theories of development psychology

approaches to development

introduction;• Introduction to Theories of Development

Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development, and learning. But why do we study development? What can we learn from psychological theories of development? If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and society

Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development

• Psychoanalytic Theories; Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud. Through his clinical work with patients suffering from mental illness, Freud came to believe that childhood experiences and unconscious desires influenced behavior. Based on his observations, he developed a theory that describe development in terms of a series of psychosexual stages. According to Freud, conflicts that occur during each of these stages can have a lifelong influence on personality and behavior.

Jean Piaget• Cognitive theory is concerned with the

development of a person's thought processes. It also looks at how these thought processes influence how we understand and interact with the world.

• The foremost cognitive thinker was Jean Piaget, who proposed an idea that seems obvious now, but helped revolutionize how we think about child development: Children think differently than adults.

• Piaget then proposed a theory of cognitive development to account for the steps and sequence of children's intellectual development.

• Piaget's stages of cognitive development

• The Sensorimotor Stage• The Preoperational Stage• The Concrete Operational Stage• The Formal Operational Stage

• Sensory-motor stage Birth to 2 years. This stage consists of six sub-stages that show significance gain in the child’s thinking as they progress through infancy. Children are using their physical or motor skills and their senses to explore their world and develop their cognitive understandings.

• Pre-operational stage 2 to 7 years. In this stage children are less reliant upon senses and physical exploration and, according to Piaget,are ‘illogical’ thinker During this stage, for example, children can be shown that two balls of dough are exactly the same size, and they will agree that the balls are the same size, but when one is flattened, they will usually tell you that one of them is now bigger. This inability to conserve is a feature of the preoperational stage.

Concrete operations 7 to 12 years. In this stage, which aligns with middle childhood, children are beginning to be able to demonstrate much more logical thinking, although they need concrete materials to help them reach the correct conclusions. Thus in this stage you will see children working on mathematical problems but using blocks, counters or even their fingers to help them work out the answer. Formal operation 12 years and over. This final stage encompasses the rest of our lives. Piaget believed that once we reached the age of 12 we were capable can deal with much more complex issues.

Lev Vygotsky;• his theory is related with both socioculture

and cognitive, While this Russian theorist died in 1934, his work only found a broader audience in the 1990s. Vygotsky developed his theories around the same time as Jean Piaget yet he emphasized the importance of relationships and interactions between children and enviornment. (Berk, 1996).

• Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition

• 1. Thinking in unordered heaps Beginnings of conceptual thought· Children use trial and error Children use problem-solving techniques Three sub-phases Preschool stage of development • 2. Thinking in complex stage Children begin to make connections

between objects, but not in a consistent manner

Five sub-phases

3. Thinking in concepts stage o Children are able to think in more

abstract concepts and make associations

o Cannot see two associations simultaneously

4. Thinking in true concepts stage o Mature thinking o Children can manipulate a number of

abstract concepts

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Like Freud, Erik Erikson believed in the importance of early childhood. However, Erikson believed that personality development happens over the entire course of a person’s life. In the early 1960s, Erikson proposed a theory that describes eight distinct stages of development. According to Erikson, in each stage people face new challenges, and the stage’s outcome depends on how people handle these challenges. Erikson named the stages according to these possible outcomes:

• Trust vs. Mistrust In the first year after birth, babies depend completely on adults for basic needs such as food, comfort, and warmth. If the caretakers meet these needs reliably, the babies become attached and develop a sense of security. Otherwise, they may develop a mistrustful, insecure attitude

• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Between the ages of one and three, toddlers start to gain independence and learn skills such as toilet training, feeding themselves, and dressing themselves. Depending on how they face these challenges, toddlers can develop a sense of autonomy or a sense of doubt and shame about themselves..

Initiative vs. Guilt Between the ages of three and six, children must learn to control their impulses and act in a socially responsible way. If they can do this effectively, children become more self- confident. If not, they may develop a strong sense of guilt

• Industry vs. Inferiority Between the ages of six and twelve, children compete with peers in school and prepare to take on adult roles. They end this stage with either a sense of competence or a sense of inferiority.

• Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion During adolescence, which is the period between puberty and adulthood, children try to determine their identity and their direction in life. Depending on their success, they either acquire a sense of identity or remain uncertain about their roles in life.

• Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation In young adulthood, people face the challenge of developing intimate relationships with others. If they do not succeed, they may become isolated and lonely.

• srage7: Generatively vs. Self-Absorption As people reach middle adulthood, they work to become productive members of society, either through parenting or through their jobs. If they fail, they become overly self-absorbed.

• Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair In old age, people examine their lives. They may either have a sense of contentment or be disappointed about their lives and fearful of the future.

Stage Conflict Faced Typical Age Range

Major Challenge(s)

1 Trust vs. mistrust First year of life Having basic needs met, attaching to people

2 Autonomy vs. shame and doubt 1–3 years Gaining independence

3 Initiative vs. guilt 3–6 years Acting in a socially responsible way

4 Industry vs. inferiority 6–12 years Competing with peers, preparing for adult roles

5 Identity vs. role confusion Adolescence Determining one’s

identity

6 Intimacy vs. isolation Early adulthood Developing intimate relationships

7 genretivity vs. self-absorption Middle adulthood Being productive

8 Integrity vs. despair Old age Evaluating one’s life

CRITICISMS OF KOHLBERG'S THEORY: A. Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice - Women are socialized

differently from men. - Concerns for the other (nurturing, serving behaviors connected to socially dictated female roles) prevent women from developing moral reasoning per

Kohlberg's model   - Gilligan proposes three level of female development                        A. FOCUS ON SELF TO EXCLUSION OF OTHER                        B. FOCUS ON OTHER TO EXCLUSION, DETRIMENT OF SELF                        C. FOCUS ON ALL WHICH INCLUDES SELF            - BUT, these levels seem to parallel Kohlberg's pre-

conventional, conventional and post-                        conventional levels            - Gilligan also produced little data to support her critique of

Kohlberg, her former mentor at                        Harvard.             

• B. Charles Bailey, UCF•  •             - Kohlberg's model is biased against

conservative worldviews, values in favor of liberal•                         worldviews•             - But Kohlberg's model does not consider

content of reasoning, only process•             - Some conservatives reason at post-

conventional levels, some radicals at pre-•                         conventional levels•             - BUT, ongoing studies of Kohlberg's model by

James Rest at University of Minnesota•                         have documented both the regularity

of more liberal worldviews found in higher•                         levels of moral development as well

as the potential for conservative content to be•                         argued at post-conventional levels