Theories of Practice: The Political Frame MPA 8002 The Structure and Theory of Human Organization Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Theories of Practice:Theories of Practice:The Political FrameThe Political Frame

MPA 8002

The Structure and Theory of Human Organization

Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Managers and leaders have to recognize political reality and know how to deal with it. Inside and outside any organization, there are always a variety of different interest groups, each with its own agenda. There are not enough resources to give everyone what he or she wants, and there is always going to be conflict.

A POLITICAL SCENARIO

The job of managers and leaders is to recognize the major constituencies, to develop ties to their leadership, and to manage conflict as productively as possible. Above all, they need to build power bases and use power carefully. They cannot give every group everything it wants, although they can try to create arenas for negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable compromises. Managers and leaders also have to work hard at articulating what everyone in their organizations possesses in common. Managers and leaders must tell the people that it is a waste of time to fight each other when there are plenty of enemies outside that they can all fight together. Groups that fail to work well together internally tend to get trounced by outsiders who have their own agendas.

Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 361)

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A POLITICAL SCENARIO

the political frame

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

ManagerialAnd

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Jungle Self-Interest Power Conflicts Competition Politics Intrigue

Advocate Referee Mediator

Developagenda

Formcoalitions andbuild powerbase

Acquire goodintelligence

Dispenseinformationwisely

The snakepit of workplace The snakepit of workplace politics...politics...

Organizations are comprised of human beings...

…who come to organizations possessing diverse beliefs, values, and interests.

Interdependence, power relations, and the scarcity of necessary resources...… impinge upon people and influence

their decision-making processes.

For managers and leaders, the question is not whetherwhether organizations will have politics......butbut the kind of politics they will have.

Not about how managers and leaders avoidavoid politics...…but about how they dealdeal with

politics.

Not whetherwhether managers and leaders will use their current position as a steppingstone towards “greener pastures”…

…but howhow they will manage and lead workplace politics towards positive and productive ends.

Politics...Politics...

the matters of the people (in Greek, s)

cultural milieutheoretical knowledgecraft knowledge

each of whom possesses:

antecedentsself knowledgecritical knowledge

these antecedents influence and shape each individual’s fundamental...

...beliefs

...assumptions

...values

All of these matters are antecedent to an individual’s theories of practice.

diverse beliefs

diverse values

diverse interests

CON F L I C T

resulting in

……and in human organizations...and in human organizations...

many people bring...

Managing and leading human Managing and leading human organizations involves dealing with organizations involves dealing with conflict...conflict...

that is…

…without becoming embattled

…how to engage in battle...

1. understand the nature of conflictconflict in the organization

Conflict...Conflict...

vertical

horizontal

permeates human organizations

types of organizational conflict

cultural

since conflict is natural and inevitable in human organizations...

…conflict is not a problem or an issue per se...

…but requires managers and leaders who understand and are capable of dealing directly and effectively with conflict

Understanding conflict...Understanding conflict...

conflict challenges the status quoconflict can stimulate personal and

social change, interest, creativity, and innovation

Effective managers and leaders focus not on eliminating conflict but on strategies and tactics that channel conflict toward positive and productive ends.

2. deal with conflict

Managing and leading conflict...Managing and leading conflict...

the goal is to mobilize people to achieve shared goals and to overcome obstacles by relating with allies andand opponents alike...

Effective managers and leaders view adversaries not as difficultdifficult people to deal with but as interestinginteresting people they compete with.

Tactics for dealing with Tactics for dealing with conflict...conflict...

bounded conflictsarenasarenas

characterized by fair competition

unbounded conflictsstreetfightsstreetfights ending in obliteration of the

opponent

vs.

1) to establish boundaries in conflict situations

conflict is an ongoing interplay of competing interests and agendas among different individuals and groups

arenas streetfightsvs.

people are independent agents who possess and will use

whatever tools necessary to achieve their self-interest,

irrespective of others

everything is defined: the game, field, rules,

interests, and preferences to be pursued

arenas streetfightsvs.

nothing is defined: individuals and groups legislate their own rules

and behavior ad hoc

multiple opportunities for formal and informal communication,

including meetings, committees, and task forces

arenas streetfightsvs.

communication transpires somewhere “beneath the surface””

the objective is to avoid mutually assured destruction

arenas streetfightsvs.

the objective is to “take no prisoners”

Tactics...Tactics...

purpose strategy

self-interest conflict

vs.

2) to define the agenda

agenda setting requires…

interpersonal sensitivity

discrete arm twisting

planting seeds

moving elephants

Tactics...Tactics...

3) to map the political terrain to identify where the players’ self-interests collide and how the players view one another (Pichault, 1993) determine the channels of informal communication identify the principal agents wielding political

influence analyze the possibilities for both internal and external

mobilization

anticipate the strategies that other individuals and groups are likely to employ

high

low

pro-change anti-change

p

o

w

e

r

interests

support staff

middlemanagement

topmanagement

Mapping the political terrain. Mapping the political terrain. A scenario…but, who’s view?A scenario…but, who’s view?

high

low

pro-change anti-change

p

o

w

e

r

interests

support staff

middlemanagement

topmanagement

Who’s view?Who’s view?

Tactics...Tactics...

4) to build coalitions among and network players through influence building

a coalitioncoalition is:

a group of individuals possessing diverse objectives and resources

attempting to negotiate and bargain with other players both overtly and covertly

to influence goals, tactics, and projects

the collision of self-interests (what people wantwant) and the scarcity of resources (what people needneed) requires intense bargaining and negotiating...

…thus, the critical question for managers and leaders is:

How do the groups articulate their preferences and mobilize power to get both what they want and need?

...a four-step process of mapping political influence (Kotter, 1985) identify relevant relationships, that is, who needs to be managed

or led

assess who is likely to resist, why, and how strongly, that is, figure out ahead of time where the likely challenges are

develop, wherever possible, relationships with potential opponents to facilitate communication, education, and negotiation

...in the event these steps fail, then carefully select and implement more subtle or more forceful methods... identify whose help you need develop relations with them through “pre-selling” and

“cheerleading” engage in “horse-trading,” that is, promise rewards in

exchange for resources and support which will secure the blessing of scarce resources

finding betterbetter solutions(vs. the bestbest solution)for contending players

creating value claiming value

players endeavor to maximizemaximize their individual

gain at minimalminimal cost

Tactics...Tactics...

5) to engage the players in bargaining and negotiating

win-win win-lose

Change generates conflict and creates winners and losers. Effective managers and leaders avoid smoothing over those issues which drive conflict underground.

Managing and leading change effectively requires creating arenas where organizational problems issues can be bargained and negotiated.

3. create and claim value

creating valuecreating value... the conscious insertion of principles into the

decision-making process the art of using bargaining and negotiating as a

forum for building consensus about shared values

the “moral” aspect of management/leadership (Barnard, 1938/1968)

1. separate the players from the problem by focusing on the merits of the argument

3. focus on interests not positions

4. invent options for mutual gain

2. insist on objective criteria in substance and procedures by avoiding anecdotal data and feelings

Tactics...Tactics...

claiming valueclaiming value...

…wherein both players want an agreement but have different interests and preferences which influence the process

acting upon the pragmatic recognition that bargaining and negotiating is a mixed-motive game...

1. focus players on the interdependence of decisions as well as the series of decisions to be made

Tactics...Tactics...

…what each player does affects the other

…each player wants, as much as possible, to be able to predict what the other will do while limiting the other’s ability to do likewise

…the implicit goal is for player A to control player B’s level of uncertainty so as to exercise greater power in bargaining and negotiating

2. use judicious threats rather than sanctions…threats are potent only to the degree that the opponent

believes the threat will be carried out

… noncredible threats weaken one’s position and confuses the process

… the players may then threaten to use force, go on strike, or break off negotiations

…but, in most cases, they cannot bear the costs of carrying out the threat

3. calculate the appropriate level of threat…“underthreatening” only weakens one’s position

…“overthreatening” is perceived as bluffing and may lead another party to disbelieve, to break off bargaining and negotiating, or to force an escalation in threats

all of this claiming value increases the probability that managers and leaders will be perceived as functioning as manipulators...

…who breed self-interest, mistrust, and hostility in their followers

effective managers and leaders...

…create value andand claim value

…as they engage in conditional openness

…and follow the “Golden Rule”

4. deal with and use power effectively

...in Greek, , “to rule”

…not, in and of itself, a negative concept

POWERPOWER

to rule...

…to make a judgment

…in Greek, s, that is, “crisis”

To “rule” means to render a judgment in a crisis, a judgment evidencing the virtuous character (or lack of virtue) of the individual making the judgment.

influencing behaviorchanging the course of eventsovercoming resistancegetting people to do the things they

would not otherwise domaking one’s will prevail and attaining

one’s goal

Examples of power...Examples of power...

…unfortunately, negative Machiavellian connotations distort thoughtful discourse about power and its exercise...

the difference between the positivepositive use of power and the negativenegative use of power...

…is found in the person using power...…and the principles upon which that

individual justifies the use of power

Sources of power Sources of power (Frensch & Raven, 1959)...(Frensch & Raven, 1959)...

position

information/expertise

control of rewards

coercive poweralliances/networks

access to and control of agendas and minutes

control of meaning and symbols

personal power

attending to zones of indifference

Power in the organizational Power in the organizational system...system...

overbounded

highly concentrated

tightly regulates everything

drives politics underground

underbounded

diffuse throughout

system loosely controlled

lots of politics and power games

bounded power

the lowerarchy and the hierarchy cooperate so that

there are no surprises

an arena

unbounded power

a streetfight

vs.

parochial animus endures and keeps returning

Assumptions of the political Assumptions of the political theories of practice...theories of practice...

organizations are coalitionscoalitions of individuals and interest groups

there are enduring differencesenduring differences among coalition members in values beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of reality

the most important decisions involve the allocation of scarce resourcesscarce resources, that is, who gets what

scarce resources and enduring differences give conflictconflict a central role in organizational dynamics and make power the most valuable resource

goals and decisions emerge from bargainingbargaining, negotiatingnegotiating, and jockeyingjockeying for position among different stakeholders

Political tasks for managers and Political tasks for managers and leaders...leaders...

1. to achieve a “delicate balance” in allocating scarce resources across different divisions or functions

2. to get support from bosses

3. to get support from staff and other constituents

Some practical advice for Some practical advice for managers and leaders...managers and leaders...

1. steadfastly refuse to be drawn into brawls

2. avoid confrontations but do confront conflict and do engage in arguments

3. be patient, persistent, and use conflict to practice advancing one’s agenda

4. “let go” of difficult adversaries

… set the standard by upholding the organizational purposea) state the organizational vision

b) state your best understanding of their position

c) identify your contribution to the problem

d) tell them what you will do without making demands of them

To “let go” of difficult To “let go” of difficult adversaries...adversaries...

…then allow the difficult adversary to make a judgment about the next move

Managing and leading organizational politics, confronting conflict, applying ethics when decision making, and using power effectively are critical elements for thinking about management and leadership as a challenging, creative, and necessary endeavor.

successful managers and leaders deal with organizational politics, confront conflict, apply ethics when decision making, and use power...

…as they ask themselves: How willwill I?

…they experience mentalmental anguish

unsuccessful managers and leaders deal with organizational politics, confront conflict, apply ethics when decision making, and use power...

…as they ask themselves: How cancan I?

…they experience personalpersonal anguish

effective managers and leaders are…advocates

Using political theory...Using political theory...

whose primary concerns are…coalition-building

…negotiating gray areas

…savvy

ineffective managers and leaders are…con-artists

Abusing political theory...Abusing political theory...

whose primary concerns are…fraud…deception

…hustlers

…realistic

Strengths of the political theory Strengths of the political theory of practice...of practice...

…practical

…addresses the reality of conflict and power struggles

…highlights the need for principled reflection

…impersonal

Limitations of the political theory Limitations of the political theory of practice...of practice...

…cynical

…assumes conflict and power struggles

Integrating reflective practice, conceptual Integrating reflective practice, conceptual pluralism, and organizational analysis...pluralism, and organizational analysis...

Reflecting upon organizational behavior through four frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism managers and leaders need to diagnose the issues underlying the

problems manifesting themselves in human organizations.

the structural frame

the human resources frame

the political frame

the symbolic frame

This module has focused on...This module has focused on...

the political sciencepolitical science theoriestheories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes...

the political frame

...as these theories of practice provide managers a frame of reference to inform decision making...

...offers managers and leaders guidance about the strengths and limits of political science theory

Managers and leaders have to recognize political reality and know how to deal with it. Inside and outside any organization, there are always a variety of different interest groups, each with its own agenda. There are not enough resources to give everyone what he or she wants, and there is always going to be conflict.

A POLITICAL SCENARIO

The job of managers and leaders is to recognize the major constituencies, to develop ties to their leadership, and to manage conflict as productively as possible. Above all, they need to build power bases and use power carefully. They cannot give every group everything it wants, although they can try to create arenas for negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable compromises. Managers and leaders also have to work hard at articulating what everyone in their organizations possesses in common. Managers and leaders must tell the people that it is a waste of time to fight each other when there are plenty of enemies outside that they can all fight together. Groups that fail to work well together internally tend to get trounced by outsiders who have their own agendas.

Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 361)

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A POLITICAL SCENARIO

the political frame

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

ManagerialAnd

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Jungle Self-Interest Power Conflicts Competition Politics Intrigue

Advocate Referee Mediator

Developagenda

Formcoalitions andbuild powerbase

Acquire goodintelligence

Dispenseinformationwisely

The next module will focus on...The next module will focus on...

...and the cultural theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes.

the symbolic frame

Symbolic managers and leaders are also sensitive to an organization’s history and culture. They seek to use the best in their organization’s traditions and values as a base for building a culture that provides cohesiveness and meaning. They articulate a vision that communicates the organization’s unique capabilities and mission.

(Bolman & Deal, 1991, p. 364)

A SYMBOLIC SCENARIO

Symbolic managers and leaders believe that the most important part of their job is inspiration—giving people something that they can believe in. People will give their loyalty to an organization that has a unique identity and makes them feel that what they do is really important. Effective symbolic managers and leaders are passionate about making their organizations the best of their kind and communicate that passion to others. They use dramatic, visible symbols that give people a sense of the organizational mission. They are visible and energetic. They create slogans, tell stories, hold rallies, give awards, appear where they are least expected, and manage by wandering around.

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIPIN A SYMBOLIC SCENARIO

PrimaryMetaphor forOrganization:

CentralConcepts:

ManagerialAnd

LeadershipImage:

FundamentalChallenge:

Carnival Cathedral or

Temple Opera and

Theatre

Culture Meaning Metaphor Ritual Ceremony Stories Heroes and

heroines Common

good

High priestsand priestesses

Tribal Chieftans Clan Chieftans

Inspire Create faith Define beauty Identify

meaning

the symbolic frame

ReferencesReferences

Barnard, C. I. (1938/1968). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Frensch, J. R. P., & Raven, B. H. (1959). “The bases of social power.” In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in social power. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.

Kotter, J. P. (1982). The general managers. New York: Free Press.

Kotter, J. P. (1985). Power and influence: Beyond formal authority. New York: Free Press.

Kotter, J. P. (1988). The leadership factor. New York: Free Press.

Pichault, F. (1993). Resources humaines et changement stratégique: Vers un management politique (Human resources and strategic change: Toward a political model of management). Brussels, Belgium, DeBoeck.

Porter, E. (1989, December). “Notes for the Looking at Leadership Conference.” Paper presented at the Looking for Leadership Conference, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University.

Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in educational administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 27(2), p. 186.