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The use of the glissando in piano solo and concertocompositions
from Domenico Scarlatti to George Crumb
Item Type text; Dissertation-Reproduction (electronic)
Authors Lin, Shuennchin
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THE USE OF THE GUSSANDO IN PIANO SOLO AND CONCERTO
COMPOSITIONS FROM DOMENICO SCARLATH TO GEORGE CRUMB
by
Shuennchin Lin
Copyright © Shuennchin Lin 1997
A Document Submitted to the Faculty of the
SCHOOL OF MUSIC AND DANCE
bi Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
WITH A MAJOR IN PERFORMANCE
In the Graduate College
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
1997
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UMX Number: 980S783
Copyright 1997 by-Lin, Shuennchin
All rights reserved.
UMI Microform 9806783 Copyright 1997, by UMI Company. All rights
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This microform eiiition is protected against miauthorized
copying under Title 17, United States Code.
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2
THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA ® GRADUATE COLLEGE
As members of the Final Examination Committee, we certify that
we have
read the dissertation prepared by SHUENNCHIN LIN
entitled THE USE OF THE 6LISSAND0 IN PIANO SOLO AND CONCERTO
COMPOSITIONS FROM DOMENICO SCARLATTI TO GEORGE CRUMB
and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the
dissertation
requirement for the Degree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
icholas Zumbro
Rosenblatt
Dat^ r
Date
Date
Date
Date
Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent
upon the candidate's submission of the final copy of the
dissertation to the Graduate College.
I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared
under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling
the dissertation requirement.
Dissertation Direc Nicholas Zumbro Date
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3
STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This document has been submitted in partial fulfillment of
requirements for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona
and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to
borrowers under rules of the Library.
Brief quotations from this document are allowable without
special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source
is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or
reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted
by the copyright holder.
SIGNED: __L_1
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4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF EXAMPLES 5 LIST OF TABLES 8 LISTOFHGURES 9 ABSTRACT
10
Chapter 1. Introduction 12
Chapter 2. The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries 22 Domenico
Scarlatti 23 Ludwig van Beethoven and Carl Maria von Weber 27 Franz
Liszt 32 Johannes Brahms and Camille Saint-Sa&is 42 Bedrich
Smetana, Mily Balakirev, Edvard Grieg, and Edward Elgar 47
Chapter 3. The Twentieth Century 55 Oaude Debussy and Maurice
Ravel 56 Manuel de Falla and B&a Bartdk 67 Heitor Villa-Lobos,
George Gershwin, and Aaron Copland 76 Igor Stravinsky, Serge
FrokoBev, and Dmitri Shostakovich 88 Paul Hindemith, Michael
Tippett, Olivier Messiaen, and Benjamin
Britten 102 George Crumb 110
Chapter 4. Conclusions 118 The Use of the Glissando 118 Summary
of the Glissando's Historical Development 120 The Future of the
Glissando 122
APPENDIX A: Examples of Glissandi 125 APPENDIX B: The Final
Spin—25,000 B. C 133 REFERENCES 139
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LIST OF EXAMPLES
Example 1: Slide 14 Example 2: F. Qiopiiv Poloaaiser Op. 53 21
Example 3: D. Scarlatti, Sonafii, K. 468 23 Example 4: D.
Scarlatti, Sonafca, K. 487 24 Examples:
D.Scarlatti,Sonata,K.487.(manuscript) 24 Example 6: D. Scarlatti,
Sonafa, K. 379 25 Example 7: L. van Beethoven, Kano Concerto No. 1
in C Major, Op. 15,1 27 Example 8: L. van Beetfioven, Kano Sonata,
Op. 53, Rondo 28 Example 9: C. M. von Weber, Piano Concerto No. 1,
Op. 11, Finale. 29 Example 10: C. M. von Weber, Concertstiick, Op.
79 31 Example 11: C. M. von Weber, Concertstiickr Op. 79 31 Example
12: F. Lisz^ Magyar Dallok—UngarisAe National-Melodien,
No. 9. 33 Example 13: F. Liszt, Paganini Etude No. 5 "La
Chasse." 34 Example 14: F. Liszt, Hungarian Fantasia 35 Example 15:
F. Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. 36 Example 16: F. Lisz^
Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15. 36 Example 17: F. Liszt Mephisto Waltz
No. 1 39 Example 18: F. Liszt, Concerto in A Major. 40 Example 19:
J. Brahms, Paganini Variations, I, Var. 13 43 Example 20: J.
Brahms, Ohgarische Tanze No. 8. 44 Example 21: C. Saint-Saens,
Piano Concerto No. 5, HI 46 Example 22: C. Saint-Saens, Aquarium
from Le Camaval des animaux. 47 Example 23: B.Smeiana, Ballade in E
minor. 48 Example 24: B. Smetana, Polka in A minor. 48 Example 25:
M. Balaldrev, Islamey. 50 Example 26: E. Grieg, Hailing
(Nonvegischer Tanz) from Lyric Pieces,
Op. 71 51 Example 27: E. Elgar, Concert Allegro. 52 Example 28:
C. Debussy, Feux d'artiBce. 57 Example 29: C. Debussy, Etude, No.
6. 58 Example 30: C. Debussy, Pour le Piano, Prelude. 59 Example
31: C. Debussy, Suite Bergamasque, Menuet 59 Example 32: M. Ravel,
Jieux d'eau 62 Example 33: M. Ravel, Una barque sw L'oc6an 63
Example 34: M. Ravel, A/inaradb de/^radoso. 64 Example 35: M.
Ravel, Gaspard dela Nuit Ondine. 64 Example 36: M, Ravel, Les
Entretiens de la Belle et de la Bite from
MaMirel'Oye. 65 Example 37: M. Ravel, Concerto for Left Hand. 66
Example 38: M. Ravel, Gaspard de la Nuit Ondine. 67
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LIST OF EXAMPLES- Continued
Example 39: M. de Falla, Fantasia Baetica 68 Example 40:
B.Bart6k, Rhapsody, Op. 1 71 Example 41: B. Bartdk, Tanz-Suite, L
72 Example 42: B. Bartdk, Sonata, I. 73 Example 43: B. Bart6k,
Piano Concerto No. 1,1 73 Example 44: B. Bartdk, Piano Concerto No.
1, n 74 Example 45: B. Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 2,1 75 Example
46: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 3, IE. 76 Example 47: H.
Villa-Lobos, Simples Coletanea, Rhodante. 78 Example 48: H.
Villa-Lobos, Dansa Do Indio Branco from Suite Ciclo
Brasileiro. 78 Example 49: H. Villa-Lobos, Dansa Do Indio Branco
from Suite Ciclo
Brasileiro. 79 Example 50: H. Villa-Lobos, Moreninha from Suite
Prole Do Bebe. 80 Example 51: H. Villa-Lobos, Rudepoema 81 Example
52: H. Villa-Lobos, Momo Precoce. 82 Example 53: G, Gershwin,
Rhapsody in Blue. 85 Example 54: G. Gershwin, Concerto inF,l 85
Example 55: A. Copland, Piano Concerto. 87 Example 56: A. Copland,
Piano Fantasy. 88 Example 57: L Stravinslg^, Trois Mouvements de P
t̂rouchka, IH 90 Example 58: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, II
91 Example 59: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, II 92 Example
60: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5,1 92 Example 61: S.
Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 1, L 93 Example 62: S. Prokofiev,
Piano Concerto No. 2, III 94 Example 63: S. Prokofiev, Piano
Concerto No. 3,1 94 Example 64: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 3,
HI 95 Example 65: B. Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 2, n 95 Example 66:
S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 4, HI 96 Example 67: S. Prokofiev,
Sarcasmes, Op. 17, No. 4 97 Example 68: S. Prokofiev, Toccata, Op.
11 97 Example 69: S. Prokofiev, Suggestion Diabolique, Op. 4, No. 4
98 Example 70: S. Prokofiev, Ten Pieces, Prelude, Op. 12, No. 7 99
Example 71: D. Shostakovich, Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 12 101 Example
72: D. Shostakovich, Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 12 101 Example 73: D.
Shostakovich, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 35, IV 102 Example 74: P.
Hindemith, 1922 Suite (Or Klavier, II 103 Example 75: M. Tippet,
Piano Sonata No. 2 105 Example 76: O. Messiaen, Pne/ude. Les sons
impalpables du reve 107 Example 77: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto
No. 5, V 107
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LIST OF EXAMPLES- Continued
Example 78: O. Messiaen, Oe de Feu 1 108 Example 79: B. Britten,
Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 13 109 Example 80: B. Britten, Diversion
on a Theme for Left Hand and Orchestra,
Op. 21 110 Example 81: G. Crumb, Spring-Fire (Aries) from
Makrokosmos L 112 Example 82: G. Crumb, Tora! Tora! Tora! (Cadenza
ApocaIittica)from
Makrokosmos II. 112 Example 83: F. Rzewski, The People United
Will Never Be Defeated! 124
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: The Transposition Process in F. Liszf s La Chasse. 34
Table 2: Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Die Schlittschuhlaufer. 38
Table 3: The Function of Qissandi Used in F. Liszt's Works 41 Table
4: Summary of F. Liszt's Examples 42 Table 5: Examples in the
Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries in Four
Groups Based on Its Type 53 Table 6: M. Ravel's Kano Works
Between 1901 and 1917 60 Table 7: Glissandi in M. Ravel's Concerto
for Left Hand. 66 Table 8: Sxmimary of H. Villa-Lobos's Examples 83
Table 9: Pianist-Composers' Dates of Deatfi around the First Half
of the
Twentieth Century 86 Table 10: Summary of S. Prokofiev's
Examples 99 Table 11: Examples in the Twentieth Century in Four
Groups Based on Its
T5rpe 113 Table 12: Examples of the Black-and-White Glissando
114 Table 13: Glissandi with Tempo fodications in The
Twentieth-Century
Works 115 Table 14: Examples Used Right Before the End of Each
Piece/Movement... 115 Table 15: Special fridication with the Use of
Glissandi 116 Table 16: TTie Ntmibers of Examples 118
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USTOFHGURES
Figure 1.1,12: The Basic Executions of the Glissando 18 Figure
2: The Hand Position for the Glissando without the Destination
Marked 18 Figure 3: Fingered Version of the Example from D.
Scarlatti's Sonata, K. 487.. 25 Figure 4: Three Types of Glissandi
Used in F. Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody
No. 10. 35 Figure 5: The Harmonic Structure on the Glissandi
Used in F. Liszt's
Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15. 37 Frgure 6: The Glissando on a Row
in A. Copland's Piano Fantasy. 88 Figure 7: The T5^es of the Works
in the Use of Glissandi 120
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ABSTRACT
This document is a thorough study of the glissando throughout
its
chronological development, consisting of an examination of
differences in
the glissando's functions, types, and executions. Examples are
extracted from
piano solo and piano concerto compositions, which were written
by
composers from Domenico Scarlatti, bom in 1685, to George Crumb,
bom in
1929.
The glissando was used as a formal compositional device in
the
eighteenth century, beginning with the works of Domenico
Scarlatti. It
evolved from the Schleifer and was omamental and occasionally
melodic in
function. Composers of the Qassical period, like Ludwig van
Beethoven and
Carl Maria von Weber, expanded the device into octaves, which
before the
end of the nineteenth century was adopted by Bedrich Smetana,
Joharmes
Brahms, and Mily Balakirev. Franz Liszt produced many two-hand
and
double-note glissandi, and his output of glissandi is the most
numerous in
the entire piano repertoire.
In twentieth-century, B^a Bart6k produced a dry effect in the
glissando,
while Prokofiev produced the most numerous glissandi in this
century.
Hindemitti wrote an unusual form of black-and-white glissando;
Tippett's
example is of the "fanfare" effect; and Britten contributed many
glissandi in a
single work, to a degree perhaps exceeded only by Liszt's works.
For
nationalistic composers, like Manuel de Falla and Heitor
Villa-Lobos, the
glissando is a fine device to express the feeling of ethnic
emotions, such as
joyful and energetic. Besides, the use of the black-key
glissando gives
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11
composers a fine application for impressionistic purposes, since
its pentatonic
orientation is easy to liken to images of nature: water, wind,
etc. Such
examples are found in the works of Qaude Debussy, Maurice Ravel,
and
others. Nonetheless, it becomes less crucial in this harmonic
consideration in
the works of more recent composers, in whose works the concept
of tone-
dusters or just a "noise" is revealed.
This thesis also includes two appendices, one contains a chart
of 473
glissandi categorized by function, and the second, an original
composition by
the author, which includes numerous glissandi in various
types.
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Introductioii
The piano has gone through many years of development since
the
invention of the "escape" mechanism in the early eighteenth
century.
Although our concert instrtmient does not appear imtil the early
nineteenth
century, pianistic techniques were refined from ancestral
keyboard
instruments such as the virginal, clavichord, harpsichord, and
fortepiano.
The development of the piano's mechanism and techniques, as well
as the
personal aesthetics of various composers, have had a direct
influence on the
evolution of certain compositional devices which are recognized
as being
characteristic of personal or historical genres as well. Those
pianistic devices
which have been viewed by recent composers as strongly
associated with the
"traditional" include glissandi, trills, octave runs, staggered
octaves, parallel
passages, tremolos, broken chords, and vibrato-chord passages.
In the most
avant garde works, the use of these devices is less clear: some
are distorted,
others are dispersed or never used. Instead, extended "non
traditional"
technical devices such as tone clusters, muting or plucking of
strings, banging
both inside and outside the instrument, wiping on the strings,
and vocalizing
are utilized to enrich the piano repertoire.
Composers are still searching for new sounds; pertinent examples
can
be foimd in works such as William Bolcom's Twelve New Etudes
(1966),
George Crumb's Makrokosmos I (1972) and H (1973), and Gyorgy
Ligeti's
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13
Etudes pour Piano, premier livre (1985).^ The old pianistic
devices continue
to be developed, while new techniques or new combinations of the
old
pianistic devices and extended techniques are invented by
contemporary
composers.
The understanding derived from a thorough study of the
glissando
throughout its chronological development, consisting of an
examination of
distinct differences in the glissando's functions, ranges,
executions, and tj^es,
can support the viability of this traditional device for future
piano
composition. In this study, examples are extracted from piano
solo and
concerto compositions; piano chamber music, piano duos, and
piano duets,
will not be discussed.^
The term, glissando, which is derived from an Italianized French
verb
meaning "to slide," refers to a quick scale produced by single
(later multiple)
finger(s). This device could be notated either by written-out
smaller-notes
with appropriate markings—such as finger numbers or the word
"glissando"—or by a diagonal line between the upper and lower
notes; the
latter is a very common indication used by twentieth-century
composers.
Moreover, some glissandi are indicated by connecting the
ligatures between
the upper and lower notes, but omitting the middle notes.
Examples without
^Carlos Chavez also wrote etudes for the piano. Four New Etudes
(1952). Different from the etudes mentioned in context, Chavez's
etudes, based on the traditional keyboard plajang, deal with the
techniques of "pointillism" and "dodecaphonism."
^This survey is intended to be complete as possible, drawing on
the works by composers who were bom between Scarlatti and Crumb
(1685-1929). All examples found are listed in Appendix A. However,
not every example will be discussed or considered in detail because
they are less significant or similar to other examples.
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14
the indication of the glissando's destination note are also
fotind in modem
works, obviously assiiming a new kind of function.
The Functions.̂ 1. embellishment 2. melody, 3. virtuosic effect,
4.
impressionism, 5. programmatic expression, 6. backward motion,
and 7.
modulation tool.
The glissando is an offshoot of the "slide" (Schleifer) (Ex.
1).^
Inasmuch as the slide was one of the most common embellishments
in the
Example 1: Slide.
early keyboard repertoire,^ the early glissando evolved from
this device.
Gradually, the melodic usage of glissandi became common. As
other pianistic
techniques were created profusely during the nineteenth century,
the
glissando came to be used as a virtuosic effect by virtuoso
pianists. This kind
of usage has been reinforced continuously, while some glissandi
were in the
manner of impressionism or programmatic expression. Another
function of
the glissando is 'T?ackward motion," which is always followed,
or preceded, by
P. E. Bach implicitly suggested the function of ornaments are:
1. to connect notes— melodic function, 2. enlivening—colorific
function, 3. giving weight and emphasis—rhythmic function, 4.
contributing to a disposition "sad or joyful or otherwise"—melo^c
or harmonic function. (See The New Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians, "OTmanents,§VU: Summarized by Function," 13:859-860.)
However, this study does not follow his categories since he was
concerned with ornaments in general. The study of glissandi intends
to be more specific.
'̂This ornament; also known as the elevation, whole-fall, slur
or double backfall, consists of a little conjunct run of two
accessory notes leading to its main note." The New Grove Dictionary
of Music and Musicians, "Ornaments, §11: Appoggiaturas,"
13:834-835.
^Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing
Keyboard Instruments, 136-142.
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15
a fingered ascending/descending passage whose range is similar
to the
glissando. Moreover, some composers used the glissando as a tool
for
suddenly changing the tonality between the white-key and
black-key
harmonies. In addition, many examples have more than one of
these
functions.
The Ranges. As a type of primitive ornament, the range of
the
glissando was quite narrow. This resulted from the limited
capacity of the
early keyboard instruments and because of relatively primitive
keyboard
playing skills. Accommodating the expansion of the piano's
compass,^
examples found in the eighteenth century are only within two
octaves, but
the range expands to four-and-a-half octaves in the works of the
Qassical
period. The composes of the Romantic period expanded it again to
five
octaves, and an example of five-and-a-half octaves is also
foxmd. This range
reaches its maximum in the twentieth century; with the
appearance of the
black-key glissando, the use of the entire keyboard becomes
possible in
modem piano works.
The Directions. Since the old slides mostly were ascenciing,^
the
glissando at first followed tiiis model of execution.® The
descending glissando
began to be used by the early nineteenth-century composers, and
examples of
®Of the compass of the two existing specimens of Bartolomo
Christofori's instruments: one has four octaves and the other,
four-and-a-half. Mozart's piano has five octaves. In 1790,
Broadwood made pianos with five-and-a-half octaves and, in 1794,
with six octaves. Liszt's Erard piano has six octaves. The works of
Schtimaim and Giopin required nothing beyond six-and-a-half
octaves. The present piano usually has seven-and-a-quarter octaves.
The extra notes are added to the bass of some large grands by
Bdsendorfer, which has seven-and-three-quarters or even eight
octaves.
G. Hamilton, Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, 59.
®See Scarlatti's examples in Chapter 2.
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16
continuously descending and ascending glissandi are fotmd in the
mid-
nineteenth century. At the same time, the two-hand glissando
appeared, first
in the same direction, and later in contrary directions, which
even applied to
the two-hand octave-glissandi and black-and-white glissandi. In
works with
nationalistic characteristics, ascending examples are more
frequent. This
perhaps is because of the influence of folk music.
The Types. Aside from purely musical motivation, the
character
of a composer's own instruments, hands, and plajring techniques,
led to
various types of the glissando that included: 1. white-key
glissandi, 2. octave-
glissandi, 3. two-hand glissandi, 4. double-note glissandi, 5.
black-key
glissandi, and 6. black-and-white glissandi.^
The octave-glissando began to be used in the early nineteenth
century.
Since it was not always easy to produce on every early piano, an
alternative
was frequently provided by the composers themselves or pianists;
the most
common one is allotting them to both hands. However, the
experiments of
incorporating extremes did not stop with nineteenth-century
composers: an
octave-glissando with another single-note glissando and even two
octave-
glissandi executed simultaneously are foimd in
nineteenth-century works.
Twentieth-century composers seemed to lose enthusiasm for this
kind of
^here is a spectacular type of glissando, the chromatic
glissando, which was created by Carl Tausig. See more details in
the discussion of Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 5 in Chapter 3.
This kind of glissando is rather unusual and unique; it is not
necessary to set up a distinctive category. In addition, in spite
of the distinct difference in timbre and acoustics, the idea of a
glissando "on the strings" is indeed identical to a
chromatic-glisscindo on the keyboard. (In George Crumb's Five
Pieces for Piano, the composer used chromatic scale with the
marking "gliss." to indicate the use of the glissando on the
strings.) Since this kind of glissando requires a different kind of
technique, a discussion of it will not be included in this study.
Another transformation excluded in this study is the vocalized
glissando, such examples are found in Karlheinz Stockhausen's
fGavierstiickeXnand George Crumb's The Phantom Gondolier (from
Makrokosmos).
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17
glissando, since it remains hard to execute on modem pianos. The
era of the
virtuoso pianist-composer had all but died out by the
mid-twentieth century;
and as composers seek equally effective but easier gestures,
these might cause
fewer examples of the "extreme" glissando to be produced.
The two-hand glissando was used beginning in the nineteenth
century.
This idea may have been derived from the alternatives for the
octave-
glissando, since examples of two-hand gUssandi foimd in this
century are all
in octaves. This is not always true for twentieth-century
composers: one
example found is in ninths. Another variation foimd in
twentieth-century
works is that of the black-and-white glissando; that is, when
the black-key
glissando is initiated, some composers create a two-hand effect,
combining it
with a white-key glissando.
The double-note glissando is defined as a glissando with two
notes in
fixed intervals—excluding octaves—executed by one hand. Examples
are
found in the mid-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Compared to the
widespread use of the two-hand version, very few composers used
this kind
of glissando. The reasons perhaps are the same as for the
relative infrequency
of the octave-glissando, although the technique for the
double-note glissando
is easier than the octave-glissando.
The black-key glissando, which outlines the pentatonic scale,
weis used
beginning with the impressionist composers. Since then, the
black-key
glissando has been adopted by many twentieth-century composers.
Also, the
use of the combination of black- and white-key glissandi was
commenced in
the early part of this century. As the effect became more
common, the black-
and-white glissando could be also executed in contrary
directions.
-
The Techniques. The execution of glissandi frequently accents
the
initial note (or interval), and the destination note is on the
beat (Fig. 1.1).
Occasionally, especially in a fast tempo or if an acrobatic-like
effect is desired,
the last few notes even are not depressed; there might be a
little break
between the destination note and flie scale covered by pedal.
However, in the
case of a destination note which is not on the beat, generally,
it requires
depressing all the notes (Fig. 1.2). For the glissando without
the destination
marked, the hand is upwards after the scale in the approximate
pitch, and
leaves the keyboard entirely (Fig. 2).
Figure 1.1,1.2: The Basic Executions of the Glissando.
Figure 1.1 Rgure. 12.
Figure 2: The Hand Position for the Glissando without the
Destination Marked.
hand position
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19
The speeds of glissandi are varied: not every glissando must be
played
rhj^thmically evenly; in some examples, accellerando or
ritardando is applied
to the execution, and some examples naturally speed up near the
end. The
d3mamics are also varied: a brilliant sonority is the
glissando's usual effect,
but there are some examples marked "delicatissimo"or even
coupled with
the use of the una corda pedal. Glissandi with the crescendo or
diminuendo
marked are quite common; for them, the weight of hands is
gradually
changed.
The use of the damper pedal is usual with the execution of
the
glissando, but this is not always true. Early examples demand a
stylistic
interpretation, and some modem examples need a dry percussive
effect; the
damper pedal does not serve these purposes appropriately.
The octave-glissando and the double-note glissando require a
similar
technique; the difference is a matter of the interval size, and
the fifth finger
poses an inevitable disadvantage for the octave-glissando, owing
to its
inherent weakness. To execute them, the palm of the hands should
be
shaped over the reqtiired interval. Also, there should be enough
height for
the fingers to depress the keys, bi the case of
octave-glissandi, the use of the
thirnib with the fourth and fifth together, in the descending
glissando in the
right hand or the ascending glissando on the left hand, can make
the result
more secure.
The execution of the black-key glissando requires a greater key
contact
between finger(s) and keys. Use of more than one finger often
makes it easier
to depress the keys evenly. Like the octave-glissando, the
fingers need
sufficient height to depress the black keys, and some pianists
actually stand up
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20
in order to place the weight of fingers on the keys efficiently.
For the black-
and-white key glissando in an identical register, using only one
hand
sometimes is more convenient and shows pianist's virtuosity
convincingly.
The two-hand glissando, executed in the same direction, requires
the
technique of maintaining the parallel motion of the hands. For
each octave,
one must always be aware whether both hands are still on the
approximate
notes. For executing the black-and-white glissando, generally,
the hands must
be placed closely together so that each hand can support the
other.
The Criticisin. A question of whether the use of the glissando
is
truly required sometimes occurs. In some cases, the indication
given by the
composer is rather clear, but fingering it might be even more
effective; while,
on the other hand, for some passages without any indication of
using
glissandi, using them might be the better choice. Besides, there
are examples
of so-called "quasi-glissando,"io which suggests the passages be
played with
the effect of glissando; here, the use of a "real" glissando
becomes a possibility.
Although described as "dear to the virtuoso" by Qarence G.
Hamilton,!! not every virtuoso pianist-composer used the
glissando in
his/her piano works. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
many of
the best-known composers did not use this device, for instance:
J. S. Bach,
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Franz Schubert Felix
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,
Fr^d^c Chopin, Robert Schtmiann, and Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky.
This might
be because the glissando is characteristically a sort of
acrobatic or virtuoso
!Osuch examples appear in Liszt's Reminiscences de Don Juan
(Mozart), Smetana's Polka in A Major form Vzpominka na Cechy ve
Forme Poiek, Op. 12, ̂ chmaninoff s Piano Concerto No. 4,2nd
movement Kabalevsky's Piano Concerto No. 3, etc.
!!C. G. Hamilton, Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music,
63.
-
gesture, or the fact that these composers' personal musical
styles were not
dedicated to this sort of keyboard exploitation.^^
21
l̂ For instance, Chopin, described as an "Idealizer of the
Virtuoso Element" by Edgar Stillman Kelley, {Chopin The Composer,
45) "the philosopher of the beautiful, fashioned his iridescent
harmonies and mysteriously woven lunar colors upon a
black-and-white instrument" (Abram Oiasins, Speaking of Pianists,
220). His virtuoso pianistic passage-work was largely dependent
upon dexterous finger motion. The glissando does not serve any
function for his harmonic and melodic treatment on the piano. Obs^e
Example 2 (Polonaise, Op. 53), if we ignore the accidental signs,
indeed there are opportunities for the use of the glissando, but
Chopin executed all the scales with the fingers.
Example 2: F. Chopin, Po/oiiaise, Op. 53
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22
CHAPTER2
The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries
The glissando developed from a primitive ornamental form to
an
expanded musical or virtuoso effect during the eighteenth and
nineteenth
centuries. Black-key glissandi did not come into use at this
time, but octave-
glissandi, double-note glissandi, and two-hand glissandi became
a part of the
musical vocabulary of a number of nineteenth-century composers,
and were
passed on to composers of the twentieth century. The evolution
of the
glissando in its aspects of range, function, and execution wUl
be studied in
this chapter.
This sxirvey begins with Domenico Scarlatti, where we find the
first use
of the glissando.^ Following the expansive usage by Ludwig van
Beethoven
and Carl Maria von Weber, the glissando was used even more
lavishly by the
Romantic composers, most notably by Franz Liszt. Other examples
found in
the nineteenth century are by Bedrich Smetana, Johannes Brahms,
Camille
Saint-Sa&is, Nfily Balakirev, Edvard Grieg, and Edward
Elgar; some of their
examples represent virtuosic character, some of them are
nationalistic.
Aside from the composers mentioned above, it would appear
that
other important composers avoided this device, including J. S.
Bach,
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Franz Schubert Felix
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,
Fr^dMc Chopin, and Robert Schtimann. However, in the following
century.
^In Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, 63, Qarence G.
Hamilton illustrated Scarlatti's Sonata, K. 487 as the example when
he addressed the first use of glissandi. However, in Scarlatti's
eeirlier sonata, K. 379, the use of glissandi is also found.
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23
the glissando has not only been used with greater frequency, but
it has been
used in new aesthetic applications.
Domenico Scarlatti
The glissando was apparently first used by Domenico Scarlatti
(1685-
1757), an Italian composer who lived mostly in Spain and
therefore was
isolated from his contemporaries. Scarlatti wrote more than five
himdred
and fifty sonatas for harpsichord, which display fairly modem
types of
technique, such as repeated-notes, cross-overs of hands,
wide-range skips,
virtuoso chordal figures, and glissandi.
Among his nimierous sonatas, examples of glissandi are found
in
three sonatas: K. 379, K. 468, and K. 487. Glissandi used in K.
379 and K. 468
are ornamental in function, while a glissando in K. 487 is
melodic. The
ranges of these glissandi are simply within two octaves: K. 379
is in one
octave, K. 468 is in one-and-a-half octaves, and K. 487 covers
almost two
octaves. To indicate the use of the glissando, the composer
marked "con dedo
solo"(with one finger) in K. 379 and K. 468 (Ex. 3), though
there is no
Example 3: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 468.
appropriate accidental for B-flat. In K. 487, there is no
glissando execution
marked in Scarlatti's manuscript, but in one edition noted in
Qarence G.
Hamilton's Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, this figure
is played as
• Con dedo solo
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24
a glissando.̂ Besides, if we observe Examples 4 and 5 (from
Scarlatti's
manuscript), there are nine thirty-second notes and five
sixty-fourth notes in
one measure in the manuscript The composer did not group them
into any
combination within the meter, which makes the glissando a
possible mode of
execution.
Example 4: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 487.
When we play these works on the piano, the use of the damper
pedal is
imnecessary for these glissandi. Examples of glissandi played
without damper
pedal do not appear again xmtil certain twentieth-century
compositions.^
Moreover, the glissandi in K. 379 and 487 could be more easily
executed by the
fingers instead of being played as glissandi, resulting in two
different kinds of
interpretations: in K. 379, the thirty-second notes can be
divided into two
^Qarence G. Hamilton, Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music,
63.
^An example is B61a Bcirtdk's Tanz-Suite, whidi is dated much
later in 1923. The discussion of it is in Chapter 3.
Example 5: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 487. (manuscript)
-
eighth notes evenly using the fingering of 2-3-1-2-3-4-1-2. This
makes
it easier to accurately reach the following chord (in 3rd) in
the next down beat.
If a glissando is used, the first note (D) of these
thirty-second notes needs to be
played "on the beat" The rest of the notes can be faster than
the written
value and shorter than the total value (two eighth notes),
creating an exotic
effect in this "Minuet" subtitted sonata. In K. 487, tfiis
passage, as a cadence (I
-V -1), could be a simple ascending glissando, or it could be
divided as in the
following figure and played by the fingers.
Figure 3: Fingered Version of the Example firom Scarlatti's
Sonata, K. 487.
There is another kind of execution used in K. 376: in Example 6,
the
destination of the glissando is clearly on the third beat,
hence, the notes on
the second and third beats must be played in a precise
rhythm.
Example 6: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 379.
In K. 468, four glissandi occur continuously in the second
section of
this sonata. Unlike the previous example, these tiiirty-second
notes shotild
be executed only as glissandi, since "con dedo solo" was marked
by the
composer and the destination notes are rather easy to arrive
at.
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26
The idea of quasi gUssandi, which was used later by many
composers,
such as Franz Liszt, Dmitri Kabalevsky, etc., is also revealed
in Scarlatti's
examples. There is no indication of the use of glissandi in the
second section
of K. 379, but the parallel passages imply the same feature. The
use of
glissandi is still appropriate. Nonetheless, if fingering
passages, the sound
should be "queisi-glissandi" to match the earlier passages in
this sonata.
There is not enough evidence to say that no other composer
besides
Scarlatti ever used the glissando during this time, but it is
true that among
Scarlatti's well-known contemporaries, there is no one—^not
Jean-Philippe
Rameau, J. S. Bach, George Frederick Handel, nor C. P. E.
Bach—^who wrote
down the glissando as a formal figure in his keyboard
compositions. The next
use of the glissando, in Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1 in C
Major, Op. 15,
occurred almost fifty years after Scarlatti died. This device
may be a kind of
"gimmick," but firom Scarlatti's examples, which anticipate
examples in later
piano compositions, it proved that the use of the glissando is
viable.
Unlike the slide,̂ the glissando was used infirequently by the
composers
of the Qassical period. There are no examples found in Joseph
Haydn's,
Muzio Qementi's, or Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's keyboard works.
But
during this era, the octave-glissando, which later was regarded
as
"impracticable on modem grands with "English' action,"^ is used
in Ludwig
van Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15, and
Piano Sonata
^Refer to the discussion in Chapter 1.
footnote on the edition of Hans von Bulow and Sigmund Lebert.
New York: G. Schirmer, Inc. 'X. van Beethoven Sonata for the Piano,
Op. 53."
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27
in C Major, Op. 53; Carl Maria von Weber's Kano Concerto No. 1,
Op. 11, and
Concertstiick; and Johann Nepomuk Hummel's Piano Concerto in A
minor.
Op. 85.
Ludwig van Beethoven and Carl Maria von Weber
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) expanded the piano's
technique
and sonority to achieve orchestral effects on the piano.
Technically, he
incessantly exploited the capabilities of the piano such as the
range of
d)mamics, lengthy trills, and octave-glissandi. In his piano
works, not only
the ingenious pianistic figures, but also the inspirational
musical ideas that
gave the following generation an impressive model.
The glissando in Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1 in C Major
(1801) is
used as a fortissimo cadence (V -1) to the recapitulation
section (Ex. 7). This
glissando—^melodic in function—should end on the downbeat (in
measure
346). Therefore it must be performed in tempo, and the value of
each octave
must be even.
Interestingly enough, since the composer did not mark any
indication
of a glissando, how can we know this is a place for an
octave-glissando? (See
Example 7.) A similar question occurs if we look at the scherzo
movement of
Example 7: L. van Beethoven, Piano Concerto No. 1 in C Major,
Op. 15,1.
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28
Beethoven's Piano Trio No. 3 in C minor. Op. 1, No. 3. Both
examples are
fortissimo descending cadences; since they are in quite a fast
tempo, to execute
them either with a two-hand or as an octave-glissando is
foolproof, as the use
of octave runs is impractical for these two passages.^
The example from Sonata, Op. 53 (1805), is also melodic in
function,
and features a descending as well as an ascending line. Again,
the precise
tempo is crucial since each glissando is in two segments, and
the pivot octave-
G must come on the down beat of each measure, bi contrast to the
previous
example, these glissandi should be soimded very softly (the
dynamic
indicated here is pp). On the modem piano, one must use the una
corda
pedal for the elegant quality; use of the damper pedal must be
careful to avoid
a muddy soxmd. However, Beethoven's Viennese piano was well
designed
for the execution of the octave-glissando because of the lighter
action, while
piamst Hans von Bulow, one of Liszt's great pupils, suggested an
easier
version for these glissandi. See Example 8.
Example 8: L. van Beethoven, Piano Sonata, Op. 53, Rondo.
gtUtaniS' V (sempre t C.)
^Example from Hummel's Piano Concerto, Op. 85, presents a
similar situation.
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29
Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826) was best-known as a composer
of
opera and his piano works are relatively tmimportant
Nevertheless, his
explorations of the piano's potential have enriched the piano
repertoire.
Maurice Hinson has observed that Weber's pianistic technique
is:
"characterized by large skips, brilliant passages in diirds,
sixths, octaves,
dramatic crescendos and awkward stretches."^ Weber's major piano
works
include the Concertstuci^ two concertos, four sonatas, more than
eight
variation sets, and many dance pieces. Most of them are
difficult to play.
Among these works, the use of the glissando is fotmd in the
Piano Concerto
No. 1 (1810) and Concertstiick (1821).
Examples found in the last movement of Weber's Piano Concerto
No.
1 are rather tmusual; two octave-glissandi® executed—^in
thirds—by both
hands simultaneously (Ex. 9). These glissandi are extremely
difficult to
Example 9: C. M. von Weber, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 11,
Finale.
play on today's instruments; they may have been practicable at
the time
owing to the composer's large hands, and a lighter touch and
narrower
^Maurice Hinson, Guide to the Pianist's Repertoire, 672.
®For information about the counting of glissandi, refer to the
footnote 1 in Chapter 4.
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30
expanse of the keyboard.^ bi later times, only Johannes Brahms's
Ongaiische
Tanze has a similar example, which was written sixty years
later.^^
"The last, and. unquestionably the most striking of Weber's
compositions for the pianoforte was the Concertstiick."^! This
work, actually
the composer's third piano concerto,^^ is superbly written: it
features frequent
four-part chords covering a tenth, swift chromatic passages,
widening right
hand leaps, octave runs, racing passage work, and the
octave-glissando.
There are four glissandi used in the Concertst&ck, and three
of them are in
octaves. The first glissando occurs in the opening section (Ex.
10). This is a
glissando of a very wide range—^four-and-a-half octaves—^which
is melodic in
function. The first octave-glissando over three-and-a-half
octaves occurs in
the third section, right before the orchestra's second
repetition of the 'Tempo
di Marda." This glissando, as an embellishment grandiosely
punctuates the
orchestra's repeated melody. In the last section, after the
orchestra tutti, this
octave-glissando transposed to a perfect fourth higher and
repeated once,
recalls the composer's acrobatic virtuosity. Since this
glissando is quite
difficult to play on every piano, Franz Liszt suggested two
versions for it; one
^ohn Warrack, Carl Maria von Weber, 99.
difference is that Brahms's example is in contrary directions.
This example will be discussed later in this chapter.
^^Sir Julius Benedict, Gari Maria von Weber, 158.
l̂ The ConcertstQck includes four sections which Weber bound
together as a single movement. However, the early sketch of the
work is in three movements. Program-note on "Deutsche Grammophon
Gesellschaft" 138710 ST33 SLPM.
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31
is executed witii two hands, the other is by substituted
fingered scales (Ex.
11).13
Example 10: C. M. von Weber, Concertstuckr Op. 79.
Example 11: C. M. von Weber, Concertstuck, Op. 79. ttrictig
fMi#
W
i i tt i •
or A (implificatioa like Ihia tirieltf in tim*
the first octave-glissando used in this work, Liszt suggested
octave runs for both hands and soloist join the orchestra in the
second repetition of the Ma .̂ See the details in Schirmer edition,
revised & fingered by Constantin Sternberg, "Editor's
Note."
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32
Weber's best-known piano solo work Aufforderung zum Tanz
(1819)
was later transcribed by pianist Carl Tausig^^ (1841-1871) in
the 1860s. An
octave-glissando is found in this version. Tausig transformed
the original C
major and A major octave ascending scales—^in sixteenth
notes—^into two
white-key glissandi; the first one in single-notes, and the
second in octaves.
Besides, there is a dynamic contrast between the C major and A
major scales
in the original version, but Tausig uses a brilliant virtuosic
effect in both
glissandi. However, these glissandi stiE retain the melodic
character which
Weber intended.
Franz Liszt
Of numerous great piano composers in the nineteenth century,
Franz
Liszt (1811-1886) was the one who truly inherited Beethoven's
ability to
transfer orchestral power and effects to the piano. Liszt's
idiomatic pianistic
technique such as high trills imitating the cjnnbalon,
tremendous octave
runs, leaps over long intervals, howling tremolos, sophisticated
double-note
phrases, hand crossings, and brilliant glissandi, vastly
increased the repertoire
of pianistic effects. After hearing Liszt's performance in
Paris, Sir Charles
Hall^is said:
Such marvels of executive skill and power I could never have
imagined. He was a giant, and Rubinstein spoke the truth when, at a
time when his own triumphs were greatest he said that in comparison
with Liszt all other pianists were children Liszt was all
sunshine
l̂ HaroId C Schonberg stated:"... Qirl Tausig, perhaps Liszt's
greatest pupil. Many considered him the most flawless pianist of
the century." The Great Pianists, 2 .̂ Tausigalso made some piano
reductions of Richard Wagner's operas.
l̂ 'The first pianist in history to play the cycle of Beethoven
sonatas in public. That was in 1861. He also invented an automatic
page turner." Ibid., 222.
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33
and dazzling splendor, subjugating his hearers with a power that
none could withstand. For him there were no difficulties of
execution.16
In his glissandi, Liszt used different kinds of executions,
including
double-note glissandi and two-hand glissandi. The former are
found in the
Paganini Etude, "La Chasse"{W51), MagyarDallok—Ungarische
National-
Melodien No. 9 (1840), Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15(1851), and the
latter are
found in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10(1853), Mephisto Waltz No. 1
(1860),
Illustration No. 2 aus dem Prophet (von Meyerbeer) "Die
Schlittschuhlaufer"
(1850), Totentanz (1849) and the Piano Concerto No. 2 in A Major
(1849).
Other examples are found in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14 (1853)
and
Paraphrase of the Waltz from Gounod's Faust (1868).
Magyar Dallok—Ungarische National-Melodien is Liszt's early
cycle of
Hungarian Rhapsodies.^"^ Three double-note glissandi, in sixths
or thirds, are
foxmd in No. 9 (Ex. 12). These glissandi are all melodic in
function.
Example 12: F. Liszt, Magyar Dallok—Ungarische
National-Melodien, No. 9.
iiiiiiiiU^iiiiiPlEl rinforzando
Double-note glissandi are found again in the Paganini Etude
"La
Chasse." The key of La Chasse is E major. In the use of
glissandi, the
l̂ Qiarles HaI16, Li£e and Letters, 37-38.
l̂ See "Vonvort" in Franz Liszt; Neue Ausgabe Samtlidier Werke,
Serie I, Werke fur Klavierzu zwei HSnden, Band 18, £tude (Op.6);
Ungarisdie Nationalmelodien by Editio Musica Budapest, 1985.
-
composer's harmoiiic design is evidently intended to match the
glissandi's
natural harmonic implication, in which a simple modulation moves
from E
major towards to A minor and followed by C major (see Table 1).
These
Table 1: The Transposition Process in Liszt's La Chasse. m. 68
69 70 73 82 83 J 84 87
EM am — — EM pivot-G CM - -E: a: C:
I V i V
V I
glis
sand
o
glis
sand
o
glis
sand
o
glis
sand
o
double-note glissandi are all in sixths in the right hand (Ex.
13). The
destination chord is given separate stems, which implies that it
could be
played by both hands.^s Besides, the symbol of the "wedge" ( • )
suggests
placing this final interval exactly on the second beat.
Example 13: F. Liszt, Paganiid Etude No. 5 "La Chasse."
glineudo
In Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10, the characteristic sonority of
the
cymbalon is embodied. In the middle section, the continuous
passages of
^8ln "Instructive Edition." Critically revised with fingering,
pedalling and marks of expression by Paolo Gallico. New York: G.
Schirmer.
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35
glissandi can be grouped into three types (see Fig. 4): (a)
connected ascending
and descending glissandi, 0?) simple wide-range glissandi, and
(c) two-hand
outwards glissandi. The outer notes in types (a) and (b) must be
played very
rhythmically and articulated with >, •, or — . Type (b)
should also be played
slower since the value within one measure is larger, and type
(c), closing the
phrases, needs a heavier touch to provide enough weight for the
crescendo.
Figure 4: Three Types of Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Hungarian
Rhapsody No. 10.
Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14 was transcribed from the composer's
early
cycle of Ungarische National-Melodien No. 21, which is also the
predecessor
in the Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. Compared to the Hungarian
Fantasia,
the latter repeats the first and third glissandi once, while the
second one
remains a fingered figure of a g)^sy scale as does its
predecessor (Ex. 14).
of the Hungarian Fantasia for piano and orchestra. Three
glissandi are used
Example 14: F. Liszt, Hungarian Fantasia.
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36
The second glissando is melodic in function as its original form
of a g3^sy
scale, while the other two show a virtuosic effect, and require
a electrifying
touch and a fast tempo (Ex. 15).
Example 15: F. Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14.
̂ Hu 1
Five continuous descending glissandi are used in Hungarian
Rhapsody
No. 15, subtitled R^dczy-Marsch. Although these glissandi are
written in
double-notes (in thirds), the ossia version (the single-notes
glissando
provided by the composer) might be more effective (Ex. 16).i9
These gHssandi
Example 16: F. Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15.
FaenilK
. ̂ glissando 1*—m F IJ -
s LA —£ ^ ^ ^ f- f ^ L - . . . P . . # • - . f t m "
the earlier version of this work, the situation is different:
the composer suggested the use of double-note glissandi for the
descending passages in thirds (mm. 160-164).
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37
suggest a harmonic basis for the use of glissandi in the
nineteenth century:
the triads on the white keys for the glissando. Figure 5 shows
that every triad
on the white keys is used as a beiss for the glissando.
Figure 5: The Harmonic Structure on the Glissandi Used in F.
Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15.
k -I- 4-am GM FM em dm CM bO am GM FM (EM)
a; i vn VI V iv in iiO i vn VI (V)
C: vi V IV iii ii I vii® vi V IV (in)
Liszt was also a very active transcriber. Die
Schlittschuhlauferwas
transcribed from the theme of Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera Le
Prophete.̂ ̂
There is a letter from Meyerbeer to Liszt regarding Liszt's
transcriptions from
this opera:
Mr. Schlesinger has informed me of a letter you wrote indicating
that you had written a major piano composition based on the
anabaptist chorus from Le Proph^te, that it was your intention to
dedicate this composition to me when the piece is published I do
not want to await the arrival of this letter to express to you how
pleased I am that you would think one of my pieces worthy of use as
a motif for one of your piano compositions. It is most certinly
destined to be performed throughout Europe and shall amaze those
fortunate enough to hear your magnificent and poetic
performances.^!
^^Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864) was a virtuoso pianist as well
as a famous opera composer. Liszt's other transcriptions based upon
Giacomo Meyerbeer's works indude Robert le Diable and Les
Huguenots. On Ae theme of Le Proph6te, Liszt also wrote his most
monumental organ work Ad Nos ad Salutarem Undam, Fantasia and
Fugue.
^^Heinz and Gudrun Becker, Giacomo Meyerbeer: A Life in Letters,
139.
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38
The quantity of glissandi in this work is amazing, and it is
perhaps true
that this work. Die Schlittschuhlaufer (the Skaters), has the
largest number of
glissandi in the entire piano repertoire: fif^-seven total,
including six two-
hand glissandi.22 All of them are ascending with a maximum range
of five
octaves. The composer used the device as a reiterating
accompaniment
figure. Two of them bear the indication "poco rit" These
glissandi occur in
three sections (see Table 2). The first two sections are
enclosed by the two-
hand glissandi. There are some glissandi of approximately one
octave;
technically, in this piece, they are more difficult to play than
the longer ones.
Besides, since some fingered quasi-glissando passages occur
alternately with
the glissandi, it might be easier to execute the short range
glissandi with the
fingers.
Table 2: Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Die
Schlittschuhlaufer.
Section Measures Glissandi Two-hand glissandi.
1 203-250 1-34 3
2 305-330 35-53 3
3 464-469 54-57 0
Mephisto Waltz No. 1 ('The Dance in the Village Dm:" Episode
6rom
Lenau'spoem "Faust") was dedicated to Carl Tausig.23 The
two-hand
glissando is used light after three measures of silence and
followed by the
grandiose main theme (Ex. 17). Concerning the execution of this
two-hand
22For information about the counting of glissandi, refer to the
footnote 1 in Chapter 4.
^We have previously observed his transcription of Weber's
Aufforderung zum Tanz. See the footnote under the discussion.
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39
glissando, Emil von. Sauer's edition, published by C F. Peters,
has the
following comment: "A fine effect is produced by pla5dng this
run glissando
with the right hand, the left hand executing it as a scale." The
edition by Earl
Wild has a different opinion: "By starting an octave lower and
adding the
octave E in the left hand at the top of the glissando, a greater
definition is
accomplished."
Example 17: F. Liszt, Mephisto Waltz No. 1.
The Totentanz (The Dance of Death) is a theme and variations,
which
is based on the theme derived firom the plainchant 'Vies Irae"
from the Mass
for the Dead. Of this work, Sitwell wrote:
Its shuddering, clanking rhjrthms, its soimds as of dandng
bones, are of the weirdest achievement possible. It is, somehow, a
piece admirably adapted for piano and orchestra; the piano has a
real causus vivendi, a real reason for its presence in the
orchestra.̂ ̂
The glissandi used in this tremendous work are a diabolic and
sardonic
programmatic expression and also lend a rather virtuosic effect.
Thirteen,
including three two-hand, glissandi are used in "Variation H;"
and seven in
the closing section, "Allegro animato," which are all two-hand
glissandi in
the same register.
^^acheverell Sitwell, Liszt 230.
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40
Four two-hand glissandi are used in the Concerto No. 2 in A
Major.
These glissandi are all in four octaves. The difference is that
in the last one,
the left hand does not follow the right hand but stops on the
third octave (Ex.
18). In addition, the descending ones start from F and end on E;
such design
suggests the glissando is ornamental in function, while the
ascending ones,
between two Es, are actually melodic in function.
Example 18: F. Liszt, Concerto in A Major.
Paraphrase of the Waltz from Gounod's Faust;̂ pianist
Femicdo
Busoni's favorite piece, is one of Liszt's most successful
works. Seven
glissandi are fotmd in this work. They are all ascending and
melodic in
function.
It would be interesting to ask why Liszt did not use octave
glissandi
instead of two-hand glissandi—especially since all two-hand
glissandi by him
are in octaves, except for examples in contrary directions—and
why there
seems to be no use of the black-key glissando. The black-key
glissando
outlines the pentatonic scale which simply is not part of
Liszt's musical style.
Octave-glissandi are used in Beethoven's works, since the light
action of his
Viennese piano was well designed for their execution. There is
no doubt that
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41
the strength and pliability of the action in Liszt's pianos was
quite different
from that of the early pianos. This differentiation necessitated
a heavier
action and a considerable lowering of the dip (or "fall") of the
keys. Weber's
piano was not only lighter in touch but also narrower.25 Liszt's
suggestion for
executing the octave-glissando in Weber's Concertstuckhas
already been
discussed (Ex. 11). Likewise, Liszt even wrote ossia passages
for glissandi in
his own works, such as two ossia passages in place of the use of
double-note
glissandi in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15, a chord passage
substitute for the
two-hand glissando in the Piano Concerto No. 2, and a simplified
version for
many lengthy glissandi in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10.
Liszt's examples are simimarized in Table 3 and Table 4. The
cited
Liszt's examples of glissandi were written from arotmd 1839 to
the 1850s.26
There are no octave-glissandi written by this significant piano
virtuoso,
although derMeister produced many dazzling two-hand and
double-note
Table 3: The Function of Glissandi Used in Liszt's Works. Magyar
Dalok—Ungarische National-Melodien No. 9.
Melodic.
La Chasse. Ornamental with a virtuosic technique. Hungarian
Rhapsody No. 10. Connection of two (or three) displaced melodies.
Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. Virtuosic effect. Melodic. Hungarian
Rhapsody No. 15. Ornamental. Die SchlittschuhlSufer. Ornamental.
Totentanz. Virtuosic effect. Programmatic expression. Concerto No.
2 in A Major. Virtuosic effect. Ornamented or melodic. Mephisto
Waltz No. 1. Virtuosic effect. Waltz (rom Gounod's Faust.
Melodic.
25"Weber's piano, a Brodmaim (Vienna), had an octave span of
15.9 cm. as against the modem 16.5 cm." John Warrack, Carl Maria
von Weber, 99(.
26in Sacheverell Sitwell's study. Waltz torn Gounod's Faust
might be written some yecirs before 1868. Liszt 345.
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42
glissandi, and the quantity of glissandi is the most numerous in
the entire
piano repertoire. The range of glissandi also was expanded to
five octaves at
this time.
Table 4: Sttmmary of F. Liszt's Examples. Title Numbers of
Glissandi Type included® Ossia
version Years
Magyar Dalok—Ungarische National-Melodien No. 9.
3 A A 3rd 6th
1840.
Piano Concerto in A Major. 8 • 1839, rev. 1849-61.
La Chasse. 4 A 6th
1840,1851.
Die Schlittschuhlaufer. 57 A& 1850.
Totentanz. 30 A V ft ̂ 1849,1853,1859.
Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10. 28 A V ̂afd • 1853.
No. 14. 3 A V ft 1853.
No. 15. 5 3rd V • 1851,1871.
Mephisto Waltz No. 1. 2 ft 1860.
Waltz 6rom Gounod's Faust 7 A 1868.
key for these symbos is found in Appendix A.
Johannes Brahms and Camille Saint-Saens
Joharmes Brahms (1833-1897) is viewed as "the principal
opposite
number to Liszt in the field of keyboard music in the latter
half of the
nineteenth century." F. E. Kirby continued,
Brahms had none of the great "international" quality that was so
characteristic of Liszt Although, Like Liszt he was a pianist and
even conductor by profession, Brahms was never in the public eye by
such activities; indeed, when he made his Viennese debut as a
pianist, he used his two piano quartets, a genre of composition
that had never been associated with pianistic virtuosity.^^
E. Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music, 320.
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43
Among Brahms's major piano works, glissandi are found in the
Paganini Variations, Op. 35, Bk. 1 (1866), and Vhgarische Taitze
No. 8 (1872);
which are all in octaves. The Paganini Variations are actually a
study in
piano technique. Brahms wrote two volumes of them; each volume
has a
theme and 14 variations. The theme—^in 12 measures—^is derived
from the
violin virtuoso Nicolo Paganini's Caprices, Op. 1. Besides
Brahms, Robert
Schumann, Liszt, and Sergei Rachmaninoff also composed piano
transcriptions or sets of variations based on this theme.28
Ungarische
Tanze—ten of them—represent Brahms's interest in a national
folk-music
character. These works were arranged by the composer himself
from his
earlier version for piano duet—the first ten date 1869, and Nos.
11-211880.
Also, Brahms produced orchestral versions of Nos. 1,3 and 10 in
1874.
In the examples from the Paganini Variations, as in many of
Liszt's
examples, these glissandi—^melodic in function—could also be
construed as
virtuoso effects (Ex. 19). Although they are much shorter than
the examples
Example 19: J. Brahms, Paganini Variations, I, Var. 13.
2®See Schumann's Studien, Op. 3 (1832), and Op. 10 (1833);
Liszt's Paganini Etudes (1838 and 1851); Rachmaninoffs Rhapsody on
a Theme of Paganini for Piano and Orchestra, Op. 43 (1934).
-
of Beethoven or Weber, the fast tempo "vivace e
scherzando"assures their
difficulty.29
As in Weber's Piano Concerto No. 1, the example firom
Brahms's
Ungarische Tanze shows two octave-glissandi executed
simultaneously by
both hands—^but in contrary directions—as a melodic in function
with an
expression of the virtuoso character, which the glissando had
commonly
become in the nineteenth century (Ex. 20). However, unlike
Weber's
example, these simultaneous glissandi do not incorporate the
same number
of notes; there are thirteen notes in the right hand and eleven
notes in the
left hand. Since this passage is certainly rather difficult to
play, Brahms, like
Liszt, provided an Ossia version for both hands.
Example 20: J. Brahms, Ungarische Tanze No. 8.
gUmuulo
Ccimille Saint-Saens (1835-1921), called the "French
Mendelssohn,"
taught Gabriel Faur6 and studied with Friedrich Kalkbrenner,
who, along
with Pierre Zimmerman, were the earliest exponents of French
school of
^^DetlefKraus's book (trans, by Lillian Lim) fohaimes Brahms:
Composer fyr the Piano, 66-67, has a very detailed analysis of the
tempos of this work.
-
pianism. The French school, the opposite of tfie Stuttgart
school, was
described as follows:
The touch was sensitive, it stayed dose to the keys, and it did
not press deeply. It also was fluent, de^ immaculate like a fine
etching. Thereifore the tone was likely to be of smaller
dimensions—shallow, pale, transparent Behind it was an unrufQed
emotional spirit which highly valued such aesthetic graces as
elegant, calculated proportions and subtle phrasing.^o
Saint-Sa&is's pianistic writing was based on his own
excellent piano
technique. His music seems to be of less emotional depth than
Schumann's
and more transparent than Brahms's, but his use of certain
pianistic devices
recalls the Lisztian. Many Lisztian virtuosic devices are easily
found in Saint-
Saens's works. About his musical style, Albert Lockwood had the
following
comment:
Saint-Saens' quality may be characterized as that of a mirror
rather than that of a prism, and his compositions as reflections
rather than as paintings. His art always elegant and polished,
shines imequaUy, the thought is spim out to inconceivable tenuosity
in places. His urbanity and eclecticism preclude pronounced person^
convictions, and he gathers atmosphere from Timbuctoo to Teheran.
This is spread like jam and is not transmuted into the
inevitableness of great art. His Gallicism is indeed evident, but
his personality is so covered with conventions that his
compositions as a group, tmlike the works of the greatest writes,
do not display a composite soul. A Saint-Sa&is harmonic scheme,
to put is differently, does not exist in the larger sense.31
His examples of glissandi are found in the third movement of
the
Piano Concerto No. 5, Op. 103 (1896), and Aquarium (from Le
Camaval des
animaux). The Piano Concerto No. 5—bearing the sobriquet
"Eg3^tian"—^was
^^Reginald R. Gerig, Famous Pianists and Their Technique,
315.
Albert Lockwood, Motes on the Literature of the Piano,
166-167.
-
dedicated to Louis Di^er, who was a teacher at the Paris
Conservatory and
taught Robert Casadesus, Alfred Cortot, Marcel Dupr6, and
£douard BUsler.
Besides the intentional use of Eastern color in this concerto,
Saint-Sa^ used
many virtuosic devices, such as octave runs, passages of great
speed, wide
broken chords, and a glissando, which encompasses a wide
range—five-and-
a-half octaves (Ex. 21). Except for an example from Maurice
Ravel's Concerto
Example 21: C. Saint-Sa&is, Piano Concerto No. 5, HI.
for Left Hand, this glissando might have the widest range in the
entire piano
repertoire. The octave B-flat in the left hand must be played
rhythmically,
and the glissando should be performed at an even tempo.
Le Camaval des animaiixis a light work, which Saint-Saens
refused to
publish during his life-time for fear diat it would be taken as
evidence of his
musical character. However, these fourteen character pieces do
represent
Saint-Sa&is's music style, by and large. Aquarium is a
programmatic
character work, hi this worig four glissandi—all identical in
every aspects—
are foimd (Ex. 22). The style of these glissandi forecasts
pianistic
impressionism; later in this vein, many such examples were
written by the
new French lions, Qaude Debussy and Maurice J^vel.
V
-
Example 22. C. Saint-Saens, Acpianuni from Le Cdmsval des
aiumswc.
Bednch Snietana, Mily Balakirev, Edvard Grieg, and Edward
Elgar
Bednch Smetana (1824^-1884), bom in Bohemia, was one of the
foremost representatives of musical nationalism. Piis musical
ideals were
mfluenced by Bohemia's dance music, as in the case of another
Bohemian
composer, Antonin Dvorak. Moreover, in some of Smetana's
virtuosic
works, Liszt s influence is present but not overwhelming;
Smetana's
techmque incorporates a more delicate and crystalline texture
than Liszt's
extravagant and grandiose style.
Smetana s most numerous piano works are dance movements,
including polkas, mazurkas, waltzes, Bohemian dances, and Czech
dances.
While the Etude, Op. 12, the ConcertStudy "On die Seashore" and
the Sonata
in G minor show the composer's ambition to explore the
capabilities of the
piano and his own musical imagination. His examples of glissandi
are found
in the Ballade in E minor (1858) and the Polka in A minor (from
Bohemian
Dances [1877]). The Ballade in E minor is an incomplete work,
which later
provided some ideas for his opera Dalibor, and his transcription
of Schubert's
sixth song from Die Schdne MuUerin, Der Neugierige. The
Ballade,
remaining a 209-measure sketch, was written when the composer
was under
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48
the spell of his pupil, a Swedish girl, Froi'da Benecke. The set
of Bohemian
Dances, four miniature polkas, is from the composer's last
period of works.
The Polka in A minor is subdued, as opposed to the usual nature
of this kind
of dance.
An octave-glissando used in the Ballade—coupled
simultaneously
with another single-notes glissando—^might be the only example
with this
kind of execution, which closes the preceding cadenza-like
passage (Ex. 23).
Example 23: B. Smetana, Ballade in E minor.
This glissando, as a backward motion, is also a dazzling
virtuoso effect. The
example from the Polka, a short, but very electrifying
glissando, suggests a
strong folk flavor (Ex. 24). Like the previous example, this
glissando—
Example 24: B. Smetana, Polka in A minor.
preceded by a successive descending passage—also functions as a
backward
motion, but also as a melodic rather tiian a virtuosic gesture.
Later in this
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49
piece, the composer used a chromatic scale instead of a
glissando to create
another climax.
Both examples of Smetana bear some similar features: 1.
white-key
ascending, 2. function as a backward motion, and 3. followed by
a new and
clear melody.
Mily Balakirev (1837-1910) was the guiding spirit of the
Russian
"Mighty Five."32 His music incoporates various folk resources:
Russian,
English, Czech, and Spanish. His use of glissandi is found in
his best-known
piano work, /s/amey (subtitled "Fantaisie Orientale"), which was
composed in
1869 and revised by the composer thirty years later. Nicholas
Rubinstein gave
its premiere in the winter of 1869. The work—^which has been
orchestrated by
Alfredo Cassella—^is one of the most dazzlingly difficult piano
works in the
entire piano repertoire, and its technique is typical Usztian.
Edward Garden
said: 'Tt is perhaps the 'ultimate' technical piece in the
pianoforte repertoire."
Garden continued.
There can be no point in such a piece unless it can be flimg out
as if it were a technical joke—an amusing ten minutes of exotic
colour, insistent rhythm and pianistic exhibitionism. The notes are
super-abimdant, certainly, but not one is superfluous or
unnecessary to the glittering, rippling, effect of colour, "fhe
build-up towards the end is not tmlike the build-up in Tamara—but
whereas tfie orchestral work is sombre, dark and hatmting, the
piano work, finished so much more quickly, is light, airy;
superficial, perhaps, in a way, but fascinating, intriguing and
thorougWy worth while.33
^^The other members in this group are Cfear Cui, Alexander
Borodin, Nicolai Rimski-Korsakov, and Modeste Mussorgski. This
group was known as the "St Petersburg School" as opposed to the
"Moscow School," headed by Peter Ilich Tchaikowsky.
33Edward Garden, BalaJdrev: A Critical Study of His Uk and
Music, 221.
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50
This piece uses three Armenian and Cauoisian melodies. An
octave-
glissando is used near the end of the work. This glissando has
multiple
functions: 1. as a melody with a virtuosic technique, which is
quite obvious, 2.
as a backward motion because of its preceding passage which is a
descending
pentatonic scale, 3. as a modulation tool since this white-key
glissando is
followed by the melody in the key of D-flat major (Ex. 25). This
last is a new
Example 25: M. Balakirev, Islamey.
JET
kind of usage in the nineteenth century. A later composer,
Edvard Grieg, and
many twentieth-century composers also utilized this technique.^
This
octave-glissando could be played as a single-notes glissando in
the right hand
because of its difficulty as mentioned before.
Edvard Grieg (1843-1907) is frequently remembered by the piano
world
only for his great concerto. Most of his piano works reflect
many nationalistic
elements; especially, his Lyric Pieces (thirteen volumes in ten
books), which
increased the body of lyrical repertoire for the piano. Besides
that of
Norwegian folk music, his music also shows the influence of
Robert
this usage, since the tonal system still was in the Romantic
style, Balakirev's and Grieg's examples are not as clear as die
twentieth-century composers'. See more examples in next
chapter.
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51
Schumann and Felix Mendelssohn, who founded (he Conservatory of
Leipzig
in the same year of Grieg's birth, where Grieg started his
formal music
education in 1858.
Grieg's use of the glissando is foimd in Hailing (from Lyric
Pieceŝ Op.
71 [1901]). Hailing, a Norwegian dance, is one of the works from
the
composer's last period. This volume of lyric pieces was
dedicated to Fru Mien
Rontgen, a Swede, bi Hailing, Grieg adopted a motive from
Swedish folk
music accompanied by a rich use of chromatic harmony. A
white-key
glissando leads the tonality from D-flat of the preceding
passage to F (Ex. 26).
This glissando can be seen as a modulation tool.
Example 26: E. Grieg, Hailing (Norwegischer Tanz) from Lyric
Pieces, Op. 71.
Edward Elgar (1857-1934), bom in Broadheath (near Worcester),
was a
leading British composer of the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries.
His piano works are rather limited and relatively unimportant.
Perhaps the
Concert Allegro, Op. 46 (1901), is the composer's only
masterpiece for piano,
which was dedicated to Fanny Davies, a English pianist. The work
was
considered to be lost for more than a half century. John Ogdon
gave the first
modem performance of the re-discovered composition in 1968.
Two
glissandi are fotmd in this work, the second glissando is an
octave wider than
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52
the first one. The composer indicated tfie number of notes in
these
glissandi—one is 13, the other is 20—which is a rather unusual
indication for
the glissando (Ex. 27). A cadenza-like passage is preceded by
the glissando, and
the dynamic level is quite elegant as opposed to virtuosic—pp
and ppp.
Example 27: E. Elgar, Concert Allegro. , accel. molto
rit.
Examples used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
grouped in
four types, are illustrated in Table 5.
1. Octave-glissandi were used beginning in the early years of
the
nineteenth century in the works by Ludwig van Beethoven, Carl
Maria von
Weber, and Johann Nepomuk Hummel. Even simidtaneous two
octave-
glissandi were used. Afterwards, examples of octave-glissandi
are found
again, this time further developed by adding another glissando,
as in Bedrich
Smetana's example, and simultaneous two octave-glissandi in
contrary
directions are found in Johannes Brahms's works. After
Brahms's
Ongarische Tanze No. 8, the octave-glissando is not foimd again
imtil in
Dmitri Shostakovich's Sonata No. 1, Op. 12, written, almost
fifty years later,
in 1926.
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53
Table 5: Examples in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries in
Four Groups Based on Its Type. Type 1. Octavfr~"
glissandi
Title Beethoven, Piano Concerto, Op. 15. Beethoven, Pfano
Sonata, Op.
Weber, Piano Concerto No. I.
Weber, Concertstuck. Hununel, Piano Concerto, Op. 85. Smetana,
Ballade in E minor. Weber-Tausig, Auffbrderungzum Tanz.
Brahms, Paganini Variation L
Balakirev, Islamey. Brahms, Ungarische Tanze No. 8.
Year W 1805
1810
1821 1821 1858
1860s 1866
1869 1872
#sofGI.a Details 1 5 3 4 3 4 1 1 1 2 4
1 2
Fdrtissimd. Pianissimo. Two octave^glissandi simultaneously in
3rds.
With another glissando.
Short range, but frequently.
Two octave-glissandi simultaneously in contrary directions.
2. Double-note glissandi
Liszt; Ma^rarDalok—Ungarische National̂ elodien No. 9. Liszt
Chasse." Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15. Liszt Piano Concerto in
A Major.
Liszt Totentanz.
Liszt DieSddittschuhlSufe.
Liszt Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10. Liszt Mephisto Waltz No. 1.
1840
1840 1851
4 5
In 6ths or 3rds.
In6ths. In3rds.
3. Two-hand glissandi
1839
1849
1849
1853 1860
4 10 30
57 3_ 27 1
In the same register.
All ascending.
In contrary directions.
4. Other glissandi
Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 379. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 468. Scarlatti,
Sonata, K. 487. Liszt Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. Liszt Waltz 6rom
Gdunotrs Faust Smetana, Polka in A minor. RimsW-Korsakov, Cbncerfo,
Op. 30. Saint-̂ ens, PranoConcertoA/b.̂ m. Grieg, Hailing
(Norwegischer Tanz). Elgar, Concert Allegro. Saint-Sagns,
Aauanum.
1853 1868 1877 18SZ 1896 1901 1901
12 4 1 3 7 1 5 1 1 2 4
Short. All ascending. Very wide range. Modulation tool.
All identical. ®In entries that appear as fractions: total
glissandi found is the denominator, while the number of them which
fit in the specified category appears as the numerator. In the case
of two-hand glissandi, the numerator indicates the number of
"examples," not the nimiber of "glissandi." For other details which
refer to the counting, see the footnote 1 in Qiapter 4.
2. Franz Liszt did not use, or even consider the use of
octave-glissandi,
but he was the only major composer who wrote double-note
glissandi and
two-hand glissandi in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
In addition,
his use of the gesture was prolific; his body of works shows the
greatest
number of glissandi of any composer in these two centuries.
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54
3. Examples found in the works of Bedridi Smetana, Mily
Balakirev,
and Edvard Grieg, might not be viewed as "virtuosic" as those of
Beethoven,
Weber, Liszt, and Brahms, but generally they all have a common
character
which is nationalistic.^
4. Beginning with an ornamental function at the outset, examples
are
foimd in the early part of the nineteenth century, with the
melodic function
as the most common usage. Later in the century, the use of the
glissando as a
virtuosic effect, programmatic expression, backward motion, or
modulation
tool became more important.36
5. The range of glissandi began with Domenico Scarlatti's one
octave,
through Beethoven's three-and-a-half, Liszt's five, and reached
Saint-Saens's
five-and-a-half, which is the maximum range in the
nineteenth-century
works.
6. The harmonic structure implied in these glissandi is
rather
distinctive. Within these musical periods, the white-key
glissando must
function within its natural harmonic consonance; that is, the
harmony built
by the white keys, such as CM, am, GMm7, etc. Examples from
Liszt's
Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15 show this most clearly. (Refer to the
discussion
in pages 36-37.) In other examples, the composers generally all
followed this
harmonic principle for the use of glissandi.
35scarlatti's examples are of a virtuosic diaracter in his time,
complementing the Spanish background so often represented in his
music.
36All of examples' function can be seen in Appendix A.
^^The use of GMm7 or GMmM9 instead of GM, and emM7, emm7, bmM7,
dmM7, are found in the examples of Brahms's Paganini Variations,
Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10 and Die Schlittschuhlaxikr. In
Saint-Saens's example, a white-key glissando above B-flat outlines
CMm7 chord which is resolved later in FM (V-I).
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55
CHAPTERS
The Twentieth Century
Nineteenth-century composers developed the function of
glissandi
from that of a simple ornamental device to include melodic usage
and the
gesture of virtuosic fanfare. Twentieth-century composers
inherited this
point of view, and bestowed new aesthetic interpretations and
ingenious
modes of execution on them. Octave-glissandi and two-hand
glissandi were
still used; in addition, in the first decade of the twentieth
century, black-key
glissandi appeared, while in the 1920s, glissandi on the strings
were initiated.
As composers in the previous century, many twentieth-century
composers did not use this device in their piano compositions at
all;
however, the development of glissandi is still vivid and
noteworthy. Some
examples show the combination of white-key glissandi and
black-key
glissandi simultaneously executed in the same or contrary
directions;
glissandi used to change djmamics or tempos also give this
device another
novel feature. One graphic notation of the glissando has become
more
universal among twentieth-century composers. In addition, the
glissando's
"destination," which originally was the main note for the siide,
gradually is
omitted by some twentieth-century composers, since the glissando
itself
becomes more and more significant and interesting, assuming a
new
function.
This chapter will continue to trace the evolution of the
glissando (on
the keys) in the aspects of range, function, executiorv and
characteristics,
beginning with the works by the two foremost impressionist
composers.
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Qaude Debussy and Maurice Ravel, and followed by the works of
the
nationalists: Manuel de Falla and Bfia Bartdk in Europe, and
Heitor Villa-
Lobos, George Gershwin, and Aaron Copland in America. Examples
of
octave-glissando appear again in two Russian composers' works:
Igor
Stravinsky and Dmitri Shostakovich, while another Russian
composer. Serge
Prokofiev, employed the most frequent use of the glissando in
the twentieth
century, parallel to Franz Liszt in the nineteenth century.
Returning to
European composers, Paul Hindemith, Michael Tippett^ and Olivier
Messiaen
also contributed some glissandi, while Benjamin Britten is
another prolific
composer in the use of glissandi. The final discussion in this
chapter
concerns examples from George Crumb's Makrokosmos I and JT.
Oaude Debussy and Maurice Ravel
Qaude Debussy (1862-1918), who studied at the Conservatoire
Nationale de Paris from the age of ten, "added more to the piano
than any
composer since Chopin: new theories about pedaling, new ideas
about
sonority, a completely new concept of figuration and layout."^
Harold C.
Schonberg continued, "After Chopin, the significant advance in
piano
technique came from two composers—Qaude Debussy in France and
Serge
Prokofiefr in Russia."^
Debussy's varied uses of glissandi are foimd in Menuet (from
Suite
Bergamasque [1890]), the Prelude (from Pour le Piano [1901]),
the prelude Feux
d'artifice (1913), and the Etude: Pour les huitdoigts (1915).
Among them, the
^Harold C Schonberg, The Great Pianists, 343.
2lbid., 388.
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57
most significant feature is that he used the bladc-keys in the
glissandi in Feux
d'arUBce and Etude: Pourles hvdtdoigts. The composer's common
harmonic
devices such as parallel chords, modal scales, whole-tone scale,
and
pentatonic scales, are compatible with the tonality of the
black-key glissando,
which had never been used by the nineteenth-century
virtuosos.
In an example from Feux d'artifice (Fireworks), Debussy even
combined simultaneous white- and black-key glissandi (Ex. 28).3
Since the
Example 28: C. Debussy, Feux d'artiGce.
execution of these glissandi is quite difficult, some pianists
actually stand up
in order to execute them successfully, while for other pianists
with strong
fingers, the use of executive right hand alone is a convincing
and convenient
execution. Another black-key and white-key glissando illustrated
in the
Etude: Pour les huit doigts (For Eight Fingers) is not executed
simultaneously,
but connected by both hands (Ex. 29).^ The composer stated:
^On observing these glissandi, Paul Roberts said: "On closer
examination we can see that the glissando is intimately related to
the opening ostinato: its descending black notes are bom from the
three descending black notes of die first measure." Paul Roberts,
Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy, 185.
^This execution is prepared by the preceding measure where after
a black-key glissando (by left hand), right hand "plays" a short
(four notes) interruption. This process repeats twice.
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58
In this study the changing position of the hands make the use of
the thimibs inconvenient, and the execution of it would thereby
become acrobatic.5
Example 29: C. Debussy, Etude, No. 6.
For these glissandi, Paul Roberts's suggestion of fingered
execution of the
black-keys allotted to both hands, rather than playing a
"glissando," perhaps is
even more breathtaking in resxilt.^
The function of these glissandi, besides as an acrobatic effect,
has its
impressionistic ptirpose. Debussy frequently interpreted his
music in terms
of the action of natural phenomena upon his emotions. He
said:
Music is the expression of the movement of the waters, the play
of curves described by changing breezes. There is nothing more
musical than a stmset He who feels what he sees will find no more
beautiful example of development in all that book which, alas,
musicians read too little—the book of nature.^
If we observe Example 28, where descending glissandi cover
almost the whole
keyboard, they create a theatrical visual and aural excitement,
as if the flame
of the kaleidoscopic fireworks is suddenly extinguished. Paul
Roberts
described these glissandi:
footnote on the score.
^Paul Roberts, Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy,
310-1.
^