DALARNA UNIVERSITY WHILD REPORT NR 2013:1 The Significance of World Heritage: Origins, Management, Consequences The Future of the World Heritage Convention in a Nordic Perspective Papers Presented at Two Conferences in Falun (Sweden) 2010 and in Vasa (Finland) 2011 Edited by Bo G Jansson
The Significance of World Heritage: Origins, Management, Consequences The Future of the World Heritage Convention in a Nordic Perspective
Mar 17, 2023
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The Significance of World Heritage: Origins, Management, Consequences The Future of the World Heritage Convention in a Nordic Perspective
Papers Presented at Two Conferences in Falun (Sweden) 2010 and in Vasa (Finland) 2011
Edited by Bo G Jansson
Published by WHILD (= The World Heritages: Global Discourse and Local Implementations) – a Scandinavian network initialized in 2003 with funding from The Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation for the development of knowledge in the fields of research, education and tourism related to World Heritage. The network is hosted by Dalarna University.
Dalarna University www.du.se
Report nr 2013:1 ISSN 1403-6878 ISBN 978-91-85941-50-6
This anthology contains papers presented at two international conferences on World Heritage organized by WHILD (= The World Heritages: Global Discourse and Local Implementations) – a Scandinavian network for the development of knowledge in the fields of research, education and tourism related to World Heritage. The network is hosted by Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden. The first of the two conferences – The Significance of World Heritage: Origins, Management, Consequences – was held in Falun December 8th-10th 2010 under the direction of Professor Bo G Jansson and Dr Cecilia Mörner. The latter of the two conferences, a follow up to the first one, was held in Vasa, Finland December 13th-16th 2011 under the direction of an organizing committee consisting of Professor Emeritus Erland Eklund (Åbo Academy), Doctoral student Kristina Svels (Åbo Academy), Dr Jan Turtinen (Swedish Heritage National Board), and Senior Adviser Barbara Engels (Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Germany). The two conferences are, taken together as a unit, the first of their kind in Scandinavia.
Contents
6 Bo G Jansson: Foreword
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future
7 Marie-Theres Albert: The Global Strategy of World Heritage: Challenges and Weaknesses of the 5 C’s
27 Liu Hongying: The Policies of the World Heritage in the Future
chapter 2 cultural landscapes, cultural commons, historic urban landscapes
38 Ken Taylor: Cultural Landscapes: Global Meanings and Values with Some Thoughts on Asia
61 Aldo Buzio & Alessio Re: Management of UNESCO World Heritage Sites: From Cultural Districts to Commons
76 Maria Antónia Nobre Trindade Chagas: Contextual Promixity Between “Cultural Landscape” and “Historic Urban Landscape”
chapter 3 world heritage and public awareness
96 Barbara Engels: Communicating World Heritage: Challenges for Serial World Heritage Properties
106 Herdis Hølleland: What does Skiing have to do with World Heritage!?: Glimpses into Visitors Awareness of World Heritage
chapter 4 local and glocal perspectives on world heritage
122 Marit Johansson: Angra do Heroísmo – a World Heritage Site and a Hometown: A Study of the Local Effects of a World Heritage Status
138 Somi Chatterjee: The Changing Definitions of Global and Local in the World Heritage Properties and its Implications
163 Maj-Britt Andersson: Breaking the Norms: A Study of a Norm System within a World Heritage Nomination
chapter 5 world heritage archaeology and craftmanship
179 Alicia Castillo Mena: Archaeological Heritage Management in the World Heritage: A Preventive Archaeology Proposal
195 Jorun M. Stenøien & Marit Rismark: The Construction of Craftmanship through Built Heritage Dialogues at World Heritage Sites
chapter 6 reaffirmation of world heritage in serbia
214 Nevena Debljovi Risti: Medieval Monasterial Complexes Integral Protection: Between the Cultural and Spiritual Heritage
224 Marina Neškovi: Stari Ras and Sopoani: Identifying Problems and Defining a Modern Protection Model
chapter 7 world heritage and environmental sustainability
238 Maths Isacson: Heritage of Risk
252 Allan Sande: World Heritage in The Lofoten Islands and The Barents Sea
chapter 8 world heritage and tourism
274 Noel B. Salazar: The Double Bind of World Heritage Tourism
292 Peter Björk: Organising for Success: Exploring Factors that Facilitate Tourism Cooperation and Branding
307 Kajsa G. Åberg: Knowledge and Recruitment in Destination Development: Starting Points of Study
chapter 9 the falun copper mine world heritage: historical aspects
311 Urban Claesson: The Copper Mining Town of Falun as a Challenge for the Church 1687-1713: A Key for a New Mentality?
317 Iris Ridder: Fortune Telling, Gambling and Decision-Making at Stora Kopparberget in the Early 17th Century
333 Torsten Blomkvist: The Mine Spirit in the Copper Mine of Falun: Expressions of a Social Counter Strategy?
344 Juvas Marianne Liljas: The Music Saloon in Falun during the 19th Century
6
Foreword
This anthology contains papers presented at two international conferences on World Heritage organized by WHILD (= The World Heritages: Global Discourse and Local Implementations) – a Scandinavian network for the development of knowledge in the fields of research, education and tourism related to World Herita- ge. The network is hosted by Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden. The first of the two conferences – The Significance of World He- ritage: Origins, Management, Consequences – was held in Falun December 8th-10th 2010 under the direction of Professor Bo G Jansson and Dr Cecilia Mörner. The latter of the two conferen- ces, a follow up to the first one, was held and in Vasa, Finland December 13th-16th 2011 under the direction of an organizing committee consisting of Professor Emeritus Erland Eklund (Åbo Academy), Doctoral student Kristina Svels (Åbo Academy), Dr Jan Turtinen (Swedish Heritage National Board), and Senior Adviser Barbara Engels (Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Germa- ny). The two conferences are, taken together as a unit, the first of their kind in Scandinavia.
Time spent reading this book with care will be most worthwhile. Some of the contributors to the book belong to the internationally most prominent scholars in the field of World Heritage research today, among them are Professor Marie-Theres Albert (Branden- burg University, Cottbus) and Professor Emeritus Ken Taylor (The Australian National University, Canberra). All in all, the volume gives a good picture of the current understanding in Scandinavia of the phenomenon of World Heritage.
Falun in January 2013 Bo G Jansson
Professor of Comparative Literature Head of the Culture, Identity and Representations
research profile at Dalarna University
7
Global Strategies and Policies of World Heritage in the Future
1
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 8
11 The Global Strategy of World Heritage – Challenges and Weaknesses of the 5 C’s
Marie-Theres Albert Professor Ph.D. [email protected] Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus
Abstract
Since adopting the Budapest Declaration on World Heritage in 2002, the World Heritage Committee has been implementing a new global strategy to recognize the universality of the 1972 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. As an instrument for sustainable development of all societies the declaration clearly promotes heritage in all its diversity by means of dialogue and mutual understanding. Even though the Budapest Declaration included measures on how di- versity, sustainable development or mutual understanding through World Heritage nominations could be achieved, the implementa- tion of this new strategy had not been successful. Consequently, at the 31st Session of the WH Committee in New Zealand in 2007, additional strategies were agreed upon. In confronting the glob- al challenges facing World Heritage the Committee decided on strengthening community involvement as a strategic objective for the years to come. What follows is a critically reflective presenta- tion and discussion of UNESCO’s Global Strategy.
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 9
1 Introduction
When, in November 1972, UNESCO’s General Conference adop- ted a convention for the protection and conservation of natural and cultural assets of all kinds and from all eras, UNESCO itself looked back on almost 30 years of experience. The living memory of the Second World War and the repercussions of the holocaust were so grave that not only individual countries, but the entire world community committed itself to ensuring world peace and the peaceful coexistence of nations. It followed that in November 1945 the world community felt encouraged to found the United Nations Organization. Shortly thereafter England and France took the initiative to establish UNESCO. The men and women who founded UNESCO did so in reaction to Nazism. They wanted to establish an organization that would respect the rights of all pe- oples in regards to their spiritual and intellectual progress, free- dom of speech and development, as well as culture and education. UNESCO was to be as a specialized agency of the UN--belonging to one of the main bodies of the UN, The Economic and Social Council. Since its founding, UNESCO has been the only organisa- tion within the UN with a mandate on Culture. Its most important aims include: equal access to education for all people, the right of each individual person to seek objective truth, and to guarantee the free exchange of thoughts and knowledge (Albert 2000, pp. 11–14).
Policies for peace are based on recognizing the rights and duties of individuals within the community of nations. This requires that each individual be granted the right to search for and defend his or her individual truth. Already at UNESCO’s beginning in 1945, the community of nations recognized free speech and individual life expressions as important factors for human development. Based on this consensus, in 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the International Community. A huma- nistic understanding of culture was introduced into the collective consciousness of the World Community. After the experiences of World War II, the founders of UNESCO recognized that people can only live in peace if the peoples of the world accept each other. This necessitated acceptance (and appreciation) of the world’s di- verse material (tangible) and the immaterial (intangible) heritage.
The first initiatives to protect the heritage of humanity date back to the immediate post war years. They culminated in the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 10
1 of Armed Conflict adopted in 1954. Although this convention did not express the concept of heritage yet, it did put forward the per- spective that material (tangible) objects of cultural value have an influence on identity. A catalyst to the development of this per- spective was the fact that nations who engaged in warfare did not shy away from the destruction of cultural heritage. Cases in point that are relevant to the World Heritage Convention are the cities of Warsaw1 and Dresden2.
Another important initiative prior to the World Heritage Con- vention was the joint international effort to relocate Abu Simbel because of the construction of Aswan High Dam. From 1964 to 1969, a campaign for the protection of this cultural heritage was started--the first of its kind. The campaign remains unparalleled until this day, not only for its engineering and financial achieve- ments, but also for the concerted involvement of experts from the international community. The temples of Abu-Simbel, Philae (and others) were identified as cultural goods worthy of protection for humanity. Abu-Simbel temple, for example, was carefully cut apart into thousands of individual pieces, and then re-assembled on higher ground almost one hundred meters above its original location.
The effort to rescue the temples was more than a mere engi- neering achievement. It was a milestone that measured solidarity among the peoples of the world who were concerned about the protection of the cultural heritage of humanity. The adoption of the World Heritage Convention soon followed in 1972. Today it is considered to be the most effective tool and instrument within UNESCO’ s international strategy in protecting the material (tan- gible) and the immaterial (intangible) heritage of humanity (Al-
1 Albert 2006, p. 31 “Warsaw was destroyed at least twice by the Nazis. Already during the attack on Poland at the end of 1939 and still at the beginning of 1940, many historic buildings, such as the palace, the Primas Hall, or the great theatre, were burned down. After crushing the Warsaw uprising between October 1944 and January 1945, the Nazis destroyed the city yet again to about 80 %. An estimated number of 700 000 citizens lost their lives. The rebuilding of Warsaw between 1945 and 1947 is noted as one of the greatest cultural achievements in the post-war area and inspires Poland to this day with a high degree of cultural identity. Since 1980 the old town centre of Warsaw is inscribed on the World Heritage List.”
2 Albert 2006, p. 31 “Dresden also developed historically into a social and cultural centre, which showed since the seventeenth century a constant development of industry, infrastructure and intellectual life. Dresden had a wide range of splendid buildings. The town was bombed in February by allied forces. 25 % of the city area was destroyed and a great number of people killed, which cannot be clearly specified to this day.”
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 11
1 bert, 2006, pp. 34–35). Currently, 911 World Heritage Sites have been inscribed in 151 states parties. Out of these, 704 Heritage Sites are listed as cultural properties, 180 as natural and 27 as mixed properties.
Retrospectively, it can be said that protecting the heritage of mankind has become a concern of all peoples; in other words, and that the globalisation of the fields of science and economics has now successfully been implemented at a cultural level. How could it be otherwise? The global processes underpinning science and economics would not have been possible without the contribution of the cultures of the world. Globalisation has internationalized the Convention and at the same time has led to the protection of our cultural and natural heritage. Heritage protection is consid- ered not only an international task but also an interdisciplinary field. However, the implementation of the World Heritage Con- vention is not just a success story; it is also an account of problem- atic developments. Issues, for example with the World Heritage List, were identified at various levels. First of all, the international community criticized the unequal distribution of sites around the world: 50% of all sites inscribed on the list are in Europe. (UNES- CO World Heritage Centre 2007, p.36)
Secondly, the state of conservation worldwide had been deemed deficient. This inadequacy ran parallel to the needs of training and education which in turn were crucial in building the capacities of people involved in world heritage. Communication was therefore envisioned as the basis from which these processes could evolve. Acknowledging this fact, the World Heritage during its 26th ses- sion in Budapest 2002, entitled The Global Strategy of World, agreed on the 4 C’s in what is otherwise known as the Budapest Declaration (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2005, pp. 5-6). The four C’s entailed strengthening the credibility of the World Her- itage List, ensuring the effective conservation of World Heritage properties, promoting the development of effective capacity-build- ing measures, and increasing public awareness, involvement and support for World Heritage through communication. Later, at the World Heritage Committee’s Session in New Zealand, 2007, a fifth ‘C’ was added to the 2002 Budapest Declaration: the mean- ingful involvement of human communities. Since then, 5 ‘C’s form the core of the global strategy of world heritage with the aim of achieving a more balanced and representative heritage list (UNES- CO World Heritage Centre 2007, pp. 25–63).
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 12
1 2. Credibility
The initial strategic objective decided upon in 2002 aims to “st- rengthen the credibility of the World Heritage List, as a represen- tative and geographically balanced testimony of cultural and na- tural properties of outstanding universal value” (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2005, p. 6). Essentially this strategic objective al- lows for a more balanced World Heritage list than the earlier one by distributing the diverse categories of sites representively within regions and nations worldwide. In practice this means reducing the existing geographical and typological inequality of heritage si- tes on the list.
The unbalanced distribution of cultural and natural sites around the world is mirrored by the unequal representation of categories for Outstanding Universal Value. Out of the 704 cul- tural sites on the list, Monuments and Historic Buildings are pro- portionally overrepresented. These sites are mainly nominated un- der category IV. In 2005 there were almost 340 sites nominated as Monuments and Historic Buildings. Out of these, nearly 200 properties were found in Europe and North America (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2007, p.103). Second most numerous were the approximately 190 World Heritage Cities found worldwide out of which 100 properties could be found in Europe and North America (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2007, p.93). Rock Art, on the other hand, was represented by approximately 30 entries, and Archaeological Sites were represented by approximately 170 locations (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2007, p.87). These geographical disparities, as in the case of cities and monuments, often correlate to densely populated areas like Europe, whereas rock art, archaeological sites or natural heritage sites are more rep- resentative of sparsely populated regions in Africa, the Americas, and / or Australia.
Another aspect worth mentioning is that the World Heritage List has become more and more contentious due to the misappro- priation of value – there is a conflict between what is actually and supposedly the “best.” Furthermore, “World Heritage Sites” have been used to a certain degree for branding by the tourism industry. Neither of these instances conforms to the original idea of the pro- tection of cultural assets of outstanding value.
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 13
1 Top 10 countries with World Heritage inscriptions in 2010
country cultural natural mixed total
Italy 42 3 - 45
Germany 31 2 - 33
Mexico 27 4 - 31
India 23 4 - 27
Total Top 10 265 51 9 325
Source: Authors design, based on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_World_Heritage_Sites_by_country
When looking at the Top 10 list of countries with World Heritage sites, one cannot help but notice that 5 out of the 187 States Par- ties to the Convention represent 195 inscribed sites alone, which makes up for 21% of all inscribed sites. This table also clearly depicts how unbalanced the distribution of sites is between the cultural and natural categories. Out of the 195 sites indicated, only 19 are inscribed as natural sites. It is difficult to understand why Spain, Italy, Germany or China can justify similar nomina- tion types using the so-called OUV (Outstanding Universal Values) when other countries lack representation in the same values. It is apparent that the concepts of authenticity and integrity which are formally part of the nominations require further considera- tion. One also becomes attuned to the urgent need of developing preventative strategies against the rise of widespread improprieties associated with the prestige and importance of World Heritage.
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 14
1 In order to establish the desired balance, the 30th Session of the World Heritage Committee called to attention the 2003 Cairns Decision and decided in Vilnius in 2006 that certain measures had to be taken. These included among others: • to have an annual limit for new inscriptions--not more than 25 • to encourage states parties to nominate natural sites, • to nominate more cross-border cultural landscapes, such as
transnational routes, or parks, and not least • to preferentially nominate heritage sites from underrepresented
types of heritage, e.g. modern heritage (UNESCO World Heri- tage Centre 2007)
In addition the Committee reconfirmed its 1999 appeal to the in- dustrialized countries to refrain from nominating new sites to give some advantage to developing countries. Despite these efforts, the Western industrialized world still dominates the List. There are many reasons for this. First and foremost the categories for nomi- nating and protecting sites are Eurocentric. An example for this is the complex nominating procedure. It requires human resources that are not readily available in every part of the…
Papers Presented at Two Conferences in Falun (Sweden) 2010 and in Vasa (Finland) 2011
Edited by Bo G Jansson
Published by WHILD (= The World Heritages: Global Discourse and Local Implementations) – a Scandinavian network initialized in 2003 with funding from The Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation for the development of knowledge in the fields of research, education and tourism related to World Heritage. The network is hosted by Dalarna University.
Dalarna University www.du.se
Report nr 2013:1 ISSN 1403-6878 ISBN 978-91-85941-50-6
This anthology contains papers presented at two international conferences on World Heritage organized by WHILD (= The World Heritages: Global Discourse and Local Implementations) – a Scandinavian network for the development of knowledge in the fields of research, education and tourism related to World Heritage. The network is hosted by Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden. The first of the two conferences – The Significance of World Heritage: Origins, Management, Consequences – was held in Falun December 8th-10th 2010 under the direction of Professor Bo G Jansson and Dr Cecilia Mörner. The latter of the two conferences, a follow up to the first one, was held in Vasa, Finland December 13th-16th 2011 under the direction of an organizing committee consisting of Professor Emeritus Erland Eklund (Åbo Academy), Doctoral student Kristina Svels (Åbo Academy), Dr Jan Turtinen (Swedish Heritage National Board), and Senior Adviser Barbara Engels (Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Germany). The two conferences are, taken together as a unit, the first of their kind in Scandinavia.
Contents
6 Bo G Jansson: Foreword
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future
7 Marie-Theres Albert: The Global Strategy of World Heritage: Challenges and Weaknesses of the 5 C’s
27 Liu Hongying: The Policies of the World Heritage in the Future
chapter 2 cultural landscapes, cultural commons, historic urban landscapes
38 Ken Taylor: Cultural Landscapes: Global Meanings and Values with Some Thoughts on Asia
61 Aldo Buzio & Alessio Re: Management of UNESCO World Heritage Sites: From Cultural Districts to Commons
76 Maria Antónia Nobre Trindade Chagas: Contextual Promixity Between “Cultural Landscape” and “Historic Urban Landscape”
chapter 3 world heritage and public awareness
96 Barbara Engels: Communicating World Heritage: Challenges for Serial World Heritage Properties
106 Herdis Hølleland: What does Skiing have to do with World Heritage!?: Glimpses into Visitors Awareness of World Heritage
chapter 4 local and glocal perspectives on world heritage
122 Marit Johansson: Angra do Heroísmo – a World Heritage Site and a Hometown: A Study of the Local Effects of a World Heritage Status
138 Somi Chatterjee: The Changing Definitions of Global and Local in the World Heritage Properties and its Implications
163 Maj-Britt Andersson: Breaking the Norms: A Study of a Norm System within a World Heritage Nomination
chapter 5 world heritage archaeology and craftmanship
179 Alicia Castillo Mena: Archaeological Heritage Management in the World Heritage: A Preventive Archaeology Proposal
195 Jorun M. Stenøien & Marit Rismark: The Construction of Craftmanship through Built Heritage Dialogues at World Heritage Sites
chapter 6 reaffirmation of world heritage in serbia
214 Nevena Debljovi Risti: Medieval Monasterial Complexes Integral Protection: Between the Cultural and Spiritual Heritage
224 Marina Neškovi: Stari Ras and Sopoani: Identifying Problems and Defining a Modern Protection Model
chapter 7 world heritage and environmental sustainability
238 Maths Isacson: Heritage of Risk
252 Allan Sande: World Heritage in The Lofoten Islands and The Barents Sea
chapter 8 world heritage and tourism
274 Noel B. Salazar: The Double Bind of World Heritage Tourism
292 Peter Björk: Organising for Success: Exploring Factors that Facilitate Tourism Cooperation and Branding
307 Kajsa G. Åberg: Knowledge and Recruitment in Destination Development: Starting Points of Study
chapter 9 the falun copper mine world heritage: historical aspects
311 Urban Claesson: The Copper Mining Town of Falun as a Challenge for the Church 1687-1713: A Key for a New Mentality?
317 Iris Ridder: Fortune Telling, Gambling and Decision-Making at Stora Kopparberget in the Early 17th Century
333 Torsten Blomkvist: The Mine Spirit in the Copper Mine of Falun: Expressions of a Social Counter Strategy?
344 Juvas Marianne Liljas: The Music Saloon in Falun during the 19th Century
6
Foreword
This anthology contains papers presented at two international conferences on World Heritage organized by WHILD (= The World Heritages: Global Discourse and Local Implementations) – a Scandinavian network for the development of knowledge in the fields of research, education and tourism related to World Herita- ge. The network is hosted by Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden. The first of the two conferences – The Significance of World He- ritage: Origins, Management, Consequences – was held in Falun December 8th-10th 2010 under the direction of Professor Bo G Jansson and Dr Cecilia Mörner. The latter of the two conferen- ces, a follow up to the first one, was held and in Vasa, Finland December 13th-16th 2011 under the direction of an organizing committee consisting of Professor Emeritus Erland Eklund (Åbo Academy), Doctoral student Kristina Svels (Åbo Academy), Dr Jan Turtinen (Swedish Heritage National Board), and Senior Adviser Barbara Engels (Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Germa- ny). The two conferences are, taken together as a unit, the first of their kind in Scandinavia.
Time spent reading this book with care will be most worthwhile. Some of the contributors to the book belong to the internationally most prominent scholars in the field of World Heritage research today, among them are Professor Marie-Theres Albert (Branden- burg University, Cottbus) and Professor Emeritus Ken Taylor (The Australian National University, Canberra). All in all, the volume gives a good picture of the current understanding in Scandinavia of the phenomenon of World Heritage.
Falun in January 2013 Bo G Jansson
Professor of Comparative Literature Head of the Culture, Identity and Representations
research profile at Dalarna University
7
Global Strategies and Policies of World Heritage in the Future
1
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 8
11 The Global Strategy of World Heritage – Challenges and Weaknesses of the 5 C’s
Marie-Theres Albert Professor Ph.D. [email protected] Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus
Abstract
Since adopting the Budapest Declaration on World Heritage in 2002, the World Heritage Committee has been implementing a new global strategy to recognize the universality of the 1972 Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. As an instrument for sustainable development of all societies the declaration clearly promotes heritage in all its diversity by means of dialogue and mutual understanding. Even though the Budapest Declaration included measures on how di- versity, sustainable development or mutual understanding through World Heritage nominations could be achieved, the implementa- tion of this new strategy had not been successful. Consequently, at the 31st Session of the WH Committee in New Zealand in 2007, additional strategies were agreed upon. In confronting the glob- al challenges facing World Heritage the Committee decided on strengthening community involvement as a strategic objective for the years to come. What follows is a critically reflective presenta- tion and discussion of UNESCO’s Global Strategy.
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 9
1 Introduction
When, in November 1972, UNESCO’s General Conference adop- ted a convention for the protection and conservation of natural and cultural assets of all kinds and from all eras, UNESCO itself looked back on almost 30 years of experience. The living memory of the Second World War and the repercussions of the holocaust were so grave that not only individual countries, but the entire world community committed itself to ensuring world peace and the peaceful coexistence of nations. It followed that in November 1945 the world community felt encouraged to found the United Nations Organization. Shortly thereafter England and France took the initiative to establish UNESCO. The men and women who founded UNESCO did so in reaction to Nazism. They wanted to establish an organization that would respect the rights of all pe- oples in regards to their spiritual and intellectual progress, free- dom of speech and development, as well as culture and education. UNESCO was to be as a specialized agency of the UN--belonging to one of the main bodies of the UN, The Economic and Social Council. Since its founding, UNESCO has been the only organisa- tion within the UN with a mandate on Culture. Its most important aims include: equal access to education for all people, the right of each individual person to seek objective truth, and to guarantee the free exchange of thoughts and knowledge (Albert 2000, pp. 11–14).
Policies for peace are based on recognizing the rights and duties of individuals within the community of nations. This requires that each individual be granted the right to search for and defend his or her individual truth. Already at UNESCO’s beginning in 1945, the community of nations recognized free speech and individual life expressions as important factors for human development. Based on this consensus, in 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the International Community. A huma- nistic understanding of culture was introduced into the collective consciousness of the World Community. After the experiences of World War II, the founders of UNESCO recognized that people can only live in peace if the peoples of the world accept each other. This necessitated acceptance (and appreciation) of the world’s di- verse material (tangible) and the immaterial (intangible) heritage.
The first initiatives to protect the heritage of humanity date back to the immediate post war years. They culminated in the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 10
1 of Armed Conflict adopted in 1954. Although this convention did not express the concept of heritage yet, it did put forward the per- spective that material (tangible) objects of cultural value have an influence on identity. A catalyst to the development of this per- spective was the fact that nations who engaged in warfare did not shy away from the destruction of cultural heritage. Cases in point that are relevant to the World Heritage Convention are the cities of Warsaw1 and Dresden2.
Another important initiative prior to the World Heritage Con- vention was the joint international effort to relocate Abu Simbel because of the construction of Aswan High Dam. From 1964 to 1969, a campaign for the protection of this cultural heritage was started--the first of its kind. The campaign remains unparalleled until this day, not only for its engineering and financial achieve- ments, but also for the concerted involvement of experts from the international community. The temples of Abu-Simbel, Philae (and others) were identified as cultural goods worthy of protection for humanity. Abu-Simbel temple, for example, was carefully cut apart into thousands of individual pieces, and then re-assembled on higher ground almost one hundred meters above its original location.
The effort to rescue the temples was more than a mere engi- neering achievement. It was a milestone that measured solidarity among the peoples of the world who were concerned about the protection of the cultural heritage of humanity. The adoption of the World Heritage Convention soon followed in 1972. Today it is considered to be the most effective tool and instrument within UNESCO’ s international strategy in protecting the material (tan- gible) and the immaterial (intangible) heritage of humanity (Al-
1 Albert 2006, p. 31 “Warsaw was destroyed at least twice by the Nazis. Already during the attack on Poland at the end of 1939 and still at the beginning of 1940, many historic buildings, such as the palace, the Primas Hall, or the great theatre, were burned down. After crushing the Warsaw uprising between October 1944 and January 1945, the Nazis destroyed the city yet again to about 80 %. An estimated number of 700 000 citizens lost their lives. The rebuilding of Warsaw between 1945 and 1947 is noted as one of the greatest cultural achievements in the post-war area and inspires Poland to this day with a high degree of cultural identity. Since 1980 the old town centre of Warsaw is inscribed on the World Heritage List.”
2 Albert 2006, p. 31 “Dresden also developed historically into a social and cultural centre, which showed since the seventeenth century a constant development of industry, infrastructure and intellectual life. Dresden had a wide range of splendid buildings. The town was bombed in February by allied forces. 25 % of the city area was destroyed and a great number of people killed, which cannot be clearly specified to this day.”
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 11
1 bert, 2006, pp. 34–35). Currently, 911 World Heritage Sites have been inscribed in 151 states parties. Out of these, 704 Heritage Sites are listed as cultural properties, 180 as natural and 27 as mixed properties.
Retrospectively, it can be said that protecting the heritage of mankind has become a concern of all peoples; in other words, and that the globalisation of the fields of science and economics has now successfully been implemented at a cultural level. How could it be otherwise? The global processes underpinning science and economics would not have been possible without the contribution of the cultures of the world. Globalisation has internationalized the Convention and at the same time has led to the protection of our cultural and natural heritage. Heritage protection is consid- ered not only an international task but also an interdisciplinary field. However, the implementation of the World Heritage Con- vention is not just a success story; it is also an account of problem- atic developments. Issues, for example with the World Heritage List, were identified at various levels. First of all, the international community criticized the unequal distribution of sites around the world: 50% of all sites inscribed on the list are in Europe. (UNES- CO World Heritage Centre 2007, p.36)
Secondly, the state of conservation worldwide had been deemed deficient. This inadequacy ran parallel to the needs of training and education which in turn were crucial in building the capacities of people involved in world heritage. Communication was therefore envisioned as the basis from which these processes could evolve. Acknowledging this fact, the World Heritage during its 26th ses- sion in Budapest 2002, entitled The Global Strategy of World, agreed on the 4 C’s in what is otherwise known as the Budapest Declaration (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2005, pp. 5-6). The four C’s entailed strengthening the credibility of the World Her- itage List, ensuring the effective conservation of World Heritage properties, promoting the development of effective capacity-build- ing measures, and increasing public awareness, involvement and support for World Heritage through communication. Later, at the World Heritage Committee’s Session in New Zealand, 2007, a fifth ‘C’ was added to the 2002 Budapest Declaration: the mean- ingful involvement of human communities. Since then, 5 ‘C’s form the core of the global strategy of world heritage with the aim of achieving a more balanced and representative heritage list (UNES- CO World Heritage Centre 2007, pp. 25–63).
chapter 1 global strategies and policies of world heritage in the future 12
1 2. Credibility
The initial strategic objective decided upon in 2002 aims to “st- rengthen the credibility of the World Heritage List, as a represen- tative and geographically balanced testimony of cultural and na- tural properties of outstanding universal value” (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2005, p. 6). Essentially this strategic objective al- lows for a more balanced World Heritage list than the earlier one by distributing the diverse categories of sites representively within regions and nations worldwide. In practice this means reducing the existing geographical and typological inequality of heritage si- tes on the list.
The unbalanced distribution of cultural and natural sites around the world is mirrored by the unequal representation of categories for Outstanding Universal Value. Out of the 704 cul- tural sites on the list, Monuments and Historic Buildings are pro- portionally overrepresented. These sites are mainly nominated un- der category IV. In 2005 there were almost 340 sites nominated as Monuments and Historic Buildings. Out of these, nearly 200 properties were found in Europe and North America (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2007, p.103). Second most numerous were the approximately 190 World Heritage Cities found worldwide out of which 100 properties could be found in Europe and North America (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2007, p.93). Rock Art, on the other hand, was represented by approximately 30 entries, and Archaeological Sites were represented by approximately 170 locations (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2007, p.87). These geographical disparities, as in the case of cities and monuments, often correlate to densely populated areas like Europe, whereas rock art, archaeological sites or natural heritage sites are more rep- resentative of sparsely populated regions in Africa, the Americas, and / or Australia.
Another aspect worth mentioning is that the World Heritage List has become more and more contentious due to the misappro- priation of value – there is a conflict between what is actually and supposedly the “best.” Furthermore, “World Heritage Sites” have been used to a certain degree for branding by the tourism industry. Neither of these instances conforms to the original idea of the pro- tection of cultural assets of outstanding value.
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1 Top 10 countries with World Heritage inscriptions in 2010
country cultural natural mixed total
Italy 42 3 - 45
Germany 31 2 - 33
Mexico 27 4 - 31
India 23 4 - 27
Total Top 10 265 51 9 325
Source: Authors design, based on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_World_Heritage_Sites_by_country
When looking at the Top 10 list of countries with World Heritage sites, one cannot help but notice that 5 out of the 187 States Par- ties to the Convention represent 195 inscribed sites alone, which makes up for 21% of all inscribed sites. This table also clearly depicts how unbalanced the distribution of sites is between the cultural and natural categories. Out of the 195 sites indicated, only 19 are inscribed as natural sites. It is difficult to understand why Spain, Italy, Germany or China can justify similar nomina- tion types using the so-called OUV (Outstanding Universal Values) when other countries lack representation in the same values. It is apparent that the concepts of authenticity and integrity which are formally part of the nominations require further considera- tion. One also becomes attuned to the urgent need of developing preventative strategies against the rise of widespread improprieties associated with the prestige and importance of World Heritage.
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1 In order to establish the desired balance, the 30th Session of the World Heritage Committee called to attention the 2003 Cairns Decision and decided in Vilnius in 2006 that certain measures had to be taken. These included among others: • to have an annual limit for new inscriptions--not more than 25 • to encourage states parties to nominate natural sites, • to nominate more cross-border cultural landscapes, such as
transnational routes, or parks, and not least • to preferentially nominate heritage sites from underrepresented
types of heritage, e.g. modern heritage (UNESCO World Heri- tage Centre 2007)
In addition the Committee reconfirmed its 1999 appeal to the in- dustrialized countries to refrain from nominating new sites to give some advantage to developing countries. Despite these efforts, the Western industrialized world still dominates the List. There are many reasons for this. First and foremost the categories for nomi- nating and protecting sites are Eurocentric. An example for this is the complex nominating procedure. It requires human resources that are not readily available in every part of the…
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