THE P BLOCK ELEMENTS There are 6 groups (13-18) Boron Family Carbon Family Nitrogen Family Oxygen family (Chalcogens) Halogen Family Noble Gas Family The elements in which the last electron enters in the outermost p orbital
Oct 27, 2014
THE P BLOCK ELEMENTS
There are 6 groups (13-18) Boron Family Carbon Family Nitrogen Family Oxygen family (Chalcogens) Halogen Family Noble Gas Family
The elements in which the last electron enters in the outermost p orbital
GENERAL ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION AND OXIDATION STATES OF P-BLOCK ELEMENTS
REASON FOR ANOMALOUS BEHAVOUR OF FIRST MEMBER FROM OTHERS
Small size
High electronegativityNon-availabilty of d- orbitals to expand valency
GROUP 13 ELEMENTSBORON FAMILY
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Name Symbol
electron configuration
Boron B [He]2s22p1
Aluminium Al [Ne]3s23p1
Gallium Ga [Ar]3d104s2 4p1
Indium In [Kr]4d105s2 5p1
Thallium Tl [Xe]4f14 5d106s2 6p1
•General electronic configuration ns2 np1
•Stable Oxidation state +3 decreases as we move down the group due to inert pair effect
ATOMIC RADII Atomic Radii *(pm)
B (85)Al 143
Ga 135
In 167
Tl 170On moving down the group atomic radius is expected to
increase.
However, Atomic radius of Ga is less than that of Al. due to the poor screening effect of intervening d orbitals
IONIZATION ENTHALPY
The ionisation enthalpy values do not decrease smoothly down the group.
Variation can be explained on the basis of poor screening effect of d and f electrons.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Down the group, electro negativity first decreases from B to Al and then increases marginally because of the discrepancies in atomic size of the elements.
B 2.0Al 1.5
Ga 1.6
In 1.7
Tl 1.8
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Boron hard black coloured high melting non metallic solid
Others are soft metals with low melting point and high electrical conductivity.
Density of the elements increases down the group from boron to thallium.
OXIDATION STATE AND TRENDS IN CHEMICAL REACTIVITY
Except B all other are metals
Boron due to small size forms covalent compounds.
Aluminum (Al) forms +3 cations.
Gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (Tl) all form +3 cations, but also +1 cations,
The relative stability of +1 oxidation state progressively increases as we move down in the group due to inert pair effect
Al<Ga<In<Tl.
INERT PAIR EFFECT
Reluctance of ns2 electrons to take part in bonding due to the poor shielding effect of intervening d and f orbitals on moving down the group
ELECTRON DEFICIENT CHARACTER
In +3 state they form electron deficient compounds
e.gBF3
so they behave as Lewis acids. Acidity decreases with the increase in the size
down the group. e.g BCl3 easily combine ammonia to form BCl3:NH3.
AlCl3 achieves stability by forming a dimer
REACTIVITY TOWARDS AIR
Boron is un reactive in crystalline form. Aluminium forms a very thin oxide layer on the
surface which protects the metal from further attack.
Amorphous boron and aluminium metal on heating in air form B2O3 and Al2O3 respectively.
Basic nature of these oxides increases down the group.
Boron trioxide is acidic ,Aluminium and gallium oxides are amphoteric and those of indium and thallium are basic in their properties.
REACTIVITY TOWARDS NITROGEN
Only B and Al forms nitrides at high temperature
REACTIVITY TOWARDS ACIDS AND ALKALIES
B does not react with acids and alkalies even at moderate temperature
Al shows amphoteric character. Aluminium dissolves in dilute acids and alkalies and
liberates hydrogen.
In concentrated HNO3 Al becomes passive by forming a protective oxide layer on the surface.
REACTIVITY TOWARDS HALOGENS
These elements react with halogens to form tri halides (except Tl I3).
2E(s) + 3 X2 (g) → 2EX3 (s) (X = F, Cl, Br, I)
IMPORTANT TRENDS ANDANOMALOUS PROPERTIES OF
BORON The tri-halides(except F-) being covalent in nature are
hydrolysed in water. Species like tetrahedral [M(OH)4]– and octahedral
[M(H2O)6]3+, except in boron, exist in aqueous medium. The monomeric trihalides, being electron deficient, are
strong Lewis acids. Eg: F3B + :NH3 → F3B ←NH3
the maximum covalence of B is 4. Al and other elements, the maximum covalence can be expected beyond 4.
Most of the other metal halides (e.g., AlCl3) are dimerised through halogen bridging (e.g., Al2Cl6).
SOME IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF
BORON
BORAX (NA2B4O7⋅10H2O)white crystalline solid
it actually consists of four units and there fore the correct formula is Na2[B4O5 (OH)4].8H2O.
Borax dissolves in water to give an alkaline solution.Na2B4O7 + 7H2O → 2NaOH + 4H3BO3
Orthoboric acidOn heating, borax first loses water molecules and swells up. On further heating itturns into a transparent liquid, which solidifies into glass like material known as borax bead.
The metaborates of many transition metals have characteristic colours and, therefore,
borax bead test can be used to identify them in the laboratory. Eg: CoO gives blue coloured Co(BO2)2 bead
ORTHOBORIC ACID (, H3BO3 )Preparation Acidification of aqueous solution of borax.
Na2B4O7 + 2HCl + 5H2O → 2NaCl + 4B(OH)3
It is also formed by the hydrolysis of most boron compounds (halides, hydrides, etc)
Properties (Physical)
white crystalline solid, with soapy touch. sparingly soluble in water but highly soluble in hot water.
Properties (Chemical)
weak monobasic lewis acid
On heating, above 370K forms meta boric acid which on further heating yields boric oxide,
STRUCTURE It has planar layer structure in which BO3 units are joined by hydrogen bonds (dotted
line) as shown below
DIBORANE ( B2H6 )Preparation By treating BF3 with LiAlH4 in diethyl ether.
By the oxidation of sodium borohydride with iodine.(Laboratory method)
By the reaction of BF3 with sodium hydride.( Industrial method)
Properties (Physical)
colourless, highly toxic gas with a b.p. of 180 K. catches fire spontaneously upon exposure to air
Properties (Chemical)
It burns in oxygen releasing an enormous amount of energy.
DIBORANE ( B2H6 ) Properties (Chemical)
Boranes are hydrolysed by water to give boric acid.
Diborane undergoes cleavage reactions with Lewis bases(L) to give borane adducts,BH3⋅L
Reaction of ammonia with diborane gives initially B2H6.2NH3 which on further heating gives borazine, B3N3H6 known as “inorganic Benzene”
Reaction with MH diethyl ether medium diborane forms borohydrides which acts as good organic reducing agents
Eg:NaBH4
DIBORANE ( B2H6 )
Each B atom uses sp3 hybrids for bonding. Out of the four sp3 hybrids on each B atom, one
is without an electron shown in broken lines. The terminal B-H bonds are normal 2-centre-2-
electron bonds The two bridge bonds are 3-centre-2-electron
bonds.The 3-centre-2-electron bridge bonds are also
referred to as banana bonds.
STRUCTURE OF DIBORANE, B2H6
three –center bond
DIBORANE ( B2H6 ) STRUCTURE CONTD…….
(B-H-B) bonds are special type and known as Three centre two electron bond or Banana bond
BONDING IN AL2CL6
USES OF BORON AND ITS COMPOUNDS Boron fibres are used in making bullet-proof vest
and light composite material for aircraft. The boron-10 (10B) isotopes(metal borides} are
used in nuclear industry as protective shields and control rods.
borax and boric acid is used in the manufacture of heat resistant glasses
(e.g., Pyrex), glass-wool and fibre glass. Borax is also used as a flux for soldering metals,
for heat, scratch and stain resistant glazed coating to earthen wares
Borax is used as a constituent of medicinal soaps. An aqueous solution of orthoboric acid is generally used as a mild antiseptic.
USES OF ALUMINIUM AND ITS COMPOUNDS
Aluminium is used extensively in industry and every day life. It forms alloys with Cu, Mn, Mg, Si and Zn.
Aluminium and its alloys can be given shapes of pipe, tubes , rods, wires, plates or foils and, therefore, find uses inpacking, utensilmaking, construction, aeroplane and transportationindustry.
The use of aluminium and its compounds for domestic purposes is now reduced considerably because of their toxic nature.
GROUP 14 ELEMENTS
CARBON FAMILY
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
•General electronic configuration ns2 np2
Symbol Electronic configuration
6C [ He ]2S2 2P2
14Si [ Ne ] 2S2 3P2
32Ge [ Ar ] 3d10 4S2 4P2
50Sn [ Kr ] 4d10 5S2 5P2
82Pb [ Xe ] 4f14 5d10 6S2 6P2
ATOMIC RADII Atomic Radii *(pm)
On moving down the group atomic radius and ionic radius increases
CSi Ge Sn Pb
Atomic radius (pm) 77 118 122 140 146Ionic radius (pm) M4+ - 40 53 69 78Ionic radius (pm) M2+ - 73 118 119
IONIZATION ENTHALPY
The IE1 of group 14 members is higher than the corresponding members of group 13.
General the ionisation enthalpy decreases down the group.
Small decrease in ΔiH from Si to Ge to Sn and slight increase in ΔiH from Sn to Pb is the consequence of poor shielding effect of intervening d and f orbitals and increase in size of the atom.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Due to small size, the elements of this group are slightly more electronegative than group13 elements.
The electronegativity values for elements from Si to Pb are almost the same.
C Si Ge Sn Pb
2.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
All group 14 members are solids. Melting points and boiling points 14
elements are much higher than those of corresponding elements of group 13.
MEMBER CHARACTER
CARBON NON METAL
SILICON NON METAL
GERMANIUM METALLOID
TIN Soft METAL
LEAD Soft METAL
OXIDATION STATE AND TRENDS IN CHEMICAL REACTIVITY
o Common oxidation are +4 and +2.
o Carbon also exhibits negative oxidation states.
o Compounds in +4oxidation state are generally covalent in nature.
o The tendency to show +2 oxidation state increases in the sequence Ge<Sn<Pb.
o The relative stability of +4 state decreases and +2 state increases on moving down the group due to inert pair effect
o Are electron precise molecules, do not act as Lewis acids /bases
o C cannot exceed its covalence more than 4, whereas others do so.
On account of high ionization enthalpies,
simple M4+ ions of the group are not known
Unlike carbon the other elements of the
group form compounds having coordination
numbers higher than 4 like (SiF5)-, (SiF6)2- and
(PbCl6)2-.
REACTIVITY TOWARDS OXYGEN
when heated in oxygen form two types of oxides, monoxide and dioxide of formula MO and MO2. SiO only exists at hightemperature. Among dioxides CO2, SiO2 and GeO2 are acidic,
whereas SnO2 and PbO2 are amphoteric in nature Among monoxides, CO is neutral, GeO is distinctly
acidic whereas SnO and PbO are amphoteric. Acidity of oxides increases as the oxidation state
of the element increases eg CO2 is acidic whereas CO is neutral
REACTIVITY TOWARDS WATER
C, Si and Ge are not affected by water.
Tin decomposes steam to form dioxide and dihydrogen gas.
Lead is unaffected by water, probably because of a protective oxide film formation
REACTIVITY TOWARDS HALOGEN
forms halides of formula MX2 and MX4 (where X = F, Cl, Br, I).
Except carbon, all other members react directly with halogen under suitable condition to make halides.
Most of the MX4 are covalent in nature and tetrahedral in shape
Exceptions are SnF4 and PbF4, which are ionic in nature.
Stability (thermal and chemical) of dihalides increases and those of tetrahalides decreases down the group
Eg: GeX4 is more stable than GeX2,whereas PbX2 is more than PbX4.
HYDROLYSIS OF CHLORIDES
Except CCl4,other tetrachlorides are easily hydrolysed by water because the central atom accommodate the lone pair of electrons from oxygen atom of water molecule in d orbital.
Hydrolysis SiCl4 to form Si(OH)4
IMPORTANT TRENDS ANDANOMALOUS PROPERTIES OFCARBON
Carbon differs from rest of the members due its smaller size, Higher electronegativity, higher ionisation enthalpy and unavailability of d orbitals.
Maximum co valency is 4 Carbon has unique ability to form pπ– pπ multiple
bonds with itself and with other atoms of small size and high electronegativityEg: C=C,C ≡ C, C = O, C = S, and C ≡ N.
Carbon shows catenation, tendency to show catenation decreases down the group C > > Si >Ge ≈ Sn.
Due to property of catenation and pπ– pπ bond formation, carbon is able to show allotropic forms
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
•Carbon exhibits many allotropic forms both crystalline as well as amorphous.
•Diamond and Graphite are two well-known crystalline forms of carbon.
•Fullerenes are the most recently discovered allotrope of Carbon .
DIAMOND
It has a crystalline lattice. In diamond each carbon atom undergoes sp3
hybridisation The structure extends in space and produces a rigid
three dimensional network of carbon atoms. It is very difficult to break extended covalent bonding
and, therefore, diamond is a hardest substance on the earth.
Used as an abrasive for sharpening hard tools, in making dies and in the manufacture of tungsten filaments for electric light bulbs
STRUCTURE OF DIAMOMD
GRAPHITE Graphite has hexagonal multiple layered structure Each carbon atom in hexagonal ring undergoes sp2
hybridisation and makes three sigma bonds with three neighbouring carbon atoms. Fourth electron forms a π bond. The electrons are delocalized over the whole sheet. Electrons are mobile and, therefore, graphite conducts electricity along the sheet.
Graphite cleaves easily between the layers and, therefore, it is very soft and slippery.
used as a dry lubricant in machines running at high temperature
Graphite is thermodynamically most stable allotrope of carbon
STRUCTURE OF GRAPHITE
FULLERENES
Preparation: By heating graphite in an electric arc in the presence of inert gases such as helium or argon.
The sooty material formed by condensation of the vapours consists of C60 with smaller quantity of C70 and traces of fullerenes consisting of even number of carbon atoms up to 350 or above
C60 has a shape like soccer ball and is refered as Buckminster Fullerene fullerenesIt contains twenty six- membered rings andtwelve five membered rings. A six membered ring is fused with six or five membered ringsbut a five membered ring can only fuse with six membered rings. All the carbon atoms areequal and they undergo sp2 hybridisation. Each carbon atom forms three sigma bonds with other three carbon atoms. The remaining electron at each carbon is delocalised in molecular orbitals, which in turn give aromatic character to molecule. This ball shaped molecule has 60 vertices and each one is occupied by one carbon atom and it also contains both single and double bonds with C–C distances of 143.5 pm and 138.3 pm respectively.
Fullerenes are the only pure form of carbon because they have smoothstructure without having ‘dangling’ bonds.
Buckyball
OTHER ALLOTROPES Carbon black, coke, and charcoal are all impure forms
of graphite or fullerenes. Carbon black is obtained by burning hydrocarbons in a
limited supply of air. Charcoal and coke are obtained by heating wood or
coal respectively at high temperatures in the absence of air.
USES OF CARBON
Graphite fibres are used in products such astennis rackets, fishing rods, aircrafts and canoes.
Graphite is used for electrodes in batteries and industrial electrolysis. Crucibles made from graphite are inert to dilute acids and alkalies.
activated charcoal is used in adsorbing poisonous gases; also used in water filters to remove organic contaminators and in air conditioning system to control odour.
Carbon black is used as black pigment in black ink and as filler in automobile tyres.
Coke is used as a fuel and largely as a reducing agent in metallurgy.
Diamond is a precious stone and used in jewellery. It is measured in carats (1 carat = 200 mg).
SOME IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF
CARBON AND SILICON
OXIDES OF CARBON
OXIDES OF CARBONPreparation:•Direct oxidation of C in limited supply of oxygen
•Dehydration of formic acid with concentrated H2SO4 (small scale)
•by the passage of steam over hot coke.
•When air is used instead of steam, a mixtureof CO and N2 is produced, which is calledproducer gas2C(s) +O2 (g)+ 4N 2(g)1273K 2CO(g)+4N 2(g)
Water gas and producer gas are very important industrial fuels.
Carbon monoxide in water gas or producer gas can undergo further combustion forming carbon dioxide with the liberation of heat.
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and almost water insoluble gas.
It is a powerful reducing agent and reduces almost all metal oxides other than those of the alkali and alkaline earth metals, aluminium and a few transition metals.
?CATENATION IN CARBON
Carbon atoms have the tendency to link with one another through covalent bonds to form chains
and rings. Reason :Bond Dissociation enthalpy
C—C bonds are very strong. Down the group the size increases and electronegativity decreases, and, there by tendency to show catenation decreases.