simply are different (Tannen, 1990).
Although a number of publications can be found a little earlier on, the topic of
language variation and gender only really gained interest among linguists with the
publication of Robin Lakoff’s Language and Woman’s Place (1975), which is commonly
considered as the birth of the “gender-‐issue” in sociolinguistics. Nevertheless, scholars
were already addressing it in the beginning of the twentieth century. One of them,
perhaps the most famous among them, is the Danish linguist Otto Jespersen (1860-‐
1943). He devoted an entire chapter to language variation and gender in his Language,
its Nature, Development and Origin (1922). He is still considered the most well known
Scandinavian linguist who has done ground breaking research in the field of linguistics.
This chapter, entitled “The Woman”, is generally regarded as one of the first scholarly
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texts on gender in the history of linguistics and is still the basis for a number of
contemporary debates. In 2013 Margaret Thomas called for a new interpretation of
Jespersen’s famous chapter (see Thomas 2013). However, Otto Jespersen was not the
only Scandinavian linguist dealing with the topic of language variation. The Swedish
linguist Johan Gustaf Christoffer Cederschiöld (1849-‐1928) already mentions an interest
in this topic of language variation and gender in his Om svenskan som skriftspråk (“About
Swedish as a written language) (1897), mainly discussing the difference between
spoken and written language, but also briefly mentioning some differences between
male and female speech. This led him to publish Om kvinnospråk och andra ämnen
(“About female speech and other topics”) in 1900, in which he discussed, amongst
others, differences between male and female speech.
The Scandinavians were not the only ones who took an early interest in the topic
of language variation and gender. Paul Hanly Furfey (1896-‐1992) was an American
sociologist who published the article “Men’s and Women’s Languages” in 1944. Since he
was more interested in the sociological aspects of language variation than in linguistic
aspects, some critics regard his work as being of minor value. In this thesis however, it
occupies a central position mainly due to the fact that Furfey has based himself on
Jespersen’s work on a number of occasions, which provides an excellent basis for
comparison. Alexander Francis Chamberlain (1865-‐1914) was a Canadian
anthropologist who also took an early interest in language variation and gender. Just like
Furfey, he did not have a linguistic background, yet his Women’s Languages was
published in the American Anthropologist in 1912. His work is especially interesting for
its bold statements. Among the Swiss sociolinguists, it is Louis Gauchat (1866-‐1942)
who is most well known. Gauchat studied the French language spoken in Charmey, a
small village in Switzerland. Although his aim was to find language differences related to
the age of the inhabitants, his work has proven valuable for my study since Gauchat
discusses some gender differences as well.
The aim of this study is to look at the evolution that took place in linguistics with
regard to language variation and gender from the beginning of the twentieth century
until the present day. The study mainly focuses on language variation related to gender,
more specifically the differences in language used by males and females. Other
sociolinguistic aspects such as ethnic origin, age or social class will not be dealt with,
although they are not unrelated to the subject of gender. In order to answer the question
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of how the topic of language variation and gender has evolved since the beginning of the
twentieth century, I will compare older sources and contrast them with contemporary
research that comes as close as possible to recreating similar questions that were posed
in the beginning of the twentieth century. Furthermore it is important to bear in mind
that the conclusions drawn in this study with regard to the sources of the first part of
the twentieth century may not be entirely representative of their time, since they make
up only a small selection of a probably much larger group of texts. The same can be said
of the sources of the end of the twentieth century; they were chosen because of their
acknowledged importance. Before I proceed with the analysis, some background
information about the authors of the first part of the 20th century is in order, and will be
provided in the following section.
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2 Bio-‐bibliographical background
2.1 Johan Gustav Christoffer Cederschiöld (1849-‐1928)
Johan Cederschiöld was born in Stockholm in 1849. After his philosophy studies he
became a teacher in Nordic languages in 1875. He was the principal of Gothenburg’s
elementary school for girls for 7 years, from 1882 until 1889. It is quite possible that it is
during this period of time that Cederschiöld became interested in the female language,
although no conclusive sources on this matter were found. He received the title of
professor in the Nordic languages in 1893 and taught at Göteborg’s University. From
1889 onwards, Cederschiöld was a co-‐worker of the Swedish Academy’s Ordbok öfver
svenska språket (“Dictionary of the Swedish language”). He also developed some rich and
significant linguistic achievements in a number of different fields, including studies of
the Icelandic saga’s (Bandamanna saga, 1874), a study conducted about dead words
(Döda Ord, 1893) and a study on sentences without a subject (Om s.k. subjektlösa satser i
svenskan, 1895). His most famous work for which he is most often remembered today is
Om svenskan som skriftspråk, published in 1897 and revised in 1902, but his interest in
language stretched to a variety of different linguistic subjects. From 1885 until 1888 he
was a member of the committee for investigation of education in private schools for
girls. He received a royal prize in 1902 by the Swedish Academy (Meijer et al. 1904).
2.2 Otto Jespersen (1860-‐1943)
Otto Jespersen, perhaps Scandinavia’s most famous linguist, was born in Denmark in
1860, a good ten years after Cederschiöld. In 1877 he attended the University of
Copenhagen to study law, yet decided in 1881 to focus completely on his languages until
he received his master’s degree in French in 1887, all the while supporting himself
through a part-‐time job as a schoolteacher. He was an English professor at the
University of Copenhagen from 1893 until 1925, during which he also wrote his most
famous book, Language, its Nature, Development and Origin, published in 1922. His
interest in languages is spread over a variety of topics, such as phonetics, grammar,
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syntax and language development. In 1930, he chaired the first International Meeting on
Linguistic Research in Geneva (Falk 1992).
2.3 Alexander Francis Chamberlain (1865-‐1914)
Alexander Chamberlain was born in England in 1865 but was raised in America. He later
on moved to Ontario, studying modern languages at the University of Toronto, receiving
his B.A. degree in 1886. His main interests were in ethnology and anthropology; he
became a fellow in modern languages as well as in anthropology. In his anthropological
work, he paid particular attention to the linguistic side. He received his Ph.D. in 1892
and was appointed professor in anthropology in 1911. Chamberlain published regularly
in the American Anthropologist, which is also where his Women’s Languages (1912) can
be found. For nine years he was the editor of the “Journal of American Folk-‐Lore”, as
well as the “Journal of Religious Psychology”. He made a lot of contributions to the “New
International Encyclopaedia”, the “Encyclopaedia Britannica,” the “Encyclopaedia
Americana”, and the “Handbook of American Indians,” for example, placing a large
amount of accurate knowledge at the disposal of the general reader (Boas 1914).
2.4 Paul Hanly Furfey (1896-‐1992)
Paul Hanly Furfey was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1896. He was a man of
many interests from a very early age: after attending Boston College where he received
an A.B. at the age of 21, he specialized in Psychology at The Catholic University of
America. The following year he earned his master of arts degree at St. Mary’s University
and afterwards studied Theology for three more years at the Sulpician Seminary in
Washington, D.C. At the age of 26 he returned to the Catholic University of America in
order to receive his doctorate with Sociology as his major and Psychology and Biology as
minors. His dissertation was a study of preadolescent boys at St. Martin’s School for
Boys, thus combining a large number of his variety of interests: their language, cultural
and psychological behaviour and their biological wiring. He then travelled to Germany to
study medicine from 1931 to 1932. Besides his genuine interest in a number of different
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scientific fields, Furfey held a strong devotion for his faith, and he was ordained a priest
in 1922. It was his belief that science and religion were not mutually exclusive, and a lot
of his work was instigated by his religious beliefs. Furfey’s work can be divided into two
parts; most of his early work was strictly research oriented, such as The Gang Age
(1926) and The Growing Boy (1930). His latter work was more theological and ethical in
nature, he found that Christian values provided a framework in which existing social
problems were to be analysed, evaluated and corrected. Furthermore, Furfey was
passionately involved in social reality, being convinced that sociology could and should
serve the needs of people. His Men’s and Women’s Languages (1944) can also be situated
in this period (Morris 1993).
2.5 Louis Gauchat (1866-‐1942)
Louis Gauchat was a Swiss linguist. He studied in Zurich and Paris and worked with
Heinrich Morf on Le patois de Dompierre in 1891. He became a high school teacher in
Bern and Zurich and later on he was appointed the position of Associate Professor. From
1902 to 1907 he was a full professor in Bern. In 1899, he founded Glossaire the patois de
la Suisse Romande (Glossary of dialects of French-‐speaking Switzerland) together with
Jules Jeanjaquet and Ernest Tappolet. The aim of this institution was to publish
comprehensive studies of Switzerland’s French dialects. The first issue of the glossary
was published in 1924. Along with Albert Bachmann Gauchat founded
Phonogrammarchiv of the University of Zurich in 1913. From 1926 to 1928 he was
President of the University. Gauchat’s main focus was on the Swiss dialects, which is
shown in his work: L’unité phonétique dans le patois d’une commune (1905), Langue et
patois de la Suisse romande (1907), Les noms de lieux et de personnes de la Suisse
romande (1919). Within his works, he examined a number of different sociological
factors that could be found in the dialect, in particular age and gender (Wüest 1997).
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3 Status Quaestionis
There seems to be a universal consensus that it was Robin Lakoff’s Language and
Woman’s Place (1975) that has put language variation with regard to gender definitively
on the linguistic map. It is true that since the 1970s there has been a sudden boost in the
publication of linguistic studies that dealt with gender as a factor for linguistic variation,
though that does not mean that it is a recent phenomenon. The interest in language
variation and gender dates back to at least the beginning of the twentieth century when
Cederschiöld’s work on this subject was published. Even though this may appear to be of
minor value since not many contemporary linguists are familiar with his work, he
already addressed a lot of contemporary ideas on the matter, making his work
particularly noteworthy. The same can be said for other linguists who wrote about
language variation and gender in the beginning of the twentieth century. While some
difficulties arise in trying to determine their influence on later research, this problem
does not occur when it comes to Otto Jespersen, who was investigating the relationship
between language and gender as well, around the same time. Jespersen is without a
doubt the best known linguist from the beginning of the twentieth century; his works
are frequently quoted by scholars around the world and they never cease to be the topic
of debate. It was just in 2013 that Margaret Thomas asks for a new reading of
Jespersen’s views on language and gender. Thomas states that the chapter 13 entitled
“The Woman” in Jespersen’s famous book Language, its Nature,Development and Origin
(1922) has served “as a touchstone for feminist narratives of the history of the
discussion of language and gender” (Thomas 2013: 378). She argues that it is interesting
to look at this text from a different angle, without however neglecting its previous
linguistic importance. Thomas feels that Jespersen’s “The Woman” deserves a reading
that takes into account the culture and time in which it was produced, and its influence
on present-‐day scholarship regarding language and gender:
Jespersen’s Chapter 13 is now read as the prime early example of conventional
stereotypes and preconceptions about women’s language that consider it inherently
defective relative to men’s language. As such, Jespersen’s text is introduced into accounts
of the history of language and gender studies in tones that range from detached
amusement to derision (Thomas 2013:379).
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It was only about fifty years after the publication of Jespersen (1922) that
linguistics took a real interest in the topic, but there has been a steady flow of
publications on the matter ever since. It started with Robin Lakoff (1975), but a large
number of sociolinguists soon followed in her footsteps. One of them was Cheris Kramer,
who already in 1974 published an article in which she is concerned about how men and
women use the English language differently. She wants to know if there are differences
between the sexes in their linguistic competence and looks for systems of co-‐occurring,
sex-‐linked, linguistic signals in the United States (Kramer 1974). Differences with views
from the beginning of the century are already apparent: the focus is on the United States,
on the own culture, instead of on more primitive cultures, which is one thing that most
of the older sources have in common.
In 1975, Marjorie Swacker aimed to prove that the sex of the speaker is an
important sociolinguistic variable. She feels that "previous research on the matter failed
totally to consider the sex of the informants" and that "as a result, research with an eye
to speaker sex is shockingly meager" (Swacker 1975: 79). She then conducted her own
experiment using 34 informants with as little variation in background as possible, that
were asked to describe three pictures. She came to some conclusions that went against
the general intuitive opinion, such as that men spoke for considerably longer intervals
than women did. She finds that there clearly are sex-‐specific speech patterns (Swacker
1975).
In her Women, Men and Language: A Sociolinguistic Account of Gender Differences
in Language (1986), Coates contrasts and aims to explain the four approaches which
emerged since the publication of Lakoff (1975), namely deficit, dominance, difference
and dynamic approaches. These four approaches represent the perspective with which
linguists have looked at language and gender. She surveys the initial result of
sociolinguistic investigations of variation associated with the speaker’s gender. The
importance of her work is made clear due to a second and third edition in respectively
1993 and 2004. A final very important linguist with regard to language and gender is
Deborah Tannen. In You just don’t understand (1990) she argues in favour of the
difference approach. It is her belief that men and women belong to different subcultures,
and that they act accordingly. This is noticeable in their behaviour as well as in their
speech. She believes this is taught to us since childhood and results in men and women
communicating differently. The main aim of her work is to compare gender differences
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in language to cultural differences and to compare conversational goals. This led her to
the conviction that men tend to use a “report” style, which means they try to
communicate factual information, as opposed to women tend to use a “rapport” style,
which means they show greater interest in relationships, not facts (Tannen 1990).
The foregoing survey of materials is of course not exhaustive; it is but a small
fraction of a large body of research on language variation and gender. However, the
sources we have mentioned cover a wide range of different topics within the field of
language variation and gender. What they have in common is that they attempt to give
scientific evidence for the existing general opinions about speech differences between
men and women. This is also what linguists attempted to do at the beginning and the
first part of the twentieth century. It could therefore prove useful to make a comparative
study between older and present-‐day studies in order to better understand the
development that took place between now and then.
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4 Theoretical Background
When talking about language variety in relation to gender, it must first be made
clear what is meant by “gender”. In today’s society, it could be interpreted in a number
of different ways, and very often the term is used interchangeably with “sex”. “Gender”
and “sex” however, are not synonyms and it is of great importance not to confuse the
two. Social sciences typically distinguish between a biologically constructed sex and a
socially constructed gender. They use the term “sex” to refer to biological distinctions
between males and females, and the term “gender” to refer to the psychological features
or attributes associated with the biological categories (e.g. Deaux, 1985, Unger, 1979,
Giddens, 1989). “Sex” thus refers to a biological concept, while “gender” denotes a
societal definition. There are various scientists who have argued against this distinction
since “it is not at all clear the degree to which the differences between males and
females are due to biological factors versus learned and cultural factors” (Lippa 2005:
4). For the purpose of the present study, I will follow the traditional view in which
“gender” denotes psychological, social and cultural differences, since the focus of this
thesis is not on what separates women from men, but on the evolution in the field of
sociolinguistics.
According to Chambers “the rise of sociolinguistics as an academic discipline in
the second half of the twentieth century marks one of the most significant developments
in the history of language study” and “with the rise of sociolinguistics, for the first time
in the history of language study there was a linguistic discipline that dealt with language
as a variant, continuous and quantitative. Sociolinguistics has developed as a linguistic
theory in which the linguistic constituents (…) are variables and their combinatorial
possibilities are constrained not only by co-‐occurring linguistic constituents but also by
co-‐occurring social circumstances” (Chambers 2010: 11). Within the field of
sociolinguistics, a number of different areas of study emerged. Amongst them is the
variationist sociolinguistics, in which this master’s thesis can be situated. Variationist
sociolinguists are interested in linguistic variation that is related to different sociological
factors, for instance age or education for example, or, in this case, gender.
The methodology favoured in most modern variationist sociolinguistic research
is the use of statistical programs. Tagliamonte refers to this as the ‘Principle of
Accountability’: it involves counting up the number of tokens of the variant under
16
investigation and comparing it to the number of times it could have occurred. It is not
simply counting how many times it is used since this is not very informative
(Tagliamonte 2012). It is important to know what the counts and the calculation of
distribution mean, in order to be able to interpret them correctly. It is critical to know
how a particular type of context compared to another influences a variant. With regard
to gender, one counts the times a variable occurs in a string of speech, since the
differences in language use between men and women tend to be of a quantitative rather
than a qualitative nature. Variationist sociolinguists agree on the fact that the way in
which one speaks is always related to context, and that gender-‐related variables are
more pronounced in same-‐sex groups than in mixed-‐sex groups. This is due to the fact
that people tend to accommodate to the style of the person they are speaking to
(Thomson, Murachver & Green, 2001).
As mentioned before, when talking about language variation and gender, it is
impossible to avoid Robin Lakoff, author of Language and Woman’s Place (1975).
According to Cuellar, it “has opened a new strand in linguistic studies” (2006: 137). Her
work can be seen as the starting point of the study of language variation and gender,
since it opened the doors for a number of linguists to start investigating this matter as
well. Language and Woman’s Place (1975) is regarded as an inspiration for many
different strategies with regard to studying language and gender. Furthermore, it is
praised for emphasizing a number of other social aspects besides gender as well, such as
class, power and social justice. However, she focuses mainly on the differences in
language between men and women and proposes that there are a number of ways in
which women’s speech can be distinguished from that of men. As opposed to sources
from the first part of the 20th century, Lakoff actually supports her claims, turning a
sheer opinion into a scientific fact. It comes as no surprise that her work has been
criticized by a large number of non-‐believers:
“From the point of view of today’s researchers, the major drawback in Lakoff’s work is its
lack of any empirical basis. Rather than collecting corpora of male and female speech,
Lakoff made claims based on her own intuitions and anecdotal observation of her peer’s
language use. Many of these claims have, not surprisingly, proved contentious. Yet,
despite criticisms of Lakoff’s methodology, the set of features she somewhat arbitrarily
selected as markers of women’s speech style continue to figure in research on sex
differences. Because of the importance of Language and Woman’s Place (LWP) at a time
17
when the field had yet to establish itself, many later researchers apparently felt obliged
to begin their own investigations with the so-‐called ‘Lakoff hypothesis’ (Cameron,
McAlinden &O’Leary 1988: 75).
Nevertheless, her work has put the topic of language variation and gender definitely on
the map, something that no one before her was able to do. It aided the acknowledgement
of the topic as a subdivision of sociolinguistics, and encouraged other scientists to
research the matter as well. Furthermore, she drew on earlier sources dating back from
the beginning of the twentieth century, proving that their work is still highly relevant as
well.
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5 Methodology
This study attempts to formulate an answer to the question of how the discussion of
language variation with regard to gender had evolved since the beginning of the
twentieth century. In order to come to an answer, five works on language variety and
gender written in the first part of the 20th century have been analysed and then
compared and contrasted with relevant works from the end of the twentieth century.
The first step was to find sources from the beginning and first part of the
twentieth century related to the topic of language variety and gender. This has proven to
be relatively difficult since there was hardly any interest in the subject at that time, or at
least not enough to actually write it down. Through an extensive process of looking for
sources on the topic written in the first part of the 20th century and then reading them, I
then selected five works on the topic of language variation and gender that form the
basis of the present study, and are an accurate reflection of the mind-‐set of the
beginning of the twentieth century. That basis consists of Om kvinnospråk och andra
ämnen (About women’s speech and other topics) (1900) by the hand of Johan
Cederschiöld, Louis Gauchat’s “L'unité phonétique dans le patois d'une commune” (1905),
Women’s Languages (1912) from Alexander F. Chamberlain, Otto Jespersen’s chapter
thirteen “The Woman” from his Language, Its Nature, Origin and Development (1922)
and finally Paul Hanly Furfey’s Men’s and Women’s Language (1944).
Initially I opted to divide these five works into smaller groups based on the
nationality of the author in order to make an accurate comparison, but upon realising
that this division led to an unnecessary amount of repetitions and conclusion, I chose to
divide them according to the subjects that are dealt with, as can be seen in the table
below:
19
20
This table should be interpreted as follows: in the left-‐hand column are the subjects that
are mentioned by one or more authors in their work in the beginning and first part of
the 20th century. If the subject is also addressed by a contemporary author, this is
indicated in the corresponding boxes. Empty boxes signify that the subject is not
mentioned by that particular early 20th-‐century author. The numbers before the
contemporary authors are reference numbers that can be found in bold and in between
brackets throughout this thesis in order to maintain a clear overview.
The second step of the process was the actual analysis of the early 20th-‐century
works. Each of the sources was analysed and compared in a similar way. The first thing
to do was translate the works of Louis Gauchat and Johan Cederschiöld into English, and
then I engaged in a close reading of the five sources. I subqequently divided each work
according to the subjects dealt with in it. For each subject I determine the early 20th
century authors who address it, and when the same subject is raised by more than one
author, I compared the discussions to establish similarities and differences among the
authors.
The third step consists in comparing those findings from the beginning and first
part of the 20th century with studies that appeared at the end of the 20th century. For
each topic I looked for comparable contemporary sources, regardless of whether they
shared the same view of the earlier authors. After carefully reading them, they were
contrasted with the observations found in the earlier sources. In the process of selecting
comparable contemporary sources, I mainly looked at the compatibility of the texts, viz.
whether or not they came as close as possible to the topics introduced by the earlier
authors. In selecting relevant texts, I deliberately did not opt to use publications that
simply reiterate the observations found in the earlier sources. It is my goal to compare
these sources with contemporary studies in an objective way, and I did not want to
distort the outcome by deliberately using contemporary research with the same
findings, or conveniently leave out works that go against them, simply to get a foregone
result.
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6 Discussion and Results
6.1 Pronuncation
Men and women use language differently on a number of different levels. According to
Jespersen, one of those levels is with regard to phonetics. In his work, he gives a number
of examples proving that women have a different pronunciation than men in certain
cases. Jespersen mentions the beliefs that old grammarians attributed a more advanced
pronunciation to women, because they raised their vowels towards the direction of [i]
(Jespersen 1922). Based upon all his examples, Jespersen claims that it is the women
who pronounce certain sounds differently than men. It could be that he is implying that
men set the norm for pronunciation, and that women tend to deviate from it. For
example, Jespersen states that “ In France, about 1700, women were inclined to
pronounce e instead of a” (Jespersen 1922: 244). By using the word instead, rather than
whereas, Jespersen implies that it is not a matter of simply pronouncing something
differently, but that it is women who are not using the correct pronunciation.
What is striking in Jespersen’s work is that he seems to believe that such pronunciation
differences between the two sexes are not common in the English language. He states
that “in present day English there are said to be few differences in pronunciation
between the two sexes (…)”(Jespersen 1922: 245). He also points out that the few
differences that can be found in the English language between men and women are
isolated instances that lack deeper significance, e.g. women pronounce the word soft
with a short vowel while men pronounce it with a long vowel (Jespersen 1922).
Moreover, Jespersen claims that, from a phonetic point of view, those few speech
differences between men and women are negligible and that, in English, men and
women share the same language (Jespersen 1922).
Contemporary researchers seem to refute Jespersen’s theory that differences in
pronunciation between the two genders do not occur in the English language. William
Labov (1) and Peter Trudgill (2) conducted two of the most well known studies in
sociolinguistics today, in 1972 and 1975 respectively. Both studies have proven that
pronunciation differences can be found between men and women’s speech in English.
Labov found that women in careful speech use fewer stigmatized forms than men, as
well as that women are more sensitive to prestige patterns (Labov 1972). Trudgill came
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to the same conclusion by conducting a study in Norwich, namely that women’s speech
is more closely related to the standard language and thus carry a higher level of prestige,
and that they use these forms more frequently than men (Trudgill 1972).
In her work Women’s Speech: Separate But Unequal (1975), Kramer (3) considers the
evidence that proves that men and women talk differently. In doing so, she agrees with
the fact that women are more likely than men to use phonetic forms that are considered
correct. These are just three works in a vast body of literature that are all on the topic of
phonetic differences between men and women. Contemporary research has not only
shown that women and men do have differences in how they pronounce certain sounds,
but moreover that women tend to pronounce them in a way that is closer to the
standard language than men.
According to Furfey, differences in language usage between men and women
occur on different strata in a language, and thus can also be found on the phonetic level.
Furfey paraphrases a study by Waldemar Bogoras, according to which phonetic
differences between men and women can be found among the Chukchi, a Mongoloid
tribe in Siberia (Furfey 1944: 218). Bogoras found that “women tend to substitute ts for
ch and r, and tsts for rk and chh” (Furfey 1944: 218, cited from Bogoras 1911).
Furthermore, he found that men were more prone to drop intervocalic consonants,
especially in the Kolyma district (Furfey 1944: 220). Because of the phonetic differences,
it may appear that men and women of that tribe speak a different language. However,
Furfey warns us to be careful when using the term ‘women’s language’, since it is not a
completely different language. The findings of certain differences on the phonetic level
contribute to his assumption that we are not dealing with two distinct languages,
namely a ‘men’s language’ and a ‘women’s language’, but rather with two variations of
the same language.
Chamberlain bases himself on research by Ehrenreich for commenting on the
differences in phonetics. Ehrenreich found proof of a “women’s language” among the
Caraya. He claims that women will insert a k in intervocalic position, whereas men of
that tribe will not. As an example, he gives the word “rain”, which, if spoken by a man, is
biu, but if spoken by a women, it would be biku (Chamberlain 1912:580, paraphrased
from Ehrenreich 1894). Another difference that Ehrenreich found is that the initial k of
the women is dropped by the men (Chamberlain 1912, paraphrased from Ehrenreich
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1894). This may seem trivial, but it is in fact of chief importance. A man is supposed to
use the proper language attributed to men, otherwise he can be seen “as a woman”.
Both Furfey and Chamberlain agree that there are differences in language usage
between men and women on the phonetic level. Moreover, they have based themselves
on two different studies, one on the Caraya language in Brasil, and one on the Chukchi in
Siberia, and they draw the same conclusion: to some extent intervocalic consonants are
dropped by men. Chamberlain only mentions dropping an intervocalic k, while Furfey
notices a dropping of intervocalic consonants, “principally n and t “(Furfey 1944: 219).
Contemporary studies have also come to the conclusion that differences in
language use between men and women manifest themselves on the phonetic level.
Phonetic differences are usually restricted to specific communities in a specific
geographical area, such as the black population Hillsboro, North Carolina, in which it
was found that women use fewer stigmatized forms than men and prefer to use the
prestige form with regard to pronunciation (Anshen 1969) (4), or a phonetic study of
certain vowels in Detroit speech, in which it was found that women of the lower-‐middle-‐
class fronted those specific vowels more than men did (Fasold 1968) (5). Most studies
that took into account phonetic differences also seem to agree that women tend to use
the more “correct” form, i.e. the standard norm (7)Levine & Crockett 1966; (6)Wolfram
1969). It appears that Furfey and Chamberlain were right to claim that phonetic
differences can be found between men and women’s speech.
Perhaps the most detailed account on pronunciation comes from the Swiss
author Louis Gauchat. In his work, Gauchat focuses on phonetic variation regarding the
age of the speakers, claiming that younger generations behave and speak differently
from older ones, in their behaviour as well as in their speech (Gauchat 1905). However,
Gauchat found that certain distinctions in pronunciation were the result of not only a
difference in age, but also because of a difference in gender, as is discussed below.
Gauchat found, for example, that the sound /ɬ/ is found in isolation as well as in
conjunction with the consonants /p/, /b/, and /χ/. While other scientists believe that
the cluster /χɬ/ is a voiceless palatalized /l/, Gauchat claims to hear a remnant of the /c/
before the/ɬ/, which is indeed partially unvoiced and a confirmation of his position is
the fact that the modern reduction of /χɬ/ is /χ/, just as /pɬ/ and /bɬ/ are reduced to
/pχ/ and /by/. Gauchat argues that this evolution from /ɬ/ to /y/ occurs not only
throughout northern France, but also in the dialects of French-‐speaking Switzerland. In
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Charmey, the village in which he conducted his study, the evolution was also noticed
despite frantic, unsuccessful efforts made by schoolteachers to eradicate the patois /y/.
Gauchat came to the conclusion that the younger generation, aged 1 to 30, exclusively
says /y/, while the older generations still pronounced /ɬ/. In his process, he also found
differences between genders. He noted that in the middle generation (aged 31 to 60), of
those who were between the age of 30 and 40, there was a fluctuation between the two
pronunciations, but only among the women, who sometimes said /y/ (Gauchat 1905).
Since gender differences were not Gauchat’s main concern, he does not elaborate
any further on his findings, which makes it hard to draw any conclusions beyond stating
that phonetic differences between the two genders do seem to occur. It is hard to make
any predictions on whether this is an isolated case in which women are quicker to adapt
to changes in pronunciation, or whether it is a general pattern. There could be physical
factors involved that would make it easier for women to pronounce /y/ instead of /ɬ/
than men, or it could be related to age and the fact that the pronunciation change is first
noted among the youngest generation, which is usually raised by the women. Either
way, it is not possible to come to any sort of conclusion based on this example alone.
Another phonetic change that Gauchat noticed, was that the sound /θ/ very easily
shifts to /h/, as the result of a sloppily executed movement of articulation. The tip of the
tongue that should be placed between the teeth now stops mid-‐way to let air pass
through (Gauchat 1905). Of course, not all /θ/ will be changed to /h/, and a lot depends
on the following vowels:
If /θou/ has been quicker to become /hou/ than /θa/ has to become /ha/, this may be
due to vowel quality: /ou/ is articulated farther back than /a/ and the distance from /θ/
to /o/ is thus greater. The movement of /θo/ expends a bit more energy than that of
/θa/. (Gauchat 1905: 34) (Here and elsewhere, translations from French are mine, DV)1
Here, Gauchat notices again that in general, older generations tend to maintain
/θ/, while the youngest generation of those aged between 1 and 30 are moving toward
/h/. Furthermore, Gauchat discovered that the pronunciation of /h/ was “particularly
present among girls” (Gauchat 1905: 35). He was intrigued by this discovery, which
1 Si /θou/ a plus vite passé à /hou/ que /θ/ à /ha/, cela peut tenir à la nature des deux voyelles: /ou/ se pronounce plus en arrière que /a/ et la distance de /θ/ à /o/ est par consequent plus grand. Le movement /θo/ coûte un peu plus d’énergie que /θa/.
25
explains why he decided to investigate the matter more thoroughly. He interviewed
boys and girls of different ages separately, and noticed that while both of them
unconsciously used the sound /h/ instead of /θ/, and that when they had to repeat
themselves, they used /θ/, without realizing that they ever said /h/ in the first place,
this phenomenon occurred more often with girls than with boys (Gauchat 1905).
It seems that the same tendency that was discovered with regard to the /ɬ/
applies to this type of phonetic change as well, namely that women seem to adapt to
phonetic change more quickly than men do. While Gauchat generally did not make many
comments on phonetic change related to gender, in this case he states “women are more
willing to accept this innovation” (Gauchat 1905: 35). 2
Gauchat never explicitly states that women are in fact quicker to adapt to
phonetic change, so caution in making general conclusions is in order. However, based
on the two examples above, one could carefully argue for a tendency towards this claim.
It also becomes more likely that this sort of phonetic change is not solely related to
gender, but related to age as well. As in the previous example, the oldest generation
hardly shows any signs of phonetic change, while it mainly occurs in the youngest
generation, and traces of it can be found first among women of the middle generation.
This leads to the assumption that phonetic change is introduced by younger speakers,
and is then increasingly adopted among older speaker, of which women seem to take the
lead.
Gauchat notices again that there is a difference in pronunciation among the
generations, this time he focuses on the vowel /a°/, which is is almost completely extinct
from the Charmey dialect, except among the oldest people. He claims that /a°/ is only
found in the speech of generation I, those aged between 61 and 90, and that, among that
generation, women seem to drop the sound more easily than men. As a result, the
pronunciation of /a°/ will most likely be found among the oldest men:
2 Les femmes sont plus disposées à accepter cette nouveauté que les hommes.
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The pronunciation /ā/ for /a°/ is well established today in Charmey, one has to speak
with the very oldest persons to hear /a°/, and it has but a rudimentary °, produced by an
articulatory movement having almost no corresponding sound (Gauchat 1905: 36).3
This example of phonetic change again seems to support the tendency that was found in
the two previous examples, namely that men much longer use the conservative,
prevailing sounds while women are quicker to adapt to phonetic change. A careful first
conclusion could be drawn that men prefer conservatism in their speech, while women
tend to adapt to phonetic change more easily and willingly than men.
More recent studies seem to have come to the same conclusion. In his Notes on
Language and Sex (1975) the Norse linguist Magne Oftedal (8) comments on differences
in speech between men and women from all over the world, as well as from his own
local dialect. On the whole he found that women tended to be more careful in their
speech, but what is more interesting here is his finding that women tend to be more
linguistically advanced than men and that men always tend to be a generation behind
with regard to linguistic development. Another Scandinavian study claimed that “it is
almost a rule that the members of a family divide into three groups linguistically: the
father in one, the sons in one, and the mother and daughters in a third” ((9) Steinsholt
1964: 31). A lot can be deduced from this statement, a first and main observation is that
there is a division between men and women, thus implying that there are in fact
differences as to how they speak. But the divide between fathers and sons is not
extended to mothers and daughters, who are regarded as belonging to the same
category. This implies that there is an age-‐related difference as well among the men that
is not to be found among the women. Steinsholt attributes this to the fact that women
tend to adapt their language throughout their lives, men stop changing their language
when they reach the age of thirty (Steinsholt 1964). It seems that the tendencies that
were found in Gauchat’s work also apply to present-‐day Scandinavian dialects, who also
seem to find a link between age and gender with regard to phonetic differences between
men and women.
Two observations are in order. The first one is that the topic of pronunciation is
addressed by all authors from the first part of the 20th century, except for Gustav
3 La prononciation ā pour a° est aujourd’hui bien établie à Charmey; il faut s’adresser aux tont vieux pour entendre encore a°, avec un ° déjà rudimentaire, c’est-‐à-‐dire produit par un mouvement des organes auquel ne correspond presque aucun son.
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Cederschiöld. While he acknowledges that there are differences in language use between
men and women, he does not comment on whether those differences are situated in the
field of phonetics as well (Cederschiöld 1900). A second observation is that the four
authors that do mention pronunciation as a relevant factor, share the view that
differences in pronunciation between the two sexes can be found, although there is
some debate on whether or not it occurs in every culture.
6.2 Vocabulary
Jespersen expresses his view on differences between men and women’s vocabulary very
clearly: “the vocabulary of a woman as a rule is much less extensive than that of a man”
(1922: 248). This can be linked to his belief that women are more conservative in their
language than men, and that they simply keep the language as it is, while the innovations
to language are ascribed to men. Men have a tendency to invent new words or
expressions, whereas women stick to what they know and shun the use of innovative
terms (Jespersen 1922).
It seems that one way of outing this language conservatism is through a restricted
range of vocabulary. While men do not back away from using distinct technical terms or
rare expressions, women tend to stick to the more normal and comprehensible words:
“women as a rule follow the main road of language, where man is often inclined to turn
aside into a narrow footpath or even to strike out a new path for himself” (Jespersen
1922:248). This leads to a more extensive vocabulary among men, allowing them to
express the same meaning in different ways, while women have fewer ways of
expressing the same thing. Jespersen seems to attribute this to the education women
received, which was “less comprehensive and technical than that of men” (Jespersen
1922: 248), although he does accept other explanations as well. Another side-‐effect that
Jespersen mentions with regard to vocabulary differences, is that those who enjoy books
written in foreign languages appear to have greater difficulty with books written by
male authors, simply because men are fond of using new words and technical terms, to a
much greater extend than female authors (Jespersen 1922).
Contemporary research does not seem to agree with the claim made by Jespersen
and argues that it is difficult to draw clear-‐cut conclusions. A number of studies have
claimed that gender differences are consistently found in vocabulary growth in children
28
less than two years ((10)Nelson 1973; (11)Reznick & Goldfield 1992). Nelson (1973)
studied the acquisition of the first words of 18 children between the age of one and two
and in the Reznick & Goldfield (1992) study, 24 children were given word
comprehension tests every two months between the age of 14 and 22 months. Both
studies come to the conclusion that differences in the vocabulary of boys and girls can
be observed, and that girls seem to have a more extensive vocabulary range than boys.
However, other studies have shown that in time, these differences seem to disappear
again (Maccoby & Jacklin 1974). They base themselves on a number of different large-‐
sample studies that tested children between the age of two-‐and-‐a-‐half and nine years
old. All come to the conclusion that girls and boys reach the same level of overall
linguistic ability. Maccoby & Jacklin (1974) (12) suggest that distinct phases can be
discovered in the development of verbal skills of boys and girls. They examine a variety
of different studies, and based upon these they state that “more recent studies tend not
to show superiority for girls in spontaneous vocalization or in picture vocabulary after
the understanding of speech has begun” (Maccoby & Jacklin 1974: 84). According to the
authors, if girls have an early advantage in language development, it does not last very
long: at the age of three, boys seem to have caught up. “Until adolescence,” Maccoby &
Jacklin (1974: 85) say, “boys and girls perform very similarly”.
Another study provides evidence about gender differences in early vocabulary
growth ((13) Huttenlocher, Haight, Bryk, Seltzer & Lyons 1991). It examines the role of
speech exposure among very small children. The study is based on data obtained from
22 children between the ages of 14 and 26 months. It is found that the gender
differences that were noticed reflected true differences in vocabulary size, which
reflected early capacity differences. Unlike previous research, they divided their subjects
into two categories, those between the age of 14 and 20 months, and those between the
age of 20 and 24 months. Gender effects in the acquisition of new words were “already
declining in the latter category” (Huttenlocher, Haight, Bryk, Seltzer & Lyons 1991: 245).
Contemporary research thus states that differences in vocabulary size or growth
between the two genders occur only in the first two years of their lives but then decline
rapidly. Though it is never explicitly stated, it can be assumed that as a result of this
decline, they believe that the size of a man’s vocabulary is the same as that of a woman.
Both Furfey and Chamberlain have based themselves on the same study by
Bréton, Carib Dictionary, published in 1664. The language of the Carib in the Lesser
29
Antilles was a very popular one, since it was believed to have some of the most striking
differences in the usage of language between men and women. The differences in
language use can be accounted for by looking at the history of the region. It was once
inhabited by the Arawak, until the Carib invaded the region and conquered them. They
slaughtered the male population, but intermarried the women. This led to marriages in
which the men spoke Carib and the women spoke Arawak.
Furfey bases himself on previous research that states that although one would
expect the successive generation would speak some sort of mixture of the two, it
remained traditional for the women to speak a language considerably different from the
pure Carib of the men. Furfey argues for a cautious approach to this subject, since it has
been found by Jespersen for example, that sex differences occur in only one-‐tenth of the
vocabulary. Furfey is not denying that there are differences in the vocabulary of the
Carib language, but that they might have been exaggerated (Furfey 1944: 220).
While Furfey focuses on the validity of previous sources, Chamberlain chooses a
different approach. He wants to examine how the “women’s language” in the Lesser
Antilles came into being; he is looking to find an alternative for the intermarriage as the
sole reason that a women’s language developed. He bases himself on a study conducted
by Sapper in 1897, which claims that the differences in speech between men and women
have some sort of social-‐economic factor of differentiation of occupation and labour as
their course. According to Sapper, this is “leading naturally to such diverse appellations
of one and the same thing” (Chamberlain 1912: 579). Chamberlain does seem to agree
with the conclusion that Furfey found as well, namely that the differences in vocabulary
between men and women in the Carib language might have been exaggerated: “the bulk
of women’s words as compared with the mass of the language spoken in common by the
two sexes is not so great as some have supposed, relying on the statement of earlier
writers concerning the Caribs of the West Indies” (Chamberlain 1912: 580).
Both authors seem to agree that there are words that are used only by women,
and words that are used only by men, but that those differences in lexicon have been
previously exaggerated. It would seem more a matter of specific affixes used by men or
women, than entirely different words. Chamberlain adds a list of words that differ in the
Caraya language, making a distinction between words that differ slightly, and words that
differ considerably.
30
In a recent study, Talbot (2010) (14) argues that this type of sex differentiation is
“the earliest work on men, women and language attended to ‘sex differentiation’” (2010:
4). Talbot claims that those early studies mainly looked for affixes or pronouns that
were specific to one of the two genders, and they came to the conclusion that this type of
sex differentiation was only scarcely found in European languages. As Talbot does not
explicitly contradict the earlier findings, it can be concluded that she agrees with them.
Contemporary research has more often focused on sex-‐preferential vocabulary
(i.e., vocabulary that is more common among one gender over the other, but can still be
found among the speech of the other gender) than on sex-‐exclusive vocabulary (i.e.,
words that are exclusively used by one gender). One area in which sex-‐exclusive lexical
differences can be found is with regard to pronouns. The Japanese pronoun system is
structured very differently from most others. The speaker has to take into account the
level of formality and the status of the addressee in order to decide what pronoun to use.
While there are formal pronouns that can be used by either sex, on the more informal
level, there are pronouns that are used exclusively by women, and others that are
traditionally used by men. A woman is obligated to use the ‘female” pronoun form, and a
man is prohibited from using them (Talbot, 2010). However, according to Talbot,
Linguistic sex differentiation can become a location of social struggle within a society,
not just the struggle of one individual. Japanese men’s and women’s forms are ceasing to
be sex-‐exclusive, that is, forms used exclusively by one sex (2010: 7).
Talbot seems to agree with the fact that sex-‐exclusive differences are few, and she opts
to focus on sex-‐preferential differences in her work; a distinction that was first
introduced by Ann Bodine. As opposed to sex-‐exclusive difference, sex-‐preferential
differences are not absolute differences, but a matter of degree. Moreover, Talbot argues
that, while sex-‐exclusive differences are highly uncommon in European languages, sex-‐
preferential differences are not, though they are culture-‐specific (Talbot 2010). While it
might seem that sex-‐preferential differences are of minor importance, this is not the
case. It is an important part of learning how to behave properly in a certain culture.
According to Talbot “failure to acquire appropriate forms and their usage can have
serious, even devasting consequences for the individuals concerned” (2010: 6).
Contemporary studies thus seem to agree nor disagree with the findings of
Furfey and Chamberlain with regard to vocabulary. While Furfey and Chamberlain
31
disagree on the number of sex-‐exclusive words, or their degree of difference, both
linguists agree on the fact that sex-‐exclusive words do exist. Contemporary studies on
the other hand, argue that sex-‐exclusive words are extremely rare, as opposed to sex-‐
preferential differences, which are common in European languages, although they are
culture-‐specific. It seems that whether or not we are dealing with sex-‐exclusive or sex-‐
preferential differences, the fact remains that from the beginning of the twentieth
century it was already noted that there were differences in vocabulary between men
and women, and this tendency is found in present-‐day studies as well, although a
difference in degree can be noted. This point of view can be found in Jespersen’s work as
well, and it is probably most strongly expressed there. Jespersen is a firm believer of
vocabulary differences between men and women and claims this is so because women
lack a higher education, resulting in a wider vocabulary range among men.
Contemporary researchers do not fully agree with this conclusion, but this might also be
due to the fact that the current education system has undergone important changes.
6.3 Courtesy/politeness
Among the many stereotypes that exist in the world, one of them is the assumption that
women are sweet, fragile, kind, innocent human beings. An independent and strong
woman is often perceived as a threat and seen as less feminine. While certain women
definitely fit the profile that is created through the stereotype, there are just as many
who do not. According to Cederschiöld, a typical trait of the female language is the urge
to please and present themselves in an amicable manner, and to speak appropriately,
using the right tone and with courtesy. Cederschiöld believes that women consciously
make a lot more effort than men to put courtesy in their expressions, which often leads
to them “sounding finicky”(Cederschiöld 1900; 20).
Problems thus arise when a woman is forced to deviate from this type of speech,
when she has to no other choice than to say something inappropriate:
Her care to remain within the polite and appropriate boundaries enables her, when she
is forced to convey a less pleasant message, to express it as gentle and concealed as
possible. Now, if such a thing is directed towards another lady, she will immediately
understand it, but uncertainties arise when it is direct at a man’s sluggish intelligence.
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However it often happens that a woman believes to find such things in a man’s speech as
well, while he just means what he says, nothing more (Cederschiöld 1900: 21) (Here and
elsewhere, the translations from Swedish are mine, DV)4.
According to Cederschiöld (1900), when a woman is forced to say something that is not
so pleasant, she will try to make it sound as appropriate as she possible can, by covering
up the ugly parts or leaving out certain things. She believes that men will apply the same
tactic, however, a man does not resort to such practices; he rather simply says what he
means.
Contemporary research has not come to a unanimous conclusion regarding this
matter. Many claims have been made that women are indeed more polite in their
language, mainly because women feel unsure about themselves and because they are
said to gain their status through how they appear, rather than through what they do
((18) Trudgill 1972; (19) Lakoff 1975). Trudgill came to this conclusion based on the
results from his study in 1971, in which an urban dialect survey was carried out in
Norwich in 1968 with a random sample of 60 people. Although the main focus was on
correlating phonetic variables with factors such as social class and age, the relationship
between linguistic phenomena and sex was also studied. Based on the survey, Trudgill
came to the conclusion that women are indeed more polite in their speech than men
(Trudgill 1972). Robin Lakoff (1975) came to the same conclusion, though she has no
empirical data to support her claims other than her own observations. She examines her
own speech and that of her surroundings, and uses her intuition to analyse it. She
acknowledges that there are more error-‐proof data-‐gathering techniques, but counters
this by stating that any procedure of gathering data has an introspective character, since
it must be analysed by the gatherer. Secondly, any type of data-‐gathering is always a
sample of a larger group. She does not claim that the results in her work are final and
argues that her paper is one possible approach towards the problem (Lakoff 1975).
A number of studies conducted in Japan came to the conclusion that Japanese
women are indeed more polite in their language, due to the Japanese culture in which
4 Hennes omsorg att hålla sig inom artighetens och det passandes gränser förmår henne att, när hon blir tvungen att göra ett mindre behagligt meddelande, framföra det på ett så skonsamt och förblommeradt sätt som möjligt. Om nu en sådan vink riktas till ett annat fruntimmer, plägar detta genast förstå meningen, men osäkrare är, om en karls trögare intelligens uppfattar den. Däremot händer det ofta, att en kvinna tror sig I en mans tal finna sådana förstuckna vinkar eller pikar, ehuru han menar blott det, han sagt, och intet annat.
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women’s status is more overtly institutionalized ((20) Martin 1964; Miller 1967; Uyeno
1971). However, Keenan (1974) (21) has provided evidence that politeness is not a
universal characteristic of the female language. According to Keenan, who conducted a
study in a Malagasy village, women were perceived as being less polite than men. She
found that women had a habit of regularly violating the norms of non-‐confrontation and
indirectness (Keenan 1974).
Based on contemporary studies discussed above, the fact that women are more
polite because they have lower status, one could argue that the women in the Malagasy
village have a higher status than men, since they violate the norms by speaking in a
confrontational and direct manner. However, there is no evidence to support this claim.
Moreover, it can be argued that since the men do obey the norms, they actually have a
higher status than the women.
No conclusive answer can thus be given to the question of which gender is more
polite in their speech. However it could be argued that in most cultures, women will
tend to be more polite, but for some other cultures, although few, the opposite is true.
Language use of a religious nature and vulgar language can also be situated in the
domain of courtesy and politeness. According to Chamberlain, one of the reasons that
men and women speak differently has to do with the fact that “religious and animistic
concepts in woman’s sphere of thought may also have had some influence (…)” and that
“taboos of naming also have a role in the production of the speech-‐diversities in
question” (Chamberlain 1912: 579). Chamberlain does not go into greater detail on the
matter; it is therefore impossible to comment on these statements with absolute
certainty.
If the statement is read carefully, it can be noticed that Chamberlain does not
state that women are more religious in their speech. Though not stated explicitly, it can
be deduced that Chamberlain implies that women in general are more religious than
men, and that this somehow is reflected in their speech. Although Chamberlain does not
comment on this, it can be assumed that he means that women are more concerned with
speaking righteous and avoiding curse words, adapting their speech fitting accordingly
to that of a proper women. From this, it can then be deduced that men do not have this
tendency, and that they have no problem using vulgar language.
If we compare this with Furfey’s view on the matter, a similar image can be seen:
34
It is probably at least true that there are certain expressions, such as “Oh, dear!” and
“How perfectly sweet!” which sound distinctly feminine to our ears, and other, including
a number of salty and unprintable phrases, which sound equally masculine (Furfey 1944:
221).
Furfey does not link this type of female vocabulary to religion, but he does want to make
his readers aware that there are certain types of phrases that, although maybe not
exclusively, seem to be attributed to female speech. Likewise, there are expressions that
seem to be associated with masculine speech. Although he does not give explicit
examples, since they are “salty and unprintable” (Furfey 1944: 221), it can be assumed
that he means vulgar speech and curse words.
It seems that Furfey and Chamberlain are in agreement on this topic, namely that
women tend to avoid curse words and vulgar language, while men see no harm in this
kind of language use and have no problem enriching their vocabulary with such phrases.
This is in line with Cederschiöld’s view on the matter, that women tend to be as polite in
their speech as they possibly can (Cederschiöld 1900).
Contemporary research seems to confirm this view to a certain extent. Lakoff
(1975) (19) has found that both genders use expletives differently. Women have a
tendency to tone down their expletives, by using phrases such as oh dear or fudge, while
men seem to have no problem with using stronger expletives such as shit or damn.
Lakoff claims that men are allowed stronger means of expression than women, which
results in a more dominant position (Lakoff 1975). Other research seems to confirm this
view as well. It was found that men have a tendency in general to swear more than
women ((22) Bailey and Timm 1976). The study was conducted in order to determine
differences in the use of strong expletives among men and women of different age
groups via a self-‐report questionnaire. 14 women and 15 men between the age of 19 and
61 from the university of Davis took part in the questionnaire. They were given 20
situations that were assumed to elicit reactions that contained an expletive. The authors’
findings matched the usual assumption that overall, women favour the use of weaker
expletives, while men do not shun away from using strong ones.
The use of strong or weak expletives is not the only interest of contemporary
research with regard to swearing: it was found, e.g., that men swear more in all-‐male
groups than in conversations with women. Coates (2003) (23) investigates own
35
recordings of narratives as well as recordings of others. She found that the stories that
contained a high number of taboo words (with which she means expletives) were
always told in all-‐male conversations. She also found that both men and women were
sensitive to the perceived cultural norms: while men in all-‐male conversations usually
have a high number of expletives in their stories, and women virtually have none when
talking to other females, in mixed-‐sex conversations male speakers use less expletives,
whereas female speakers use more. Bayard and Krishnayya (2001) (24) come to the
same conclusion. They conducted a study of the conversations of five male subjects
living in the same flat and of six female subjects who also share an apartment. The
subjects were students of the University of Otago and were aged between 21 and 23
years old. They were informed of the recordings, though they did not know when exactly
they would take place. They did not know the true aim of the study, in order to rule out
any possible hesitancy toward the input. These recordings show that men make more
use of expletives than women.
In accordance with Furfey’s view, McEnery (2004) (15) felt that the expletives
used by males were stronger, more offensive then those used by females. McEnery then
combined the results of two studies, the study of Millwood-‐Hargrave (2000) and the
findings of the British Board of Film Classification Guidelines, in order to determine
whether or not the male expletives are more offensive than the female ones. Based upon
these two studies, it was found that men tend to use stronger expletive forms than
women, while women make more use of milder swear forms (McEnery 2004). The
conclusion thus seems to be not as clear-‐cut. While there are some who believe that men
indeed swear more often than women, there are others who seem to think that it is a
matter of degree; men and women use the same amount of swear words, but men use
stronger expletives. Either way, throughout the twentieth century differences in
swearing between men and women can be found.
Upon comparing the use of vulgar language in the beginning of the 20th century
until now, it is important to determine whether the term itself has the same meaning
then as it does now. Hughes’ Swearing: A Social History of Foul Language, Oaths and
Profanity (1998) can help shed some light on this matter. Hughes argues that the term
vulgar language covers the same range through time, but that its content has changed
(Hughes 1998). In other words, throughout history people have been cursing, yet the
words they used to do so differed from time to time.
36
When Cederschiöld addresses the topic of expletives, not only does he state that a
woman will intentionally try to avoid the use of expletives as much as possible by
replacing them with other words, he extends the use of euphemisms by women to other
words as well:
How much she otherwise loves strong expressions, she shuns all such protestations that refer
to the evil powers. (…). But there are also more innocent words that are being carefully
avoided by women, of course especially by the educated ones. If they have to talk about
touchy subjects, they resort to the most careful and distant euphemisms. (Cederschiöld, 1900,
32-‐33).5
According to Cederschiöld, using expletives is a sign of masculinity. Very few women are
tempted to use swear words, but he mentions some exceptions to this general rule,
namely that there are women who would swear intentionally. “But”, Cederschiöld
writes, “the most of them can only be found in the independent class, which is called
‘manwives’, ‘the emancipated’ or ‘sportswomen’”(1900, 33-‐34).6 These women
deliberately choose to use swear words, because they believe it makes them modern and
stylish, according to Cederschiöld (1900: 34).
Jespersen too believes that there are certain words that women will deliberately
choose not to pronounce and instead resort to the use of euphemisms. Jespersen argues
that it is common for women in all countries to be shy to mention certain body parts or
natural functions in the same way that men do. While men prefer to use direct and rude
denominations, women invent euphemistic words and phrases so replace them,
according to Jespersen (1922). An involuntary side-‐effect of these euphemisms is that, in
time, they might become common and looked upon as plain and blunt names, which
leads to the original euphemism being replaced by a new euphemism (Jespersen 1922).
Like Cederschiöld, Jespersen believes that the use of expletives is a typical
characteristic of the male language: “Among the things women object to in language
5 “Hur mycket hon annars älskar starka uttryck, skyr hon alla sådana bedyranden, som syfta på de onda makterna. (…) Men också mycket oskyldigare ord undvikas sorgfälligt av kvinnorna, naturligtvis i synnerhet av de bildade. Måste de vidröra ömtåliga ämnen, taga de sin tillflykt till de försikstigaste och avlägsnaste eufemismer.” 6 “Undantag finnes det visserligen gott om i vår tid; men de flesta av dessa träffas antingen i den självständiga klass, som kallats “maninnorna”, “de emanciperade” o.d., eller och bland “sportkvinnorna”.”
37
must be specially mentioned anything that smacks of swearing” (Jespersen 1922: 246).
He further states that by using euphemisms and inventing new words to replace the
coarse and gross expressions, women have a tremendous influence on linguistic
development (Jespersen 1922). If we base ourselves on what Cederschiöld and
Jespersen wrote, if an expletive was used in the beginning of the twentieth century, it
was safe to assume that is was a man who pronounced the word.
When we look at contemporary research of the link between gender and the use
of expletives, we come across some interesting results. McEnery (15) seems to agree
with Cederschiöld and Jespersen by stating that swearing is still seen as typical
behaviour “more engaged in by male speakers” (2004: 34). However, there are also
contemporary studies that attempt to shed another light on the matter, by looking into
other variables that might influence the results, such as the age of the speakers, the sex
of the addressee or the formal or informal setting of the conversation. Not many studies
like this were conducted, but amongst them was Gomm’s study (16), which proved that
men were more likely to use expletives when they were talking to other men. When
talking to women or in mixed-‐group conversations, however, Gomm found that the use
and frequency of swearwords was significantly lower (Gomm 1981).
With regard to the formal or informal setting of the conversation, a study by
Svensson (17) showed that men tend to use a lot more expletives than women in
informal conversations, but she also found that more differences can be found in the use
of swearing depending on the context of the conversation than depending on the sex of
the speaker (Svensson 2004). The use of swearwords has thus more to do with whether
the conversation takes place in a formal or informal setting than with the speaker and
interlocutor being male or female.
Based on these studies, it is clear that the difference in use of expletives is not as
clear-‐cut as Jespersen or Cederschiöld claim it to be. However, it is important not to lose
sight of the fact that Cederschiöld and Jespersen wrote in the beginning of the twentieth
century, and that in the mean time a lot of changes have occurred socially and culturally.
Their claims may not uphold today, but that does not necessarily mean that what they
wrote was not applicable for (most) women of their time. There are other factors we
must take into account and the place of women nowadays is definitely different from
their days. And even though contemporary research tries to broaden our vision by
trying to do away with one-‐sided or unwarranted generalizations and stereotypes, the
38
idea that men tend to swear more than women do is still commonly held in literature.
6.4 Primitive languages
What immediately stands out in the works of Furfey and Chamberlain is that both
authors draw on the language of primitive people to make their statements about
differences in language use between males and females. Furfey states that his paper
“will discuss divergencies in the language usages of men and women, a phenomenon
which is barely discernible in the familiar languages of Europe, but which is not at all
uncommon among primitive peoples” (Furfey 1944: 218). Although Chamberlain does
not make an explicit statement on this matter, his position on the topic can be deduced
from the first line of his work: “the literature relating to “women’s languages” among
primitive peoples, and the theories as to their origin and significance, (…)” (Chamberlain
1912: 579). Both authors seem to agree that differences in language usage between
males and females is a phenomenon that occurs in primitive tribes and not, or in a lesser
way, in their own culture. It can also be further deduced that Chamberlain not only
believes that differences in language use do not occur in his own culture, but that it is
not a phenomenon that occurs in all the primitives culture either. On page 579 he states
that the Caraya have long been one of the few people among whom a women’s language
existed (Chamberlain 1912). Chamberlain thus regards differences in language usage as
a very rare phenomenon. Furfey on the other hand seems to be implying the opposite:
by saying that “it is not at all uncommon among primitive peoples” (Furfey 1944:218),
he could be arguing that one of the characteristics of the language of primitive people is
a difference in language use between men and women. It seems that Furfey and
Chamberlain agree on the fact that differences in language use between genders is a
phenomenon that is uncommon in their own culture, but while Furfey believes that is
occurs frequently in primitive cultures, Chamberlain is convinced that differences in
language use between gender seems to be an exception to a universal principle that men
and women speak in the same way.
It was exactly this belief that Robin Lakoff (25) wanted to dispel. With her
Language and Woman’s Place (1975) she has sparked the interest of many linguists in
the “gender-‐issue”. In her work, Lakoff discusses the existence of a “woman’s language”
39
and many linguists followed in her footsteps, trying to determine what the specific
differences are between men and women in their language use. Studies have been
conducted in cultures all over the world, proving that differences in language use
between genders occur practically everywhere and in every culture, though they might
vary in degree ((26)Bodine 1975; (27)Labov 1972).
It seems that the claims made by both Furfey and Chamberlain no longer hold up.
There is overwhelming evidence today that men and women do speak differently in
some ways, and it is more or less a global phenomenon. While the other early 20th-‐
century authors do not make any specific claims regarding primitive languages, their
thoughts on the matter can be deduced based on the examples they give or the claims
they make. Overall, Jespersen comments on the language used in the old Caribs and in
other foreign cultures, and thus leaning more towards Furfey’s view that language
differences with regard to gender is a phenomenon that occurs mainly in primitive
cultures. It must be noted however, that Jespersen sometimes includes German,
Scandinavian or French examples as well (Jespersen 1922). Cederschiöld and Gauchat
on the other hand, seem to implicitly disagree with this statement: both authors almost
exclusively give examples from their own culture, thus implicitly claiming that gender-‐
related language differences are not restricted to primitive tribes. This is made very
clear in Gauchat’s work, which is based upon empirical data collected in the Swiss village
of Charmey. It seems there is a discrepancy between the early-‐20th century authors with
regard to the occurrence of gender-‐related language differences.
6.5 “Women’s” Language
The term “Women’s Language” is frequently used by Chamberlain, thus implying that in
those primitive tribes that have differences between men and women in terms of their
language, the language of men can be seen as a completely different language than that
of women. Furfey on the other hand disagrees with this radical distinction and opts for a
more fine-‐grained use of the term. He claims that although the terms might have become
conventional, they should not be called as such. The reason for this is that there is no
proof; there is not a single tribe in which the men and women speak an entirely different
language. He does not say that there are no differences between men and women and
40
how they use language; he simply states that those differences involve not the language
as a whole, but rather certain specific features of the language, such as phonetics,
grammar or vocabulary (Furfey 1944: 218). Although Chamberlain seems to think that
women in certain tribes speak an entirely different language, in his work he only
discusses differences in vocabulary and pronunciation between the two sexes, leaving
the field of grammar untouched. Furfey on the other hand has divided his article into
different sections, each of them covering one aspect of language, such as phonetics,
grammar or vocabulary.
Cederschiöld never explicitly states that the differences between men and
women’s language use indicate the existence of two separate languages, yet he does not
shun away from using the term “woman’s language”. For example, he states that
The most characteristic and most general observed features of the woman's language are
the manifestations of the intensity, exclusivity, immediacy, suddenness and variability of
her feelings(1900: 18)7.
Jespersen does explicitly state what Cederschiöld seems to imply, namely that “there are
tribes in which men and women are said to speak totally different languages, or at any
rate distinct dialects” (Jespersen 1922: 238), although he later on points out that the
matter is worth looking into more thoroughly. He seems to have some doubts regarding
classifying the language of men and women as two separate ones, based on the fact that
their grammar remains the same (Jespersen 1922).
Furfey is joined by contemporary linguists who also believe that the term
“women’s language” should not be used, rather they prefer to speak about certain
differences that appear between men and women’s speech. While Furfey and
Chamberlain respectively entitled their work Men’s and Women’s Language and
Women’s Language, contemporary linguists generally opt to use less extreme
distinctions, such as Sex Differentiation and Language (Bodine 1975). Upon analysing the
contemporary studies that were used in this thesis, it is found that neither one of them
claims that men and women speak entirely different languages based on the differences
that were found. It can thus be assumed that contemporary linguists share Furfey’s view
that caution is at hand when using the term “women’s language”, since gender-‐related 7 De mest karaktäristiska och allmännast iakttagna dragen i kvinnans språk äro just yttringar av hennes känslas intensitet, exklusivitet, omedelbarhet, plötslighet och föränderlighet.”
41
language differences do not denote a separate language. It appears that we have a
taxonomical issue at hand: should these variations between men and women’s speech
be regarded as separate languages, or rather as dialects, or language varieties or styles.
Contemporary linguists seem to agree that they do not constitute separate languages,
though it would seem odd to regard them as dialects. Based on contemporary research,
the most accurate term to account for differences in language between men and women
could be language varieties.
6.6 Conservative Language
It seems that the same tendency that was discovered in point 6.1 with regard to
pronunciation applies to this type of phonetic change as well, namely that women seem
to adapt to phonetic change more quickly than men do. While Gauchat generally did not
make many comments on phonetic change related to gender, in this case he states
“women are more willing to accept this innovation” (Gauchat 1905: 35). 8
Gauchat never explicitly states that women are in fact quicker to adapt to
phonetic change, so caution in making general conclusions is in order. However, based
on the examples mentioned in point 6.1, one could carefully argue for a tendency
towards this claim. It also becomes more likely that this sort of phonetic change is not
solely related to gender, but related to age as well. As in the previous examples, the
oldest generation hardly shows any signs of phonetic change, while it mainly occurs in
the youngest generation, and traces of it can be found first among women of the middle
generation. This leads to the assumption that phonetic change is introduced by younger
speakers, and is then increasingly adopted among older speaker, of which women seem
to take the lead.
Gauchat concludes his work with a table indicating the degree of diversity in the
Charmey dialect, focusing on the three different generations. His goal is to indicate the
differences in pronunciation that he found among the three different generations; those
aged between one and thirty years old, those between thirty and sixty, and those who
have passed the age of sixty. In his commentary on these differences he indicated in the
table, he states that the table is more accurate for men than for women. If Gauchat had
visualized the speech of the women living in Charmey in a table, it would have shown a
different image: the women tended to use phonetic forms not corresponding to the men 8 Les femmes sont plus disposes à accepter cette nouveauté que les hommes
42
of the same age, but they used the phonetic forms that are specific for the next
generation, the younger generation (Gauchat 1905). Thus a sixty-‐year-‐old Charmey
woman’s speech will resemble the speech of a thirty-‐five-‐year-‐old more closely than a
the speech of a man of the same age.
In order to be able to explain this phenomenon, he investigates the matter more
thoroughly. He comes to the conclusion that, based on rhymes made by female poets,
“women were quick to embrace any linguistic change”(Gauchat 1905:51)9. Since he
makes no mention of men, Gauchat thus seems to confirm the hypothesis that men tend
to be more conservative in their speech while women are more prone to change. It could
therefore be argued as well that Gauchat is implying that women are the ones who
initiate language change.
According to contemporary research, there seems to be some room for debate.
While there are studies that indeed came to the conclusion that women were the ones
who initiate language change and men are more conservative in their speech, there are
also studies that found that men are the ones who initiate the change. Some of the most
well known studies with regard to language are the ones by Labov (1972, 1990) (29)
and Trudgill (1972) (30). Both of them found that it were the men who lead the
language change in Martha’s Vineyard, Philadelphia and Norwich respectively. However,
there are studies that claim the opposite and agree with Gauchat on the fact that women
initiate language change, such as Labov (1966) and Cedergren (1973) (31). In these
studies, respectively conducted in New York City and Panama, it is found that women
lead the sound change. The picture is thus not as clear-‐cut as Gauchat made it out to be.
The logical conclusion that can be drawn here is that sex differences with regard to
language may vary depending on the variable under investigation. While women will
initiate one type of sound change, men will be more prone to initiate others, depending
on the variable. Eckert (1989) (28) is warning her readers to be careful to make general
claims on the account of language as a variable of linguistic change. She argues that it
would be a mistake to believe that there is some sort of constant constraint associated
with gender: it is not the case that there is a type of system at hand that indicates that it
is the women that are more innovative than with regard to linguistic change (Eckert
1989). Both genders make linguistic changes; there is no underlying system that can
predict which gender will initiate which linguistic change. Eckert has expressed her 9 (…) les femmes accueillaient avec empressement tout nouveauté linguistique.
43
views on this matter very clearly. She states that
It is commonplace for sociolinguists to allow the gender categories that they use to
classify speakers (i.e., male vs. female) to guide their thinking about the effects of gender
in variation. In particular, men and women are perceived as categorically different,
indeed opposite and opposed, in their use of linguistic variables (Eckert 1989: 248).
Eckert acknowledges that there are differences in language between men and women,
yet she refuses to associate these differences solely to the gender variable. While gender
will play a role in language differences, it is not the only factor that should be taken into
account. Therefore, there is no constant constraint that is associated with gender. Men
and women do belong to two different categories biologically, but Eckert seems to opt to
perceive men and women not as categorically different from a linguistic point of view,
but rather as having differences in degree of language change (Eckert 1989). Language
change is a phenomenon that is almost impossible to perceive at the time it occurs, but
is almost exclusively determined long after the change has been completed. It is
therefore very difficult to pinpoint the exact moment when a change in language
occurred, let alone determine who started the change. In the opinion of Cederschiöld, it
is almost always men who induce change, whereas women tend to stick to existing
language forms:
Furthermore, in general the woman is very conservative in her language use, fearing
novelties and holding on to the original word order, of which she surely knows it is
traditional, clean and impeccable (…). It is therefore an old observation that women do
more than men to maintain language in its old form, and we often hear comments that this
or that country’s language is spoken “cleanest” by females within the country’s higher
class. (Cederschiöld 1900: 34) (DV).10
A number of things can be deduced from this statement. First of all, Cederschiöld draws
the attention to the fact that women are more conservative in their speech than men and
that they strive to avoid introducing new words or changes in the language as much as 10 “Eljest är kvinnan i allmänhet mucket konservativ i sitt sprākbruk, fruktar nyheter och håller sig helst inom det ordförråd, som hon säkert vet vara hävdvunnet, städat och oklanderligt. (…) Därför är det ock en gammal iakttagelse, att kvinnorna göra mera än männen för att bevara (konservera) språket i dess äldre skck, och man hör ofta anmärkningen, att de teller det landets språk talas “renast” av kvinnorna inom landets högre klasser.”
44
possible. Furthermore he claims that this type of speech is considered to be the
prestigious form that is associated with the higher classes. In other words, not only do
women favour the old forms, those forms are also generally considered to be the highest
ones in register. It can therefore be deduced that, according to Cederschiöld, when
women are responsible for changes in language, they will change the language towards
the prestige form.
Jespersen as well wonders which sex is the more conservative one and what the
general attitude of the two sexes towards language change is. Jespersen is trying to
determine whether or not a change can be ascribed exclusively or predominantly to
either sex or if both sexes equally participate in the changes (1922: 242). Without giving
any evidence on the matter, but simply by referring to it as “an answer that is very often
given” (1922: 242), Jespersen states that
(…) as a rule women are more conservative than men, and that they do nothing more than keep to the traditional language which they have learnt from their parents and hand on to
their children, while innovations are due to the initiative of men. (Jespersen 1922: 242)
Although Jespersen at first sight seems to agree with the traditional explanation which
states that women are more conservative in their language forms, he is cautious to make
sweeping generalizations about the matter. He draws the attention to the fact that this is
not true for every language in the world. As an example of this, Jespersen mentions that
Japanese women are less conservative than men because they generally are not as
influenced by the written language (1922: 243).
As a result, it can be concluded that Cederschiöld is entirely convinced that
women are more conservative in their language use than men. While Jespersen writes
that there is evidence that supports this statement, he also admits that there are cases
where it is not true. Until this day, the matter has not been completely solved, yet it was
not for a lack of trying. Amongst others, P. Eckert is one of the contemporary
sociolinguists who studied gender-‐related language conservatism. According to Eckert,
there is
a general misconception among writers who do not deal directly with variation that women's
speech is more conservative than men's. Indeed, women do tend to be more conservative
45
than men in their use of those vernacular forms that represent stable social variables. On the
other hand, the very earliest evidence on variation (Gauchat 1905) showed women leading in
sound change (…). But the picture is not quite as simple as this generalization suggests.
(1989: 247-‐248).
Eckert (28) here claims that the general idea that women are more conservative in their
language use must be nuanced. She admits that women tend to be more conservative in
their speech, but on the other hand, earlier research has proven that women also tend to
take the lead in sound change. It is Eckert’s opinion that we must investigate the matter
further, since evidence can also be found for men initiating the change. To strengthen
her argument, she mentions Trudgill's (1972) and Labov's (1972) research, which
shows that men initiate most changes in Norwich and some changes in Martha’s
Vineyard (1972), respectively. According to Eckert, this is reason enough to assume that
sex differences may vary depending on which variable is being used (Eckert 1989).
Besides the fact that sometimes men take the lead in sound changes, Eckert also found
that “sex does not have the same effect on language use everywhere in the population”
(1989: 248). She argues that we must be careful not to draw hasty conclusions. She
claims that it is not only the sex of the speaker that accounts for the language patterns,
but that there are other social parameters at work as well (Eckert, 1989). In other
words, we should also look for other factors beside the single sex effect in statistical
analyses, and maybe even conduct separate analyses for each sex:
Not only is it a mistake to claim that women are more or less innovative than men, but at this
point in our research it is a mistake to claim any kind of constant constraint associated with
gender. It is, above all, this mistake that characterizes much current work on sex differences
in variation. (Eckert 1989:248).
While we must be cautious to draw any general conclusions, in the line of history we can
clearly see scepticism beginning to arise as we move more towards present-‐day
research. Whereas in the beginning of the twentieth century unwarranted claims were
easily accepted, towards the middle and end of the century there is more attention for
evidence that counters the claim that women are more conservative in their speech than
men. As a rule, claims are no longer accepted without being questioned, and further
proof is collected by means of sociolinguistic research.
46
6.7 Oral Sources
When looking at the relationship between language and gender, one is directed to
studies in the field of variationist sociolinguistics. It is the aim of a variationist
sociolinguist to determine if a certain variable occurs more (often) in one social group
than in another one. The method proven most effective for this type of research is a
statistical analysis of data gathered from experiments with a representative sample of
the population. Even though this method only really gained followers in the 1950s and
did not usually employ statistical methods nonetheless already wanted to identify a
connection between a linguistic and a social variable (Grieve 2012). It is then very
interesting to ascertain that of the early 20th-‐century authors discussed in this thesis,
Gauchat is the only one that can provide empirical data to support his claims. Whether
this was a deliberate choice of the remaining authors is debatable, but Cederschiöld
gives a clear explanation on why he is only using oral sources. In his introduction he
states that
It is commonly known that, when women write something, and especially when what they
write is meant to be published, they alter the form of their speech as much as possible
towards the conventional and general rules of the common language. And those rules are
created after man’s own image. No, it is therefore in its unconstrained, confidential and direct
casual speech that the peculiarities of women’s speech must be studied. (Cederschiöld 1900:
10) (DV)11
Cederschiöld is giving the written alternative for the observer’s paradox, a term that was
first coined by William Labov, meaning that “the aim of linguistic research in the
community must be to find out how people talk when they are not being systematically
observed; yet we can only obtain this data by systematic observation”(1972: 209).
Cederschiöld is thus opting for the use of oral sources because he fears that the use of 11 “Ty vi veta väl, att när kvinnor skriva något, och i all synnerhet när det, som de skriva, är bestämt att tryckas, så lämpa de sin språkform så mucket som möjligt efter det vedertagna skriftspråkets vanliga och allmänna skick. Och detta skick har mannen skapat efter sitt beläte. Nej, det är framför allt i det otvungna, förtroliga, omedelbara umgängesspråket, som kvinnans språkliga egenheter böra studeras.”
47
written sources would not be representative for the language use of the sociological
group of people he is interested in. It is likely that Jespersen, Furfey and Chamberlain
shared a similar view.
Since the others never explicitly state why they are not using written sources, it is
possible that there may be other explanations besides the fact that people have a
tendency to alter their speech in writing. Another reason could be that it would be
enormously time-‐consuming to conduct experiments to investigate the claims they
make. As opposed to contemporary research, where usually only one variable is being
examined and thus only one experiment needs to be conducted, early 20th-‐century
linguists make statements about a wide range of topics. Trying to prove them all by
conducting experiments would have taken them years, also given that the technological
devices we have at our disposal today were not yet available.
Even though Jespersen’s work is seen as the pioneer study with regard to
language variation and gender, contemporary scientists for the most part remain critical
of his work. In a recent study, Margaret Thomas (32) suggests that a new reading of
“The Woman” might be useful (Thomas 2013). Instead of discrediting Jespersen or
diminishing his importance, however, Thomas feels that “we need to acknowledge the
complexities of this text and seek to better understand both what it meant in the culture
and time that produced it, and its position in present-‐day reflection on language and
gender “(2013: 377). The “discrediting and diminishing” that Thomas mentions refers to
criticism Jespersen receives from contemporary scientists on the basis of the data he
uses to support his claims. Thomas states that Jespersen has a wide range of sources he
uses for his claims, but “still, the bulk of his illustrations derive from works of literature,
including texts by Cicero, Shakespeare, Molière (…)” (2013: 384). She then goes further
to say that
Jespersen also cites proverbs and freely provides examples of both women’s and men’s
language from his own observations, or perhaps of his own invention, leaving the generality
of those data unexplored. When Jespersen interprets or builds a conclusion out of his data
(and sometimes in the absence of any data at all), he relies not on the authority of empirical
evidence, but on appeals to what counted as common sense within the shared culture of the
author and his readership (Thomas 2013: 384).
In other words, while Jespersen makes his claims in carefully structured phrases, he
48
lacks the necessary scientific evidence to support his claims and therefore, according to
Thomas, his claims lose a lot of their value and credibility.
It can thus be assumed that the general tendency at the beginning of the 20th
century was to make use of oral sources, since four out of five authors discussed in this
thesis provide no empirical evidence to support their claims. The only exception
amongst early 20th-‐century authors is Louis Gauchat, who made statements based upon
empirical data he collected in the Swiss town of Charmey. It seems that Gauchat was a
pioneer with regard to researching gender-‐related language differences.
6.8 Speed of thought
Just like women express their opinion in a more rapid pace than men, they also think faster.
The speed, with which she sometimes can move from one point of view to the other, becomes
downright giddy for a man’s ability of self-‐control. (…) Such rapid transfers in mood and the
consequent contradictions are probably the biggest reason that “women’s logic” in men’s
language has become more or less synonymous with a break in logic.
(Cederschiöld1900:25)12
Cederschiöld calls the rapidity with which women tend to think and speak a sort of
immediate impulse that is characteristic of women’s speech. According to him, this
‘immediateness” expresses itself in a number of ways, one of them being the fact that
women don’t tend to think before they speak. They don’t subject their speech to a
certain ‘screening’ before uttering it, as opposed to men, who prefer to do such a
screening, Cederschiöld (1900) claims. He does not elaborate on what kind of ‘screening’
men employ, but he links women’s lack of screening to the fact that women feel the urge
to express their feelings immediately. To illustrate what he means, Cederschiöld gives
the example of the difference between a man and a woman when they are asked to
recapitulate a phone conversation they took part in or they overheard. He comes to the
conclusion that women recall the conversation in a more direct way, by saying, e.g., “he
12 “Liksom kvinnan yttrar sin mening i raskare tempo än mannen, tänker hon också snabbare. Den fart, med vilken hon stundom kan kasta sig från en synpunkt till en annan, blir rent av svindlande för en karls fattningsgåva. (…) Dylika snabba övergångar i stämning och därav följande motsägelser bära sannolikt största skulden i agg “kvinnologik” på mannens språk kommit att bli ungefär liktydigt med brist på logik.”
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said, and then she said, and then he said”, whereas men show a tendency to give a more
contextual overview of what was said during the conversation, they are more indirect
(Cederschiöld 1900). Although Cederschiöld never explicitly states that women have a
tendency to use more pronouns, by saying that they do favour the direct approach when
it comes to recapitulating a conversation and in combination with the example that he
gives, it can be assumed that Cederschiöld believed that using pronouns was more
common in women’s language than in men’s language.
Jespersen seems to supports Cederschiöld’s view with regard to this matter. He
writes, “a woman’s thought is no sooner formed than uttered” (Jespersen 1922: 253). In
other words, as soon as a woman thinks something, she will say it. The similarity with
Cederschiöld here is undeniable, who used the term “immediateness” to describe this
phenomenon. Jespersen also admits that women are more skilled when it comes to the
use of pronouns. In his opinion, the frequency with which women use a personal
pronoun is a linguistic sign of the greater rapidity of female thought (Jespersen 1922:
252). This all seems to play in women’s favour, but Jespersen makes an addition to this
statement that some might consider offensive. Jespersen claims that it is only due to the
fact that women have smaller vocabularies (and thus fewer words to choose from),that
they show superior readiness in their speech, and that this is linked to the fact that
women in most respects show a tendency to be average, as opposed to men, who tend to
reach for extremes (1922: 253). While this at first sight may possibly seem sexist,
Jespersen wants to stress that it should not be regarded as a slur upon their sex, since
“men score the highest on the positive extremes, but also on the negative ones” (1922:
253).
While Jespersen seems to agree with Cederschiöld in stating that women think
faster than men and therefore use more pronouns, contemporary linguists seem to have
developed other opinions on the matter. In 2003, Argamon (33) decided to investigate
whether or not there was a difference in the use of pronouns between the sexes. This
work is particularly interesting, since it also makes the connection between the number
of nominals used by either sex and the number of pronouns. Argamon states that both
men and women have nearly identical frequencies of nominals, e.g. the use of words
such as table or book (2003). The equal number of nominals means that men and
women have the same frequencies of referring to people or things. Since the number of
nominals is equal for both sexes, it is then easy to determine if there is a difference in the
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number of pronouns used to refer to those nominals. Argamon concludes that “overall,
pronoun use is overwhelmingly more female than male (…)” (2003: 6). He believes that
this pattern holds for first, second and third-‐person pronouns, but that with regard to
the latter one must pay attention to the difference between the pronouns generally
marked for gender (i.e. he, she) and the impersonal pronoun (i.e. it). While females make
strikingly more use of the former, Argamon finds that there is an equal division between
the two sexes with regard to the latter:
Female writers more often use personal pronouns that make explicit the gender of the
‘thing’ being mentioned (third person singular personal pronouns), while males have a
tendency to prefer more generic pronouns. Both of these aspects might be seen as pointing
to a greater ‘personalization’ of the text by female authors (Argamon 2003: 8).
6.9 Speed of utterances
Linked to the previous topic, namely that women tend to think faster than men, and feel
the need to express their feelings immediately, is the claim that women also speak faster
than men. Cederschiöld writes, “Just like women express their opinion in a more rapid
pace than men, they also think faster” (Cederschiöld 1900: 25)13. Cederschiöld mentions
a number of different reasons for the more rapid pace that can be found in women’s
speech. One of the reasons, according to Cederschiöld, is because “she makes a rich and
powerful use of emotional emphasis”(1900: 22)14. The more extensive use of emotions
in women’s speech will be addressed in the next section of this paper. It is well-‐
established that emotional people are not exactly known for their calm and well-‐thought
out approach in conversations. Cederschiöld seems to have drawn the conclusion that
there is a correlation between emotionality in speech and the speed with which one
speaks. A second reason that, according to Cederschiöld, is proof that women speak in a
more rapid pace is the fact that women have a tendency to use direct language. This use
of direct language has the consequence that women have a tendency to see their speech
as a single unit and they do not divide it into different pieces, like men prefer to do. So a
13 “Liksom kvinnan yttrar sin mening i raskare tempo än mannen, tänker hon också snabbare.” 14 “Härmed sammanhänger, att fruntimmer, då de tala, g¨ra ett rikligt och kraftig bruk av känslobetoningen.”
51
woman presents her speech as a continuous flow of sounds, while males are more likely
to insert pauses in their speech, according to Cederschiöld (1900).
While Cederschiöld is giving reasons for the more rapid speed with which women
tend to speak, Jespersen approaches the matter from a different point of view by
explaining why men tend to speak more slowly than women. Jespersen talks about “the
superior readiness of speech of women” (1922: 253). With this statement, it is obvious
that he feels that women, more then men, are quicker in forming opinions and uttering
them. It seems that Jespersen does not see this as a positive trait, since he feels it is
connected to the fact that women have smaller vocabularies than men and that “women
do not reach the same extreme points as men, but are nearer the average in most
respects” (1922: 253).
Another reason that according to Jespersen can influence the pace of the speech
is how the clauses are formed.
If we compare long periods as constructed by men and by women, we shall in the former
find many more instances of intricate of involute structures with clause within clause, a
relative clause in the middle of a conditional clause of vice versa, with subordination and
sub-‐subordination, while the typical form of long feminine periods is that of co-‐ordination,
one sentece of clause being added to another on the same plane and the gradation
between the respective ideas beingmarked not grammatically, but emotioinally, by stress
and intonation, and in writing by underlining. In learned terminology we may say that men
are fond of hypotaxis and women of parataxis. (Jespersen 1922: 251).
It is much easier to utter clause after clause after clause, such as the woman prefers, than
to utter clause within clause within clause, which characterizes the male speech pattern,
according to Jespersen. As a result of this, too, it might be possible that women tend to
speak at a more rapid pace than men.
Many contemporary researchers have looked into this matter, and a lot of them
even based themselves on Jespersen’s work. Green and LeBihan (1996) (34) for
example, reinforce Jespersen’s opinion that “the first common notion of women’s speech
is that it is essentially ‘gossip’ or ‘prattle’”(1996: 33). “Jespersen”, Green and LeBihan
argue, “considered that women did not think before they spoke and were therefore less
competent at complex syntactic structures such as elaborate subordination”(1996: 33).
Therefore they support Jespersen in his conclusion that women make more use of
52
paratactic structures, whereas men prefer to use hypotactic structures. This would show
that women opt for easy structures and avoid the complex subordination. To elaborate
the two concepts, Green and LeBihan (1996) give the following examples:
a) parataxis ‘I went down the road and went to the shops. I bought some fruit’
b) hypotaxis ‘While I was out down the road I went to the shops and bought some
fruit’.
From this, we infer that women who use more parataxis make less use of function words
such as while that express logical, argumentative etc. relationships. In other words,
parataxis is a language that lacks in expressive markers and thus lacks explicit coherence
(cf. Green and LeBihan 1996). By stating that women favour the paratactic (less
complicated) structures, Green and LeBihan implicitely also agree with Cederschiöld and
Jespersen that women tend to speak faster than men.
The study conducted by Green and LeBihan is not the only one to be found that
investigated the relationship between the sex of the speaker and the pace with which
one speaks. In 2004, a study was conducted to look at the speaking rates of American
and New Zealand varieties of English. While the initial goal of the study was to see
whether or not there was a difference between the speaking rates of those who spoke
New Zealand English and those who spoke American English (which there is: results
showed faster speaking rate for the New Zealand English group), they also looked at
gender differences and found that there were no differences what so ever, for either
variation of English. (Michael P. Robb, Margaret A. Maclagan, and Yang Chen 2004) (35).
While the results of this study do not exactly match the claims that Cederschiöld
and Jespersen make, there are other studies that refute those claims entirely. A study
conducted by Yuan, Liberman and Cieri (2006) (36) came up with some very interesting
results. They claim that the opposite from what Cederschiöld and Jespersen write is
actually true, with men speaking at a more rapid pace than women:
The difference between them is, however, very small, only about 4 to 5 words or
characters per minute (2%), though it is statistically significant. It might be due to things
that we would not normally think of as speech-‐rate parameters, such as differences in
Compared to the beginning of the twentieth century, there is a lot more variation in
opinions to be found in contemporary research. Nobody seems to be absolutely sure on
what the right answer is and everyone seems to agree that further research on the
matter is an absolute condition in order to give a definitive answer to the question.
6.10 Emotions vs. rationality in speech.
It is generally believed that women are emotional creatures, as opposed to men who are
considered the more rational sex. Cederschiöld believes that this is also expressed in
their speech: “But the main thing is though, that women feel the need to immediately
express their feelings in their first, original power. If she can do that, than she is not
easily stopped by shyness” (1900: 19)15. Cederschiöld also writes: “The most
characteristic and most general observed features of the woman's language are the
manifestations of the intensity, exclusivity, immediacy, suddenness and variability of her
feelings” (1900: 18)16. According to Cederschiöld, each female feels the need to express
what she is feeling, and to express that immediately whenever she is feeling it. He claims
that there aren’t many things out there that a woman will not express, because she is not
shy. This is also the reason why there are not many modifying or reluctant expressions
to be found in her speech. Women feel the need to lose themselves in the heat of the
moment and express themselves in strong utterances and this is why they prefer
absolute expressions: “Men on the other hand examine expressions from a more general
point of view, and often have difficulties seeing things as one-‐sided and personal as
women do” (Cederschiöld 1900: 27)17. The urge to express everything immediately
poses problems when women find themselves in situations where they cannot give in to
that urge. Cederschiöld gives the example of discussion in parliament, where everyone
has to wait for their turn before they can speak. He claims that those discussions are
much more difficult for women, because they cannot speak immediately and have to try
and remember their feelings and words: 15 “Men huvudsaken är nog, att kvinnan behöver genast och omedelbart giva uttryck åt sin känsl i dess första, ursprungliga kraft. Får hon göra det, så hindrar blygheten föga. 16 De mest karaktäristiska och allmännast iakttagna dragen i kvinnans språk äro just yttringar av hennes känslas intensitet, exklusivitet, omedelbarhet, plötslighet och föränderlighet.” 17 “Mannen däremot tar ofta kvinnans uttalande “efter orden”, granskar uttrycken från allmännare synpunkter och har svårt att se saken så ensidigt och personligt, som kvinnan gjort.”
54
(…) When she finally gets the word, she runs the risk of discovering that the mood she was in
when she wanted the word has weakened and blurred or even completely disappeared, and
thus she does not say what she originally wanted to say (Cederschiöld 1900: 19)18.
The fact that women tend to be more emotional in their speech is something that
Jespersen claims to have noticed as well, although he never states it in so many words
and he does not spend much attention on the topic. While Cederschiöld focused on the
emotional state of the woman, Jespersen chose to look more closely to the rational state
of the man by stating that
Woman is linguistically quicker than man: quicker to learn, quicker to hear, and quicker to
answer. A man is slower: he hesitates, he chews the cud to make sure of the taste of words,
and thereby comes to discover similarities with and differences from other words, both in
sound and in sense, thus preparing himself for the appropriate use of the fittest noun or
adjective (Jespersen 1922: 249).
In other words, Jespersen finds a man to be more rational because he is slower. A man
does not feel the urge to express everything immediately; rather he takes his time to
look for the right words. He wants the words to express what he wants to say to
perfection, and also make sure that what he is saying has an aesthetic value. His aim is to
produce something that will please his listeners, with regard to content as well as sound.
This is in sharp contrast with the emotionality with which women tend to speak. Women
don’t leave room to analyse their feelings or the words they use to express their feelings,
and that is why they are labelled as emotional beings which is reflected in their speech.
Men on the other hand choose to take their time before they speak so they can analyse
the situation and react to it accordingly, making them much more rational than the
opposite sex.
We can conclude that both Cederschiöld and Jespersen believe that the woman is
not only a more emotional being, she also expresses her emotions more than the
opposite sex. In this modern day and age, this is still the general opinion of many people,
including scholars, and it comes as no surprise, then, that a large number of scientists 18 “(…) att hon riskerar att, när hon slutligen får ordet, finna den stämning, som förmådde henne att begära ordet, redan försvagad och grumlad eller t.o.m. alldeles försvunnen, så att hon icke kommer att säga det, som hon ursprungligen hade velat säga.”
55
have investigated in the matter. Burke, Weir & Harrison (1976) (37) for example, found
that in marriage, women attach greater importance to expressing their feelings and are
therefore more willing to admit that they are feeling tense. Since they value the
importance of communication, they make greater efforts to explain what they are feeling
as well. Another study that researched the expression of emotions in marriage showed
that women, more often than men, express their emotions verbally, and more
specifically negative emotions. A man, on the other hand, make use of the
“stonewalling”-‐technique, in which he minimizes eye contact and tries not to listen to
what is being said when he finds himself in a marital dispute (Levenson, Carstensen &
Gottman 1994) (38). This is also supported by more recent studies, such as the one by
Vogel, Wester, Heesacker & Madon (2003) (39) who come to the same conclusion that
men have a tendency to withdraw instead of expressing what they are feeling. It seems
that Cederschiöld and Jespersen were right all along in stating that women are more
emotional, and men are more rational in their speech.
6.11 Taboo
In order to properly discuss the topic of taboo, it must first be determined what the term
denotes, and whether the term has undergone changes between the beginning of the
twentieth century and now. Jespersen defines taboo, and more specifically verbal taboo
as follows:
Under certain circumstances, at certain times, in certain places, the use of one or more
definite words is interdicted, because it is superstitiously believed to entail certain evil
consequences, such as exasperate demons and the like (Jespersen 1922: 239).
According to the Oxford Dictionary, the term taboo is “a cultural or religious custom that
does not allow people to do, use, or talk about a particular thing as people find it
offensive or embarrassing” (“Taboo”, 2015). If we compare the two definitions, it can be
concluded that while the reasoning behind it may be different, the outcome remains the
same: words that are considered taboo are words that should not be used. It can
therefor be assumed that the meaning of the word taboo has not changed since the
beginning of the twentieth century.
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As a result of this verbal taboo, one has to resort to figurative paraphrases,
obsolete terms or a disguise of the real word into a more innocent term in order to
replace the forbidden word (Jespersen 1922). Jespersen bases himself upon speech
among primitive tribes to determine that verbal taboo was a common practice among
the women. He finds that women in the old Caribs made frequent use of this verbal
taboo; they are for example never allowed to learn words that are related to the
warpath, which are being described as “extraordinarily difficult” (Jespersen 1922: 239).
Women are strictly interdicted of using such words so much that observers are tempted
to call their language a separate language. This is not restricted to the old Caribs, but
occurs among a number of primitive tribes among the globe. Consequences for breaking
this rule are severe: “if a woman were to contravene this rule she would be indicted for
sorcery and put to death” (Jespersen 1922: 240). In none of his findings does Jespersen
mention that men were not being permitted to speak certain words, so it can be
assumed that verbal taboo according to Jespersen was something that was restricted to
the speech of women.
One of the contemporary linguists who comments on taboo in relation to gender
is R. Dixon (40). In his section on avoidance styles, he states that “Most (perhaps all)
Australian tribes have or had a special ‘avoidance’ speech style which must be used in
the presence of a taboo relative; bilingual informants frequently describe this as
‘mother-‐in-‐law language’” (Dixon 1980: 58). Dixon here uses the term ‘avoidance
speech’ to refer to taboo words. Dixon specifically studied the relations between a
woman and her father-‐in-‐law, and a man and his mother-‐in-‐law, denoting similar
avoidance patterns, and in certain tribes this even extends to the wife’s mother’s
brother, or it can include cross-‐cousins. In these types of relationships, one has to follow
the rules of the avoidance speech, in order not to be looked down upon and covered in
shame (Dixon 1980). Dixon does not seem to make a specific distinction between men
and women: avoidance speech occurs with both genders, and depends on their
relationship to the person that is being spoken to. Dixon furthermore warns the reader
that this ‘mother-‐in-‐law language’ is “not a separate language, but just a separate
linguistic style, employing the same phonology and grammar as the everyday style but
with some lexical differences” (Dixon 1980: 61). Dixon elaborates further on this matter
and makes mention of and extreme example, the Dyirbal-‐speaking tribes, in which every
single lexical word has a different form in the avoidance and the everyday style.
57
Although Dixon implicitly agrees with Jespersen that there is something that can be
called verbal taboo by discussing avoidance styles in which certain words should be
avoided depending on the relationship and the gender of the person one is speaking to,
Dixon however does not comment that there is a difference in these avoidance styles
between men and women: avoidance styles are known to both genders, and no
comments were being made on one of them being more extreme then another.
Another contemporary linguist who comments on taboo in relation to gender is
Fatima Sadiqi (41), who defines linguistic taboo as “characterized by the irrational
rejection of a specific set of words” (2003: 78). In her study, she did research on
language in the Moroccan culture, and found that “some of the strongest linguistic
taboos apply to words associated with women” (Sadiqi 2003: 78). Sadiqi seems to
support Jespersen’s statement that women, at least in the Moroccan culture, are
forbidden to use certain words. She mentions that there are certain words that
Moroccan women tend to avoid, such as ‘ghost’ or ‘ghosts’, but that they also tend to
favour the uttering of the number five, because they believe that it drives evil away
(Sadiqi 2003). Again, a line can be drawn with Jespersen’s statements that superstition
is involved, however, here we find that women not only avoid certain words because
they attract evil, but also explicitly use others words in order to drive evil away. Just as
Jespersen found, this study of language in the Moroccan culture claims that taboo is used
as a means of social control, which can result in sanctions if violated. Sadiqi does not
explicitly state that only women avoid certain words, but she does state that
The proliferation of taboos associated with women in Morocco is linked to the ‘silence’
that surrounds them at a more general level. In the overall Moroccan culture, female
voices lack discursive authority because of the burden of the taboo, which characterizes
women as listeners, rather than speakers; their voice is cawra ‘taboo’ (Sadiqi 2003: 79).
Based on this statement, it is clear that in the Moroccan culture linguistic or verbal taboo
is strongly associated with women. Moreover, it seems to be linked to a greater cultural
phenomenon among the Moroccan people that women should be silent. It is important
to bear in mind here that although this is typical for the Moroccan culture, this does not
imply that it is a global phenomenon. It seems that contemporary sources are in
agreement on the fact that linguistic taboo or avoidance styles do exist, yet with regard
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to gender, taboo words being more a male or female practice, it is likely that this is very
culture-‐dependent and that further research is necessary to make more general claims
6.12 2nd/foreign language learning
In the section he titled “Competing Languages”, Jespersen also notices differences in
languages between men and women in countries where there is a struggle for language
supremacy:
A difference between the language spoken by men and that spoken by women is seen in
many countries where two languages are struggling for supremacy in a peaceful way –
this without any question of one nation exterminating the other or the male part of it
(Jespersen 1922: 241).
According to Jespersen, when men and women are faced with having to integrate in
another country, men interact more with the native population than women.
As a result, men integrate more easily into the new culture and they have more
opportunities to learn the language than women, who usually remain indoors. He has
found evidence of this among German and Scandinavian immigrants in America, where
men have more contact with the English-‐speaking population and more opportunities to
learn the language (Jespersen 1922). Jespersen seems to imply that men acquire foreign
or second languages more quickly than women, not because they are more intelligent
than women but simply because they interact more with the native people. It seems that
there are other factors besides gender that have a part in speech differences between
men and women. There seem to be greater cultural reasons, such as the fact that women
tend to stay indoors and have not got as much contact with foreign languages as men do,
or because they live in a place where men end to dominate the public sphere.
On the matter of second language learning with regard to gender, contemporary sources
seem to be divided, depending on which aspect of second language acquisition was
investigated. Some believe that women are better at learning a second language
((42)Burstall 1975; (43)Nyikos 1990), while others share Jespersen’s view that men are
superior in this regard (Boyle 1987)(44). Bacon (1992)(45) on the other hand has
found no evidence of either gender being superior in second language acquisition.
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The contemporary work of Ellis (1994) (46) comments on second language acquisition
related to gender. He states that there are two major principles in sociolinguistic
research related to sex differences: on the one hand that women use more standard
forms than men, and on the other that, with regard to linguistic change, women use the
changed forms more frequently than men. This led him to assume that with regard to
second language acquisition, women might be better at learning new languages than
men, since they are more open to new linguistic forms (Ellis 1994). He comes to the
speculative conclusion that women have greater success in learning a second language
in classroom settings because they have more positive attitudes towards learning.
However, he states that
Sex (or gender) is, of course, likely to interact with other variables in determining L2
proficiency. It will not always be the case, therefore, that females outperform males.
Asian men in Britain generally attain higher levels of proficiency in L2 English than do
Asian women for the simple reason that their jobs bring them into contact with the
majority English-‐speaking group, while women are often ‘enclosed’ in the home. Sex
interacts with such factors as age, ethnicity, and, in particular, social class (Ellis 1994:
204).
Ellis thus agrees with Jespersen’s claim that men acquire a second language more easily,
because they have more opportunities to learn it, while women remain indoors, and that
this leads to differences between the languages spoken by men and women. Again, there
seems to be other factors in play as well, and no conclusive answer can be given.
6.13 Adverbs
A final topic that Jespersen discusses is with regard to the use of adverbs: “while there
are a few adjectives, such as pretty and nice, that might be mentioned as used more
extensively by women than by men, there are greater differences with regard to
adverbs” (Jespersen 1922: 249). The distinction Jespersen claims between men and
women and their use of adverbs is not a quantitative distinction: Jespersen never
mentions a greater use of adverbs in either one of the genders. Rather Jespersen
believes the distinction is a qualitative one: certain adverbs are used more or exclusively
60
by women. Jespersen makes reference to two examples: adverbs of intensity and the
intensive so. According to Jespersen, women make more use of adverbs of intensity than
men do, because they are fond of the use of hyperboles. As a result, women often tend to
disregard their proper meaning, for example awfully pretty, is a phrase that is most
likely to be spoken by a woman, where awfully does not carry its traditional meaning of
unpleasant, but is used to intensify the adjective, resulting in the meaning of very pretty.
Jespersen also mentions the adverb quite, in the sense of ‘very’, to be used more
frequently by women than by men (Jespersen 1922). With regard to the more frequent
use of the intensive so by women, in conjunction with an adjective, such as ‘he is so
charming’, Jespersen explains this as follows:
The explanation of this characteristic female usage is, I think, that women much more
often than men break off without finishing their sentences, because they start talking
without having thought out what they are going to say (Jespersen 1922: 250).
According to Jespersen, the same case can be made for the intensive such: if it is used in
a sentence, one would expect a following complement clause introduced by that, but
since it is difficult to find something fitting to say when you are making it up as you go
along, the inexpressible remains unexpressed. Since men do not have the tendency to
think while they are speaking, but think first and then speak, the use of intensifiers such
as so and such does not occur that much in their speech.
It seems that contemporary research agrees with Jespersen claims. Studies have
shown that women often make more use of intensifiers ((47)Farb 1973; Ritchie Key
1972). Ritchie Key (48) attributes the more extensive use of intensifiers by females such
as so, such, quite, vastly, to the fact that women are more sensitive to indicators of lower
status than males, and therefore they are less likely to use syntactic features with such
connotations.
While contemporary research thus seems to agree with Jespersen on the fact that
women do in fact make more use of intensifiers, they give a different explanation for it.
Jespersen claims that this is a result of women’s tendency to not think before they speak,
while Key associates the more extensive use with the fact that women are more
sensitive to indicators of lower status. Either way, it appears that women use more
61
adverbs of intensity in their speech than men do, a phenomenon that was already
discovered in the beginning of the twentieth century.
6.14 Non-‐verbal communication
We can say a lot by talking, but we say a lot more by not talking. A large part of daily
communications is not established through verbal communication but through non-‐
verbal communication, such as body languages, gestures, eye contact, posture, smiling,
etc. In Cederschiöld’s opinion, women make more use of these non-‐verbal
communication methods than men do:
The immediateness with which women like to express their emotions, also results in the
fact that the main tool of expression, words and phrases, are not ideal for her so she
successfully employs other tools, which are more suited to express her feelings directly
and concretely, namely looks, glances and gestures on the one hand, and crying, laughing,
snorting etc. on the other (Cederschiöld 1900: 11)19.
According to Cederschiöld, because women are more emotional in their speech, they
also need to make more use of non-‐verbal tools in order to express those emotions. In
his opinion, women say a whole lot more with a look than with words. He believes that it
is possible for women to have entire conversations with each other, without either one
of them uttering a single world, while men are completely oblivious to the message that
is conveyed between them (Cederschiöld 1900).
Nonverbal aspects of communication between genders has been a topic of great
interest among contemporary researchers and they seem to agree with Cederschiöld
that women are more skilled and make more use of non-‐verbal communication methods
than men do. Frieze (1974) (49) notices that enhanced non-‐verbal communication
among women is associated with linking and warmth. While men want to display
dominance and status, women want to indicate greater emotional warmth nonverbally.
19 Den omedelbarhet, hvarmed kvinnan gärna vill gifva sin känsla luft, gör också, att umgängesspråkets förnämsta uttrycksmedel, orden och satserna, icke passa henne så bra och icke så framgångsrikt af henne användas som vissa andra språkliga medel, hvilka direktare och så att säga konkretare uttrycka känslor, nämligen dels blickar, miner och åtbörder, dels gråt, skrik, skratt, fnysningar m.m.
62
She claims that higher status individuals show less direct eye contact, that women on
the other hand show more social eye contact, and that women also tend to smile more
than men do. Furthermore, she a states that women are more receptive towards other
people’s non-‐verbal cues, which is in line with what Cederschiöld has put forward. Other
studies have provided evidence as well that women tend to smile more and make more
eye contact, as a means of communication ((51) Argyle & Ingham 1972; (52)Silveira
1972; Exline, Gray & Shuette 1965). Exline, Gray & Shuette (1965) (50) for example, aim
to discover the role of gender in the willingness to engage in eye contact as a means of
communication. One male and one female graduate student interviewed 40 male and 40
female students. The interviewers were instructed to gaze steadily at their interviewee
while asking personal questions. As a result, they found that female students, compared
to the male student and regardless of the sex of the interviewer, made more eye contact,
and that they showed more affection and were more inclusion oriented.
6.15 Pronouns
This section will elaborate on Furfey’s view on pronoun differences in the speech of men
and women, a topic that is already mentioned briefly in point 6.8 on speed of thought.
Furfey mentions that there are certain paradigms that are dependant of the sex of the
speaker, such as in the Thai language, in which there are differences in the first person
personal pronoun and in certain polite particles (Furfey 1944: 220). An even more
complicated example of this instance can be found among the Yuchi, an Indian tribe in
Georgia, who have “a complicated system of personal pronouns whose correct use
depends on the sex of the speaker, the sex of the person spoken of, and the relationship
between them” (Furfey 1944: 220). In both cases there seem to be different pronouns
for men and women. While modern French, English or Swedish for instance do not have
this distinction, these differences in pronouns depending on the sex of the speaker are
still found today in some languages, such as Japanese. Contemporary studies have
shown that the Japanese have a variety of first and second person singular pronouns
which can not be used at random, but their usage is bound to specific rules (Ide 1990)
(53). Their usage is related to the gender of the speaker and the level of formality of the
conversation. Based on a table in which the different pronouns for men and women are
listed, Ide states that
63
Two kinds of differences are noted here. First, a difference in levels of formality can be
observed. The level of formaliy of watasi is formal for men, but plain for women and that
of anata is formal for men, but plain or formal for women. This means that women are
required to use more formal forms. (…) Second, we notice pronouns of deprecatory level,
ore, omae and kisama, in men’s speech but non in women’s speech. There is no
deprecatory word in women’s speech (Ide 1990: 73-‐74).
Ide reaches this conclusion based on a study in which 256 men and 271 women were
asked questions to in Tokyo. All were parents of students from Japan’s Women’s
University. They were aged between 40 and 70 years old; most of the men were
businessmen and most of the women were housewives, in order to obtain a sample
representing the typical middle-‐class. Each informant was asked three questions, which
were then analysed in view of linguistic rules of politeness and social rules (e.g., the type
of addressee). Politeness in this case meant the perceived distance between two
subjects. This distance appears greatest when a subject is very careful towards another
subject, and shortest when the subject feels uninhibited (Ide 1990).
The study shows not only that men and women in the Japanese language use
different pronouns, but that men have a wider variety of choices in their pronouns than
women. The pronoun use is also linked to the level of formality, in which it is noted that
for women, there is no deprecatory level expressing disproval or criticism. It thus
appears that contemporary research agrees with Furfey that in some languages there
are differences in pronoun use related to gender.
6.16 Diphthongs
While Gauchat (1905) previously only focused on the age of his informants and only
casually mentions differences in gender without further commenting on them, he seems
to make an exception with regard to diphthongs. When he investigates the diphthong
/ao/, he states that it’s appearance is very inconsistent among all generations and that
its counter-‐form /å/ is still intact among the older speakers (Gauchat 1905). Moreover,
Gauchat states that “as always, women sett off more easily on the path of
64
diphthongization than to men” (Gauchat 1905: 44)20. While he previously restricted
himself to commenting solely on the age of his informants upon investigating the
relationship with language variety, he now expands his study and seems to take in
gender as a variable for phonetic change as well. Though he bases himself upon
examples in isolation, he makes the very general claim that women render faster to
diphthongs than men do. He claims that if one should compare the pronunciation of a
man and a woman that are the same age, the latter will have clear diphthongization,
while the former will have a mixture (Gauchat 1905). Gauchat links this back to his
original focus, the age-‐variable, by explaining why the youngest generation in his view
also have a greater number of diphthongs in their pronunciation. According to Gauchat,
children learn the language mainly from their mothers, hence it is called a mother
tongue. The father has to work and the children hardly ever see him, so the task of
raising them depends on the mother. Children are thus more prone to take over their
mother’s language than their father’s : “since a language is learned in the home and not
out in the fields, it is clear that children will follow the example set by their mothers”
(Gauchat 1905: 45)21.
In this section, Gauchat seems to bring together two variables that influence
phonetic change, namely age and gender. By stating that women make more use of
diphthongs than men and that they pass on their language to the next generation, they
have a greater influence on how that generation will speak, or specific to this case, the
degree of diphthongization. Contemporary studies seem to be divided on this subject.
Some authors seem to agree with Gauchat that women are more sensitive to
diphthongization, such as Thomas (2013) (54), who refers to variable realizations of
/ai/ among African American English speakers in Chicago, and to what degree it is
monophthongized:
(…) speaker gender is found to play a sizeable and significant role in predicting
monophthongization. Females produced tokens with greater diphthongization than
males, meaning their realizations of /ai/ are more similar to canonical /ai/ in SAE (i.e.
Standard American English, my addition). Women also show greater variation and
20 Comme toujours, les femmes se mettent plus facilement sur la voie de la diphtongaison que les hommes. 21 Comme la langue s’apprend autour du foyer, non aux champs, il est clair que les enfants suivront plutôt l’exemple des femmes.
65
dynamicity across distinct phonetic and conversational environments than men (Thomas
2013: 450).
Thomas takes into account certain sociolinguistic factors other than ethnicity and
geographic location as well. It was found that women more commonly used diphthongs,
whereas men tended to favour the use of monophthongs. Whether this means that
women have a more standard speech is not an issue investigated by Thomas, but her
findings definitely lean towards this assumption.
In a study regarding the changing pronunciation of the diphthong /ɛɪ/ in Dutch,
namely that there is a tendency towards the lowering of the diphthong, it was tested
whether this avant-‐garde use of the diphthong was more widespread among women,
who are believed to be the one who initiate sound changes rather than men (van
Heuven, V.J., van Bezooijen, R., Edelman, L. 2002) (55). Van Heuven, van Bezooijen &
Edelman (2002) recorded 16 male and 16 female Dutch-‐speaking guests in a television
talkshow to test their hypothesis. Their age ranged between the ages of 28 and 52, and
for each speaker they recorded approximately six minutes of sponteaneous, non-‐
rehearsed speech. Then they selected for each speaker ten instances of the target
diphthong /ɛɪ/, as well as five instances of /i/ and /a/.
Based on the sociolinguistic data, they come to the conclusion that this new,
lowered variant of /ɛɪ/ is found more among the speech of women than among the
speech of men. They also state that while both genders have conservative as well as
progressive speakers, it is the women who have led the sound change. Since this study
was focused on one single diphthong, it would be too presumptious to assume that this
is true for all diphthongs and for all dialects, but it is definitly an indicator that the topic
of diphthongization and gender is worth looking into.
However, there are studies that do not agree with Gauchat’s point of view. A
study (56) by Collins that was conducted in Galway claims that diphthongs are used by
all speakers of the Claddagh community, and that age nor gender is a factor in the
different usage:
However, a study of S HE as spoken by the residents of the Claddagh community in
Galway has shown that diphthongs are in fact being used by all speakers from three
different generations. (…). And while age and sex have been suggested as a way of
66
explaining sound change, neither of these factors was seen to be a reason for the move
towards diphthongization in the Claddagh S HE speakers (as cited in Kallen, 1997,p.154).
Contemporary studies have not come to a consentient conclusion regarding the matter
of diphthongization and gender, and it seems largely dependent on which dialect is
being studied. There seems to be no universal claim as to one of the genders having a
higher degree of diphthongization than the other.
67
7 Conclusion
In general, it seems safe to say that there are a considerable number of
differences between the first part of the twentieth century and present-‐day
scholarship with regard to language variation and gender. What almost
immediately stands out among the early sources is the lack of empirical data to
support the various claims. It seems to be more exception than rule that claims
are supported by empirical evidence rather than based upon hearsay, common
prejudice or the author’s own, but often unsubstantiated intuitions. As a result,
many claims are highly dubious and should be treated with great scepticism.
A second major point that authors from the first part of the twentieth
century have in common is the wide variety of topics they address. Especially in
the beginning of the twentieth century it can be noticed that no subject seems to
be left out. Based on the table on page 19, it is clear that Cederschiöld and
Jespersen address a much higher number of subjects than their peers. Moreover,
with the exception of the subjects of non-‐verbal communication, adverbs, 2nd-‐
and foreign language learning and taboo, both of them address the same subjects.
This tendency is also seen with Furfey and Chamberlain: both of them discuss
identical subjects, with the exception of pronouns, which are only addressed by
Furfey. It comes as no surprise then that, due to the fact that overall, early 20th-‐
century authors lack empirical evidence, they often do not agree with one
another.
There is however one major exception to these general observations,
namely the investigations by Gauchat. Although his study was published in 1905,
he seems to be far ahead of his time compared to contemporary scholars.
Gauchat’s study distances itself from other early 20th-‐century texts in that it not
only focuses on one specific subject, namely the role of age in the difference in
pronunciation, but also on one specific area, i.e. the the Suisse Romande village of
Charmey. Moreover, he provides empirical and precise data to support his claims.
In doing so, his investigations differ greatly from what other linguists of the time
were doing. In every respect, Gauchat seems to be more of a present-‐day scholar
than a linguist from the early 1900s.
68
By comparing the studies from the first part of the twentieth century with
contemporary research, we were able to establish differences as well as
similarities. As opposed to authors from the first part of the twentieth century,
present-‐day scholars tend to focus on only one aspect of language variation at a
time. This results not only in a higher number of different studies on the same
subject, but also in a higher number of different outcomes. It has proven rare to
find two contemporary studies on the same subject that agree with each other in
every respect, let alone with claims made in the first part of the twentieth
century. This can partly be attributed to the fact that gender is not the only
variable that plays a part in language variation. Other factors such as the culture
or the language under investigation play an important part as well. One tendency
that contemporary authors do seem to have in common is that they are much
more cautious to draw general conclusions. While they may make statements on
a certain subject in this or that language, they are careful not to overgeneralize,
something that was common in the first part of the twentieth century.
One of the biggest discrepancies between the first part of the twentieth
century and now is the increase in studies on language variety and gender. It has
proven to be rather difficult to find sources dating back to the beginning of the
twentieth century regarding this matter, while there is plenty to choose from
among contemporary research, especially since the publication of Lakoff’s
Language and The Woman’s Place (1975). Perhaps her work genuinely sparked
the interest of linguists to investigate the matter, or perhaps this interest was
already present in the beginning of the twentieth century, yet few people
considered it necessary to write down their thoughts on the matter. Although the
reason for the increase in studies on language variety with regard to gender
cannot be stated with certainty, its existence is undeniable.
Content-‐wise it seems that contemporary research most often disagrees
with the claims made in the first part of the twentieth century, or they at least
offer a nuanced view on the subject that is being investigated. One characteristic
of early 20th-‐century research is a tendency to jump to conclusions based on poor
evidence. Present-‐day research counters this tendency by conducting large, in-‐
depth studies that carry scientific value. By using large samples of data rather
than some overheard conversation, they are able to give a more nuanced view on
69
the subject and they often come to a different conclusion than the corresponding
studies from the first part of the twentieth century. This also increases the
validity of contemporary research: while it is difficult to establish how much
truth there is to the claims that were made in the first part of the twentieth
century and these works should thus be approached with caution, the validity of
contemporary research is not up for discussion. Again, the work of Gauchat forms
an exception to this; based upon a carefully conducted study, his statements can
be assumed to be true.
To sum up, if we look at the evolution that took place in the discussion
with regard to language variation and gender, generally speaking contemporary
researchers turn out to be a lot more sceptical towards general claims than in the
beginning of the twentieth century and they much more rely, as a rule, on
empirical sociolinguistic research findings than was customary at the beginning
of the twentieth century, with the exception of Gauchat’s study.
70
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