THE WRITTEN RECORD ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ANALYSIS Document Analysis.

THE WRITTEN RECORDADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ANALYSIS

Document Analysis

The Written Record

Includes documents, reports, statistics, manuscripts, and other written, oral, or visual materials

The most commonly used data source in political science

Can be divided into the episodic record and the running record

The Written Record

Episodic records: Produced and preserved in a more casual, personal,

and accidental manner by individuals Includes personal diaries, correspondence,

brochures, pamphlets, and other materials

The Written Record

Running record: More likely to be produced by organizations than by

individuals Carefully stored and easily accessed; available for

long periods of time Includes government, organization, or statistical

records

The Written RecordThree advantages of the running record

over the episodic record: Cost, in both time and money Accessibility of records—locating episodic

records can be quite time consuming Covers a more extensive period of time

Three disadvantages of using the running record: Record-keeping organizations decide how to

keep records Sometimes difficult for researchers to identify

organizations’ record-keeping practices Raw data are not always available

The Written RecordAdvantages of the written record over

other methods: Allows access to subjects who are difficult or

impossible to research through direct, personal contact

Raw data are usually nonreactive Records are often available for analysis over

time Can use a larger sample size than with

interviews or direct observation Less expensive because record-keeping costs

are borne by record keepers

The Written RecordDisadvantages of the written record:

Selective survival: record keepers may not preserve all materials Selectively save (or detroy) embarrassing,

controversial, or problematic records Large gaps exist in many archives Written record content may be biased through

incomplete, selectively preserved, inaccurate, or falsified records

Some written records are unavailable to researchers: classified, sealed, or stored in such a way that they are difficult to use

Records may lack a standard format

Analysis

Researchers use the written record as evidence in different ways: Extract excerpts, quotations, or examples from the

written record to support an observation or relationship

Measure the number of times content appears in a document: a content analysis

AnalysisContent analysis procedures:

Select materials germane to the research subject (the sampling frame) and then sample the material to be analyzed from that sampling frame

Define the categories of content that are going to be measured: topics of interest within the content

Choose the recording unit: how to divide the content into standard units for analysis (a single word, paragraph, page, etc.)

Decide on the numeric values that will be used to code each category in each recording unit

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

OBSERVATIONFIELD STUDIES

PHYSICAL TRACESETHICAL CONCERNS

Quantitative & Qualitative AnalysisThere are two general approaches to data

analysis: Quantitative analysis:

Involves numeric manipulation through the use of statistical analysis

Qualitative analysis: Relies on using quotations, comments, or anecdotes to

provide evidence and support for arguments Both approaches are often used in a complementary

way within a study.

Observation Every part of a research design involves

making choices and tradeoffs—no method is perfect.

The choice of data collection method depends on the Validity of the measurements that a particular

method will permit Effect of the data collection itself on the

phenomena being measured Population covered by a data collection method Resources and the cost of a method Public availability of data Ethical implications

Observation

Observation involves four methodological choices:

1. Direct or indirect2. Participant or nonparticipant3. Overt or covert4. Structured or unstructured

Observation

Direct observation: Observing either the behavior itself

Indirect observation: Observing some physical trace of the behavior

Both rely on first-hand examination of activities, behavior, or events.

Observation

Participant Actively engaged in the behavior under observation

Nonparticipant Observing the behavior without participating

Observation

Overt Those being observed know they are being observed

Covert Those being observed do not know they are being

observed

Observation

Structured Observation follows a well planned path

Unstructured Observation does not follow a well planned path

Observation

Most observation studies conducted by political scientists involve direct observation.

Observation in political science is more likely to occur in a field study than in a laboratory.

Field StudiesA field study is in a natural setting.Field studies hold many advantages over

other methods: People behave as they would ordinarily,

unlike in a lab. Field studies allow people to be observed for

lengthy periods of time so that interaction and changes in behavior may be studied.

Field studies offer a degree of accuracy or completeness impossible with documents or surveys.

Field Studies

But there are disadvantages, as well: A lab setting allows control over the environment,

including a more rigorous experimental design. Observation may be easier and more convenient to

record and preserve.

Field Studies

Recording data is a particularly important disadvantage of the field study, but it can be managed.

An essential aspect is note taking, because the researcher is relying on remembering events accurately for data: Mental notes must be written down as soon and as

completely as possible to avoid losing data.

Physical TracesIndirect observation through erosion and

accretionErosion measures:

Created by selective wear on some materialAccretion measures:

Created by the deposition and accumulation of materials

Erosion and accretion measures may be biased—certain traces are more likely to survive because the materials are more durable.

Ethical ConcernsEthical concerns arise primarily when there

is a potential for harm to the observed: Negative repercussions from associating with the

researcher because of the researcher’s sponsors, nationality, or outsider status

Invasion of privacy Stress during the research interaction Disclosure of behavior or information to the

researcher resulting in harm to the observed during or after the study