THE SUBJECT MATTER WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? A Comparative Analysis of Eastern and Western Views.

THE SUBJECT MATTER

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

A Comparative Analysis of

Eastern and Western Views

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? The Question

How should the question – “What is philosophy?” – be answered in a scholarly manner?

The Answer A methodological question To answer this MQ in a scholarly manner, we can (1)

classify all past attempts into the Western and Eastern perspectives, (2) Western perspectives into the definitional and functional approaches, (3) explain them, and (4) respond to them.

Western Perspectives Definitional Approach Functional Approach

Eastern Eastern Perspectives East Asian Perspectives South Asian Perspectives

What is philosophy? The Western Perspectives

Definitional Approach Greek Definition American Definitions Comparisons

Similarities Rational thinking Ultimate questions

Differences An attempt vs. an activity Good and rational justifications to support one’s particular

position (insisted by McInerny but not Miller). Wisdom is not viewed as the ultimate end of philosophy by

McInerny and Miller as ancient Greek thinkers did.

What is philosophy? A Scholarly Answer

Functional Approach Fields of Western Philosophy

Axiology Cosmology Ethics Metaphysics Ontology Political Philosophy

Functions of Philosophy Fields

What is philosophy? Fields and Methods of Philosophical Thinking

Axiology To think philosophically is to think axiologically.

Cosmology To think philosophically is to think cosmologically.

Ethics/Moral Philosophy To think philosophically is to think ethically.


What is philosophy? Fields and Methods of Philosophical Thinking

Metaphysics To think philosophically is to think metaphysically.

Ontology To think philosophically is to think ontologically.

Political Philosophy To think philosophically is to think in harmony with the

principles of political philosophy.


What are the 4 primary fields of WP to be mastered for doing

EP? 4 Primary Fields of Western Philosophy to Master

Cosmology What does cosmology do? How to think cosmologically (> cosmological thinking)?

Ethics/Moral Philosophy What does ethics do? How to think ethically (> ethical thinking)?

Metaphysics What does metaphysics do? How to think metaphysically (> metaphysical thinking)?

Ontology What does ontology do? How to think ontologically (> ontological thinking)?


What is philosophy? A Scholarly Answer

Critical Responses

Evaluation DA is methodologically reasonable. FA is methodologically more attractive.

Critique DA boxes philosophy in definitional boxes.

Resolution A “middle way” suggestion.

CHOICES OF WORDS

ANCIENT GREEK WORD (sixth century BCE) PHILOSOPHIA > PHILOSOPHY

Pythagoras (b. 570 BCE) ANCIENT EAST ASIAN WORD (sixth century BCE)

TAO (Wade-Giles Romanization) DAO (Pinyin Romanization)

Confucius (551-479 BCE) Laozi/Lao Zi/Lao Tzu (older contemporary of Kong Zi)

ANCIENT SOUTH ASIAN WORDS Dhamma (Pali) Dharma (Sanskrit)

Siddhatta Gotama (b. 563-483 BCE) Siddhartha Gautama (Sanskrit)

POST-BUDDHA HINDU WORD Darshana or Darshan

(Sanskrit)/Dassana (Pali)

CHOICES OF WORDS

MODERN CHINESE WORD (20th century CE)

哲學 Zhe Xue

MODERN ViệTNAMESE WORD (20th century CE)

Triết Học Triết Lý

Triết

EXPOSITION OF THE WORD

The Question What does the Greek word “philosophia” mean?

The Answer “love of wisdom” (Miller 1993: 3)

Philosopher is “the lover of wisdom.” Pythagoras (b. 570 BCE) is credited to have called himself “A

philosopher” (Miller 1993: 3-4) “…. when Leon the tyrant of Philius asked him who he was,

he said, ‘A philosopher,’ and that he compared life to the Great Games, where some went to compete for the prize and others went with wares to sell, but the best as spectators; for similarly, in life, some grow up with servile natures, greedy for fame and gain, but the philosopher seeks for truth.” (Laertius 1925), cited in Miller (1993: 4).

Miller’s Remark: “To be sure, something of the spirit and character of

philosophy is suggested in this way by the very meaning of the word -- but not much.” (Ibid)


The Question What term did Confucius, Laozi, and other thinkers of ancient East

Asia call their thoughts/teachings?

The Answer

道 DAO (pinyin Romanization) or TAO (Wade-Giles Romanization) DO (Japanese as in Aikido) Đạo (Việtnamese as in Việt Võ Đạo)

Meaning of the Term “Tao”

The Question What does the character “dao” signify literally?

The Answer by Joseph Needham– “Etymologically speaking, the term “tao” is

composed of two elements (radicals): head and to run, giving the picture of a movement heading in a certain direction” [Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, II (1956:222), note 70].

– Dr. Needham: British biochemist, embryologist, and historian of science


The QuestionHow had the term “tao” (dao) been used in ancient times?

The Answer “The word tao, one of the most important terms in Chinese philosophy, has a primary meaning of ‘road’ or ‘way.’ Beginning with this primary meaning, it assumed already in ancient times a metaphorical significance, as the “Way of man,’ that is, human morality, conduct or truth. During this time, its meaning was always restricted to human affairs, whereas when we come to the Lao Tzu, we find the word tao being given a metaphysical meaning. That is to say, the assumption is made that for the universe to have come into being, there must exist an all-embracing first principle, which is called Tao.” [Fung Yu-Lan, History of Chinese Philosophy, vol. I (Princeton 1952), p. 177].


The Question What does the character “dao” (way) signify literally?

The Answer

道 The left element means run The right element means head

The character “way” can be interpreted to have been composed to symbolize the movement of mind-guided way and its way-making.


What is the modern term used by modern Chinese and Việtnamese scholars to mean philosophy?

哲學 ZHE XUE Triết Học


What does the word “ 哲學” mean?

學 : xue/học: learning, study 哲 : zhe/triết: philosophy, philosophical

哲學 : philosophical study study of

philosophy


Meaning of the Word

哲學

zhe xue (Mandarin/Han Ru) triết học (Việt Nho)

triết lý (Việt Nho) triết (Việt Nho)


Meanings of the metaphors

哲 ARM+AXE+MOUTH

Thủ + Cân + Khẩu

How should these three metaphors be interpreted?

Physical metaphors?Philosophical metaphors?


Meaning of the Word

哲 ARM+AXE+MOUTH

Thủ + Cân + KhẩuThe character “ZHE” (Triết) can be interpreted to have

been composed to indicate a discourse (mouth) based on a careful examination of things (arm+axe).

Note: Powerful metaphors!


The Question What is the meaning of the term “Dhamma used by the Buddha?

The Answer

DHAMMA (Pali) The teaching of the Buddha, who

recognized and formulated the “law” (dhamma), thus the teaching that expresses the universal truth (The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion 1994: 87).

EXPOSITION OF THE WORD The Question

What does the Hindu term “darshana” or “darshan” mean?

The Answer “view, sight” (thus vision) “system” or “doctrine” (referring to the six systems of orthodox

Hindu philosophy). “All six doctrines have the same goal: to liberate the soul from the round

of births and deaths and to bring about union with God or the Absolute.” (Ibid: 84)

Darshana is the term used for the six schools of the orthodox Hindu intellectual tradition:

1_ Nyaya 2_ Vaisheshika3_ Sankhya 4_ Yoga5_ Mimamsa 6_ Vedanta

DIFFERENT CHOICES OF THE WORD

The Question What is the first difference between the ancient Greek

and ancient (and modern) Eastern philosophical traditions?

The Answer They had chosen different words with different meanings

to represent their thought systems. Their choices of different words also represent their

different views of the end and the means of philosophy/dao/dhamma/darshana.

Dao > Way Dhamma > Law Darshana > Vision Zhe xue > Discourse Triết học > Discourse Philosophia > Love of Wisdom

The First Difference: Choices of Words

Eastern Words Dao > Way Dhamma > Law Darshana > Vision Zhe xue > Discourse Triết học > Discourse

Greek Word Philosophia

Western Word Philosophy

THE ULTIMATE END OF PHILOSOPHY

The Question What should be the ultimate end of

philosophy?

The Ancient Greek View “Sophia” (Wisdom)

Confucius/Kongzi/Kong Zi Governing the state

Laozi/Lao Zi/Lao Tzu Self-Enlightement (Ming)


The Question What should be the ultimate end of philosophy?

Upanishadic Seers (Rishis) To be one with Atman/Brahman

The Buddha Dukkha > Nibbana (Pali) > Nirvana (Sanskrit)

Mahayana Buddhism Shunyata

Hindu Darshana Moksha

Religious Moksha Philosophical Moksha


The Question What is the second difference between the ancient

Greek and ancient Eastern views concerning the ultimate end of philosophy?

The Answer All Eastern traditions

“Wisdom” as means but not end. Buddhism

Freedom from dukkha Shunyata (Emptiness)

Hindu Darshana To become one with Atman/Brahman.

Confucianism The unity of inner sagehood and outer kingship.

Laoism Self-Enlightenment (Ming)


The Question What is the second difference between the ancient Greek

and ancient Eastern views concerning the ultimate end of philosophy?

The Answer They had chosen different ends of philosophy.

All Eastern traditions have viewed “wisdom” as one of the means to achieve their respective ends but not “the ultimate end” of their respective teachings.

For Buddhism, the ultimate end is to self-realize nirvana by completely annihilating the reality of universal dukkha.

For Hindu darshana, the ultimate end is to become one with Atman/Brahman.

For Confucianism, the ultimate end is to realize the unity of inner sagehood and outer kingship.

For Laoism, the ultimate end is to understand Nature and to live in harmony with Nature (a truly natural being again).

THE “MEANS” OF PHILOSOPHY

The Question What should be the “means” to realize the

ultimate end of philosophy?

The Answer Ancient Greek philosophers had charted a path

that has remained completely different with all Eastern paths and have laid the rational foundation for the subsequent developments of Western philosophies and sciences, thus, the transformations of Western civilizations and world history.

EXPOSTITION OF THE “MEANS” OF PHILOSOPHY

The Question What should be the “means” to realize the

ultimate end of philosophy?

Philosophy is “the love of wisdom.”

The Problem of Interpretation What could this Greek view had been intended to

mean?

EXPOSITION OF THE “END” OF PHILOSOPHY

The Ancient Greek View Philosophy is “the love of wisdom.”

A Proposed Analysis Concept Identification (Step 1)

First concept “love” Second concept “wisdom” (sophia)

Interpretation (Step 2) “Love” suggests one of the strongest human

motivations that one should have for the pursuit of “wisdom.”

“Wisdom” suggests “the end” of philosophy.

EXPOSITION OF THE END OF PHILOSOPHY

The Ancient Greek View Philosophy is “the love of wisdom.”

A Proposed Analysis (continued)

PHILOSOPHY can be interpreted to have meant:

“WIDSOM” AS THE END OF PHILOSOPHY

“LOVE” AS THE STRONGEST MOTIVATION FOR THE PURSUIT OF PHILOSOPHY (SOPHIA)

EXPOSITION OF THE “MEANS” OF PHILOSOPHY

A Proposed Analysis (continued) The Question

What else is needed for the realization of “wisdom” as the ultimate end of philosophy?

The Answer The philosophical means

The Motivation The Means The End

“LOVE” ? “WISDOM”

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? What should be the “means” to be

developed for the pursuit of “wisdom” as the ultimate end of philosophy?

SCIENCES AS THE MEANS OF PHILOSOPHY PHYSICS: The Science of Nature LOGIC: The Science of Mind ETHICS: The Science of Morality

Philosophy was thus known as “the science of all sciences.”

FIELDS OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY More Greek “sciences” developed by Plato and

Aristotle. Greek “sciences” came to be called “fields of

Western philosophy” (“the tree of knowledge with many branches”).

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? SIMILARITIES

In what way is the Greek view of philosophy similar to the Buddhist, Confucianist, Daoist, and Hindu views of Dhamma, Dao, and Darshana?

PURSUIT OF “WISDOM” Hindu/Buddhist PRAJNA Mahayana PRAJNAPARAMITA Confucianist/Daoist ZHI (v. Trí)

DIFFERENCES No fields of knowledge in Eastern traditions

Holistic thinking, opposing fragmentation of knowledge Ultimate end for Laoism/Daoism is MING Ultimate end for Hindu Darshana is MOKSHA Ultimate end for Buddhist Dhamma is NIRVANA

AN INTRODUCTION TO “EASTERN PHILOSOPHIES”

THE TERM USED IN HINDU TRADITION

DARSHANA Carrying, holding (lit.) VISION SYSTEM WORLDVIEW

HINDU DARSHANA NOT “HINDU PHILOSOPHY”

EASTERN VIEWS OF “PHILOSOPHY”

NON-EXISTENCE OF THE TERM “PHILOSOPHY” IN THE PRE-MODERN EAST (551 BCE-1911 CE)

The term “philosophy” did not exist in the pre-modern East Asian mainland (now China) or the pre-modern South Asian subcontinent (now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh).

551 BCE is chosen as the starting point here because it was supposedly Confucius birthday (551-479 BCE).

1911 CE is chosen as the end point here because marks the modern Chinese Revolution (10/10/1911).


WESTERNIZATION OF EAST ASIAN TERMS BY ADOPTING THE WESTERN TERM “PHILOSOPHY” (PHILOSOPHIA)

Chinese scholars and Western sinologists have adopted the Western term “philosophy” to designate what they have called the “Chinese Philosophy.”

Examples: Fung Yu-lan. 1952. A History of Chinese Philosophy.

Princeton: Princeton University Press. Originally published in 1931 in Shanghai in Zhongwen.

Graham, A.C. 1990. Studies in Chinese Philosophy and Philosophical Literature. Albany: State University of New York Press.


WESTERNIZATION OF SOUTH ASIAN TERMS BY ADOPTING THE WESTERN TERM “PHILOSOPHY” (PHILOSOPHIA)

Indian scholars and Western indianists have also adopted the Western term “philosophy” to designate what they have called the “Indian Philosophy.”

Examples: Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli. Indian Philosophy. Radhakrishan, Sarvepalli and Charles Moore, eds.

1973. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Hamilton, Sue. 2004. Indian Philosophy: A Very

Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.


ADOPTION OF THE WESTERN TERM “PHILOSOPHY” (PHILOSOPHIA)

Western and Asian scholars have adopted the Western term “philosophy” to designate what they have called “Asian Philosophy.”

Examples: John Koller. 2000. Asian Philosophies. “Asian Philosophy” (title of the course Phil 104). Nguyễn Đăng Thục. Lịch-Sử Triết-Học Đông-Phương (A

History of Eastern Philosophies). Sài-Gòn: Linh-Sơn, 1956.


The Question What term did the Buddha use to call his thoughts?

The Answer

DHAMMA (Pali) DHARMA (Sanskrit)

FA (Chinese) or DAO FA DATSUMA (Japanese) Pháp or Đạo Pháp (Việtnamese)


THE TERM SHOULD BE USED FOR MODERN CHINESE, JAPANESE, AND VIETNAMESE “PHILOSOPHIES”

Chinese Dao (not “Chinese Philosophy”)

Japanese DO (not “Japanese Philosophy”)

Việtnamese Đạo (Việt Đạo) (not “Việtnamese Philosophy”)


THE TERM SHOULD BE USED FOR CONFUCIANIST, DAOIST, AND OTHER ANCIENT EAST ASIAN DAOS Confucian Dao (Dao of Confucius) Confucianist Dao (Dao of other

Confucianist thinkers) Not “Confucian Philosophy”

Laoian Dao Not “Laoian Philosophy”


THE METHODOLOGICAL QUESTIONS

Is there the so-called “CHINESE PHILOSOPHY”?

Is there the so-called “INDIAN PHILOSOPHY”?

Are BUDDHISM, CONFUCIANISM, DAOISM, and HINDUISM “PHILOSOPHIES” OR “THOUGHTS”?

One of these methodological questions can be used as a topic for your philosophy paper.


APPROACHES AND METHODS How should we go about resolving these

methodological questions? Is there the so-called “CHINESE

PHILOSOPHY”? Is there the so-called “INDIAN

PHILOSOPHY”? Are BUDDHISM, CONFUCIANISM, DAOISM,

and HINDUISM “PHILOSOPHIES” OR “THOUGHTS”?


APPROACHES AND METHODS The Two Orientations

Adopting the Western term “philosophy” Examples already listed

Adopting the Western term “thought” Schwartz, Benjamin. The World of

Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1985.

THE QUESTION OF APPROACHES

APPROACHES AND METHODS

Objections No scholarly criteria used to justify either practice

Approaches Should we use Greek philosophy to determine the “philosophy

status” of “Eastern philosophies”? Should we use Western philosophy to determine the

“philosophy status” of “Eastern philosophies”? If the Western concept of “philosophy” is used, then, Western

philosophy must be used to provide the criteria. But is it fair to do so? This is the question of fairness. But is there a problem of intellectual imperialism for this approach? Problem of intellectual imperialism


APPROACHES AND METHODS (continued)

Approaches Honoring East Asian and Zhongguo

Traditions on their own grounds Honoring South Asian and Hindu Traditions

on their own grounds Comparison can be made for determining

(1) similarities and differences between Eastern and Western intellectual traditions, (2) the uniqueness of each tradition, and (3) what had been responsible for the former.


APPROACHES AND METHODS (continued)

The Type of Question Asked What is the dao? What is the darshana? What is the dhamma?

What is the dharma? What is philosophy?

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?


“WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?”

How should this question be answered?


How should the question – “What is philosophy?” – be answered in a scholarly manner?

The Answer A methodological question To answer this MQ in a scholarly manner, we can

classify all past attempts into the Western and Eastern perspectives and Western perspectives into two approaches.

Western Perspectives Definitional Approach Functional Approach

Eastern Eastern Perspectives East Asian Perspective South Asian Perspective

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

THE DEFINITIONAL APPROACH

THE GREEK DEFINITION

A SURVEY OF ANGLO-AMERICAN AND ASIAN DEFINITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

THE DEFINITIONAL APPROACH

A SURVEY OF ANGLO-AMERICAN AND ASIAN DEFINITIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

Bhagwan’s Miller’s McInerney’s

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? BHAGWAN’S DEFINITION

ONCE I WAS ASKED: “WHAT IS PHILOSOPY?” I said, “Philosophy is the art of asking the wrong questions.” The blind man asking “What is light?” – this is philosophy. The deaf asking “What is music? What is sound?” – this is philosophy.


If the blind man asks, “How can I get my eyes back?” this is no more philosophy, this is religion. If the deaf goes to the physician to be treated so that he can hear, then he is moving in the direction of religion and not in the direction of philosophy.


Philosophy is guesswork, it is speculation; knowing nothing, one tries to invent the truth. And the truth cannot be invented, and anything invented cannot be true. The truth has to be discovered.

Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, The Book of the Books, Volume two, Discourses on The Dhammapada of Gautama Buddha (Rajneeshpuram, Oregon: Rajneesh Foundation International , 1983), p. 4.

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

DEFINITION BY MILLER “Philosophy is the attempt to think

rationally and critically about the most important questions.”

What does Miller mean by “philosophy”? The Student Answer

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? DEFINITION BY MCINERNY

“Philosophy is the activity of thinking about ultimate questions and attempting to develop good, rational reasons for holding one particular position rather than another.”

What does McInerney mean by “philosophy” in comparison with Miller’s definition? The Student Answer

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? THE FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

THE FUNCTIONALITY OF PHILOSOPHY Unlike the “definitional approach,” which

attempts to determine what philosophy is (its nature), the “functional approach” aims at understanding what philosophy does (its functionality).

THE WHAT DOES Vs. THE WHAT IS

THE FIELDS OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY The functional approach examines what

philosophy does by investigating what each “field” of philosophy does and all “fields of philosophy” do.

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? THE FUNCTIONAL APPROACH

THE FIELDS OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY All “fields of philosophy” represent all

“branches of philosophical knowledge.” To know what philosophy is and what

philosophy does, one must master all the “branches of philosophical knowledge.”

This has presently become “the mission impossible” for most “scholars of philosophy” and most “philosophers.”

The number of philosophy fields remains controversial since it depends on the viewpoint of each “philosopher” or each “scholar of philosophy.”

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK

PHILOSOPHY

PRE-SOCRATIC THINKERS Founders of Greek philosophy Philosophical Concerns

The Problem of “Change” The Problem of Cosmic Origin Reductionism (or Reductionist Theory)

Did sages in the ancient East share these philosophical concerns?

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? GOLDEN AGE OF GREEK PHILOSOPHY

Three Giant Philosophers of Ancient Greece

Socrates (470-399 BCE)

Plato (427-347 BCE)

Aristotle (384-322 BCE)

EASTERN AND WESTERN VIEWS: WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

Philosophy as a worldview Philosophy as the science of being

THE SUBJECT MATTER WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? A Comparative Analysis of Eastern and Western Views.

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