The War with Mexico · Location Why would defending Texas be much easier than defending Mexico? ambassador, to offer Mexico $25 million for Texas, California, and New Mexico. But

New Mexico

Utah

Oregon

Texas

California

Why they

went there

Key events that brought theterritory into the United States

Types of people

who traveled there

406 CHAPTER 13

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

33

The War with Mexico

The United States expanded its

territory westward to stretch from

the Atlantic to the Pacific coast.

Today, one-third of all Americans

live in the areas added to the

United States in 1848.

James K. Polk

manifest destiny

Zachary Taylor

Bear Flag Revolt

Winfield Scott

Treaty of GuadalupeHidalgo

Mexican Cession

ONE AMERICAN’S STORYHenry Clay sneered, “Who is James K. Polk?” Clay had just

learned the name of the man nominated by Democrats to run

against him for president in 1844. “A mistake!” answered

Washington insiders.

News of Polk’s nomination was flashed

to the capital by the newly invented

telegraph machine. People were convinced

that the machine didn’t work. How could

the Democrats choose Polk? A joke!

Polk was America’s first “dark horse,” a

candidate who received unexpected

support. The Democrats had nominated

this little-known man only when they

could not agree on anyone else.

Still, Polk wasn’t a complete nobody. He had been governor of

Tennessee and served seven terms in Congress. Polk was committed to

national expansion. He vowed to annex Texas and take over Oregon.

When the votes were counted, James Knox Polk became the 11th

president of the United States. As you will read in this section, after his

election Polk looked for ways to expand the nation.

Americans Support Manifest DestinyThe abundance of land in the West seemed to hold great promise forAmericans. Although populated with Native Americans and Mexicans,those lands were viewed by white settlers as unoccupied. ManyAmericans wanted to settle those lands themselves, and they worriedabout competition from other nations. Mexico occupied the southwestlands, and Britain shared the northwest Oregon Territory with theUnited States. Many Americans believed that the United States was

Taking Notes

Use your chart totake notes aboutOregon, NewMexico, andCalifornia.

James Polk

CALIFORNIA STANDARDS

8.5.2 Know the changing boundariesof the United States and describe therelationships the country had with itsneighbors (current Mexico andCanada) and Europe, including theinfluence of the Monroe Doctrine,and how those relationships influ-enced westward expansion and theMexican-American War.

8.8.2 Describe the purpose, chal-lenges, and economic incentives asso-ciated with westward expansion,including the concept of ManifestDestiny (e.g., the Lewis and Clarkexpedition, accounts of the removalof Indians, the Cherokees' "Trail ofTears," settlement of the GreatPlains) and the territorial acquisitionsthat spanned numerous decades.

8.8.6 Describe the Texas War forIndependence and the Mexican-American War, including territorialsettlements, the aftermath of thewars, and the effects the wars had onthe lives of Americans, includingMexican Americans today.

destined to stretch across the continent from the Atlantic Ocean to thePacific Ocean. In 1845, a newspaper editor named John O’Sullivan gavea name to that belief.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

Our manifest destiny [is] to overspread and possess the whole of thecontinent which Providence [God] has given us for the development of thegreat experiment of liberty and . . . self-government.

John O’Sullivan, United States Magazine and Democratic Review

John O’Sullivan used the word manifest to meanclear or obvious. The word destiny means events sureto happen. Therefore, manifest destiny suggestedthat expansion was not only good but bound to hap-pen—even if it meant pushing Mexicans and NativeAmericans out of the way. After Polk’s election in1844, manifest destiny became government policy.

The term “manifest destiny” was new, but the ideawas not. By the 1840s, thousands of Americans hadmoved into the Oregon Territory. Since 1818,Oregon had been occupied jointly by the UnitedStates and Britain. In his campaign, Polk hadtalked of taking over all of Oregon. “Fifty-fourforty or fight!” screamed one of his slogans. Theparallel of 54° 40’ N latitude was the northernboundary of the shared Oregon Territory.

Rather than fight for all of Oregon, however,Polk settled for half. In 1846, the United States andGreat Britain agreed to divide Oregon at the 49thparallel. This agreement extended the boundary linealready drawn between Canada and the UnitedStates. Today this line still serves as the borderbetween much of the United States and Canada.

Troubles with MexicoPolk had good reason for avoiding war with Britain over Oregon. By1846, he had much bigger troubles brewing with Mexico over Texas.

In 1845, Congress admitted Texas as a slave state, in spite of Northernobjections to the spread of slavery. However, Mexico still claimed Texasas its own. Mexico angrily viewed this annexation as an act of war. Tomake matters worse, Texas and Mexico could not agree on the officialborder between them. Texas claimed the Rio Grande, a river south ofSan Antonio, as its southern boundary. Mexico insisted on the Nueces(noo•AY•sis) River as the border of Texas. The difference in the distancebetween the two rivers was more than 100 miles at some points. Manythousands of miles of territory were at stake.

Mexico said it would fight to defend its claim. Hoping to settle the dispute peacefully, Polk sent John Slidell, a Spanish-speaking

VancouverLine of 1846

Treaty Line, 1819

VancouverIsland

MEXICANTERRITORY

BRITISHNORTH

AMERICA

OREGONTERRITORY

UNITEDSTATESP A C I F I C

O C E A N

Colu m bia

R.

Miss

ouri R.

Fraser

R.

S nak e R .

49°N

54°40'N

42°N

British territory under 1846 treaty

Oregon, 1846

U. S. territoryunder 1846 treaty

“Our manifestdestiny [is] to . . .possess the wholeof the continent.”

John O’Sullivan

Manifest Destiny 407

A. DrawingConclusionsWhat were thepositives andnegatives of theidea of manifestdestiny?A. PossibleResponsesPositives includethe expansion ofdemocracy on thecontinent. Thenegatives includepushing Mexicansand NativeAmericans out ofthe territory.

B. Reading a MapUse the map onpage 408 to findthe locations ofthe disputedborder betweenTexas and Mexico.

FortU.S. forcesMexican forcesU.S. victoryMexican victoryModern Texas border

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500 Miles

1,000 Kilometers

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Tropic of Cancer

OREGON TERRITORY

UNORGANIZED TERRITORY

DISPUTED TERRITORY

M E X I C O

U N I T E D S T A T E S

T E X A S

Monterrey,Sept. 21–24, 1846

Veracruz,Mar. 9–27, 1847

Mexico City,Sept. 13–14, 1847

Buena Vista,Feb. 22–23, 1847

San Diego, Dec. 6, 1846

Los Angeles, Jan. 8–10, 1847

Bear Flag RevoltFt. Leavenworth

Bent’s Fort

New Orleans

San Antonio

Santa Fe

CorpusChristi

Matamoros

Mazatlán Tampico

Saltillo

Santa Barbara

San Francisco

Sonoma

Monterey (seized, July 7, 1846)

Scott

Santa

Scott

Kearny

Kear

ny

Kearny

Frém

ont

SantaAnna

Scott

Anna

Taylor

R ed R.

Rio

Grande

G i la R.

A r k a nsas R.

Mis

siss

ippi

R.

NuecesR .

M issouri R.

Co l o rado R.

Sac

ra

mento R .

G u l f o f M e x i c o

P A C I F I CO C E A N G

ul fo f

Ca l i f o r n i a

A symbol of the Bear FlagRevolt, this flag has a grizzlybear and a star made withblackberry juice. The revoltdeclared California inde-pendent from Mexico.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps1. Movement About how far did General Kearny’s

troops move to reach San Diego?2. Location Why would defending Texas be much easier

than defending Mexico?

ambassador, to offer Mexico $25 million for Texas, California, and NewMexico. But Slidell’s diplomacy failed.

Believing that the American people supported his expansion plans, Polkwanted to force the issue with Mexico. He purposely ordered GeneralZachary Taylor to station troops on the northern bank of the Rio Grande.This river bank was part of the disputed territory. Viewing this as an act ofwar, Mexico moved an army into place on the southern bank. On April 25,1846, a Mexican cavalry unit crossed the Rio Grande. They ambushed anAmerican patrol and killed or wounded 16 American soldiers.

When news of the attack reached Washington, Polk sent a rousingwar message to Congress, saying, “Mexico has invaded our territory andshed American blood upon American soil.” Two days later, Congressdeclared war. The War with Mexico had begun. Thousands of volun-teers, mostly from western states, rushed to enlist in the army. SantaAnna, who was president of Mexico, built up the Mexican army.

However, Americans had mixed reactions to Polk’s call for war. Illinoisrepresentative Abraham Lincoln questioned the truthfulness of the pres-ident’s message and the need to declare war. Northeasterners questionedthe justice of men dying in such a war. Slavery became an issue in thedebates over the war. Southerners saw expansion into Texas as an oppor-tunity to extend slavery and to increase their power in Congress. To

408

The War with Mexico, 1846–1847

SkillbuilderAnswers1. about 1,500miles2. Texas has onlyone coast todefend, whileMexico has two.

C. AnalyzingCauses How didthe War withMexico start?C. Answer a clashbetween Mexicanand Americantroops near theRio Grande

prevent this from happening, antislavery representatives introduced a billto prohibit slavery in any lands taken from Mexico. Frederick Douglass,the abolitionist, summarized the arguments.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

The determination of our slaveholding President to prosecute the war, andthe probability of his success in wringing from the people men and money tocarry it on, is made evident, . . . None seem willing to take their stand forpeace at all risks; and all seem willing that the war should be carried on insome form or other.

Frederick Douglass in The North Star, January 21, 1848

Despite opposition, the United States plunged into war. In May 1846,General Taylor led troops into Mexico. Many Americans thought itwould be easy to defeat the Mexicans, and the war would end quickly.

Capturing New Mexico and CaliforniaNot long after the war began, General Stephen Kearny (KAHR•nee)—a U.S. Army officer—and his men left Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, withorders to occupy New Mexico. Then they were to continue west toCalifornia. As his troops marched along the Santa Fe Trail, they sangsongs like this one.

A VOICE FROM THE PAST

Old Colonel Kearny, you can bet, Will keep the boys in motion, Till Yankee Land includes the sand On the Pacific Ocean.

Six weeks and 650 hot and rugged miles later, Kearny’s army enteredNew Mexico. Using persuasion instead of force, he convinced the Mexicantroops that he meant to withdraw.This allowed him to takeNew Mexico without firing a shot. Then Kearny and asmall force of soldiers marched on toward California,which had only 8,000 to 12,000 Mexican residents. Theremaining force moved south toward Mexico.

In California, Americans led by the explorer John C.Frémont rebelled against Mexican rule in the Bear FlagRevolt. They arrested the Mexican commander ofNorthern California and raised a crude flag showing agrizzly bear sketched in blackberry juice. The rebelsdeclared California independent of Mexico and named itthe Republic of California. In the fall, U.S. troopsreached California and joined forces with the rebels.Within weeks, Americans controlled all of California.

The Invasion of MexicoThe defeat of Mexico proved far more difficult. TheMexican army was much larger, but the U.S. troops

SANTA ANNA’S LOST LEG

Santa Anna lost his left leg in abattle with the French. In 1842,he held a funeral for his severedlimb. On that day, church andpolitical officials followed thedictator’s leg through thestreets of Mexico City to its finalresting place—an urn placed ona column.

Two years later, an angry mob broke the urn and threwthe leg away. The leg wasrescued by a loyal soldier whotook it home and hid it.

Thirty years later, that soldiervisited Santa Anna and returnedthe bones of his long-lost leg.

Manifest Destiny 409

D. MakingInferences How does thissong support theidea of manifestdestiny?D. PossibleResponseIt suggests thatAmerica’s landshould stretch tothe Pacific Ocean.

were led by well-trained officers. American forces invaded Mexicofrom two directions.

General Taylor battled his way south from Texas toward the city ofMonterrey in northern Mexico. On February 22, 1847, his 4,800 troopsmet General Santa Anna’s 15,000 Mexican soldiers near a ranch calledBuena Vista. After the first day of fighting, Santa Anna sent Taylor a noteoffering him a chance to surrender. Taylor declined. At the end of the sec-ond bloody day of fighting, Santa Anna reported that “both armies havebeen cut to pieces.” However, it was Santa Anna who retreated after theBattle of Buena Vista. The war in the north of Mexico was over.

In southern Mexico, fighting continued. A second force led by GeneralWinfield Scott landed at Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico and battledinland toward Mexico City. Outside the capital, Scott met fierce resistanceat the castle of Chapultepec (chuh•POOL•tuh•pek). About 1,000 soldiersand 100 young military cadets bravely defended the fortress. Despite theirdetermined resistance, Mexico City fell to Scott in September 1847. As hewatched, a Mexican officer sighed and said, “God is a Yankee.”

The Mexican CessionOn February 2, 1848, the war officially ended with the Treaty of GuadalupeHidalgo (gwah•duh•LOOP•ay hih•DAHL•go). In this treaty, Mexico rec-ognized that Texas was part of the United States, and the Rio Grande was theborder between the nations. Mexico also ceded, or gave up, a vast region

100°W

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C A N A D AO

r ig

i na

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C

ol o

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s

Gulf of Mexico

A T L AN T I COCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN

LOUISIANAPURCHASE

Bought from France, 1803

OREGONTERRITORY

From Great Britain, 1846

MEXICAN CESSIONFrom Mexico by Treaty ofGuadalupe Hidalgo, 1848

TEXAS ANNEXATIONAnnexed Independent Republic, 1845

GADSDEN PURCHASEBought from Mexico, 1853

FLORIDA CESSIONFrom Spain, 1819

From Great Britainby Treaty of Paris, 1783

Ceded by Great Britain,

Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 1842

Ceded by

Great Britain, 1818

Ceded to

Great Britain, 1818

Ceded by

Spain, 1818

1810 1813

Annexed by

United States

Modern U.S.boundaries shown.

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300 Miles

600 Kilometers

BackgroundGeneral WinfieldScott had becomea national heroduring the Warof 1812.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Maps1. Region How many states or parts of states were created

by all the lands added after Polk's election in 1844?2. Region Which addition to the United States after 1783

added the greatest area of land?

410

Growth of the United States, 1783–1853

SkillbuilderAnswers1. all or part of 14 states2. LouisianaPurchase

Manifest Destiny 411

known as the Mexican Cession. (See the map on page 410.)Together with Texas, this land amounted to almost one-half ofMexico. The loss was a bitter defeat for Mexico, particularlybecause many Mexicans felt that the United States had pro-voked the war in the hope of gaining Mexican territory.

In return, the United States agreed to pay Mexico $15million. The United States would also pay the $3.25 millionof claims U.S. citizens had against Mexico. Finally, it alsopromised to protect the approximately 80,000 Mexicans liv-ing in Texas and the Mexican Cession.

Mexicans living in the United States saw the conquest oftheir land differently. Suddenly they were a minority in anation with a strange language, culture, and legal system. Atthe same time, they would make important contributions totheir new country. A rich new culture resulted from theblend of many cultures in the Mexican Cession.

“From Sea to Shining Sea”The last bit of territory added to the continental UnitedStates was a strip of land across what is now southern NewMexico and Arizona. The government wanted the land as alocation for a southern transcontinental railroad. In 1853,Mexico sold the land—called the Gadsden Purchase—tothe United States for $10 million.

On July 4, 1848, in Washington, President Polk laid the cor-nerstone of a monument to honor George Washington. InWashington’s day, the western border of the United States was the MississippiRiver. The United States in 1848 now stretched “from sea to shining sea.” InAugust, Polk learned that gold had been found in California. Next, you willread about the California gold rush.

2. Using GraphicsReview the chapter and find five key events to place on a time line as shown. (CST2)

3. Main Ideasa. How did the acquisitionsof Oregon and the MexicanCession relate to the idea ofmanifest destiny? (HI3)

b. Why were some peopleopposed to the War withMexico? (HI3)

c. What does the phrase “sea to shining sea” mean?(HI3)

4. Critical ThinkingComparing Compare thedifferent ways land wasacquired by the United Statesin the period of manifest des-tiny from 1844 to 1853. (HI1)

THINK ABOUT• the acquisition of the

Oregon Territory• lands in the Southwest

1. Terms & NamesExplain the

significance of:• James K. Polk• manifest destiny• Zachary Taylor• Bear Flag Revolt• Winfield Scott• Treaty of

Guadalupe Hidalgo

• Mexican Cession

Section Assessment

ACTIVITY OPTIONS

MATHGEOGRAPHY

In an almanac, find the current population of the states formed from the MexicanCession. Create a graph or a map to display the information. (CST3)

event event event

event event

1846 1848

War with Mexico

3

E. Finding MainIdeas What werethe three mainparts of theTreaty ofGuadalupeHidalgo?E. Answer UnitedStates would pay $15 million toMexico, pay $3.25million in U.S. citi-zen claims againstMexico, and pro-tect Mexicans inTexas and theMexican Cession.

F. MakingInferences Why did theUnited States pay a large pricefor the GadsdenPurchase?F. Answer Theland was neededfor a transconti-nental railroad.

MEXICAN LAND RIGHTS

The treaty of GuadalupeHidalgo was intended topreserve Mexican land rights inareas that Mexico ceded to theUnited States, but common landgrants, or land given to acommunity, remained indispute. In 1891 the U.S.Government established aspecial court to decide landgrant claims. The court’s rulingsleft many Mexican Americanson small farms landless. Inaddition, many MexicanAmericans lost their land inshady business deals.

Some of their descendentscontinue to dispute the claims,and have had some courtvictories in recent years. In 2000,a family in Texas was awardedoil royalties from land it lost in1938. In 2002 the heirs to a landgrant in Colorado won a 21-year court case allowing grazingand timber rights on a 77,000-acre ranch.