The Science Teachers Bulletin - SUNY New Paltz

The Science Teachers BulletinVolume 75, Number 1

FALL 2011

Official publication of theScience Teachers Association

of New York State, Inc.PO Box 2121

Liverpool, NY 13089(516) 783-5432www.stanys.org

A State Chapter of the National Science Teachers Associationand a member of the New York StateCouncil of Education Associations.

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The College of Saint Rose432 Western AvenueAlbany, NY [email protected]

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The Science Teachers Bulletin

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Table of Contents

Donʼt forget to submit YOUR article for the nextissue of The Science Teachers Bulletin!

Deadline for the fall issue is: January 15, 2012!

Building Leadership through Action ResearchDouglas Llewellyn, John Travers, and Michael Wischnowski

Pages 1-7

Developing and Assessing Studentsʼ Science ProcessSkills: Inquiry Centers

Aaron D. IsabellePages 7-19

Constellations Are Out of This WorldA Historical and Present Day look at Constellations and

the Stories Behind ThemJoan GillmanPages 19-26

The Full Moon Does Not Have A Significant Effect On TheNumber Of Discipline Referrals Among High School

StudentsD.M.H. Syracuse

Pages 27-33

The Geology of Howe CavernsArt PalmerPages 34-37

Discovering And Analyzing Magnetic Fields WithSolenoids

James KennicuttPages 38-48


STANYS The Science Teachers Bulletin Fall 2011 1

Building Leadership through Action Research

Douglas Llewellyn, John Travers, and Michael WischnowskiSchool of Education, St. John Fisher College

Rochester, New Yorkto implement effective professionaldevelopment programs that helpedpracticing teachers and teacher leadersmeet the needs of their students.

The TLQP MissionAt the center of the TLQPmission wasan ideal that envisioned a two-dimen-sional goal for all professional devel-opment that can be defined as “thoseprocesses and activities designed toenhance the professional knowledge,skills and attitudes of educators so thatthey might, in turn, improve the learn-ing of students” (Guskey, 2000, p. 16).

The focus of the project’s efforts wascentered not simply on developingknowledge and skills, but on buildinga professional learning communitythat better understands the nature ofteaching and learning - particularlywith an eye toward mitigating theachievement gap between affluent stu-dents and students of poverty. Toaccomplish the goals of the program, awide variety of research-based strate-gies and skills were shared, modeled,and practiced.

In short, the design of the TLQP proj-ect attempted to construct a learningcommunity that envisioned profes-sional development not purely as amatter of increasing technical compe-tence, but as one concerned with gen-

IntroductionIn a poem by the Nobel Prize winningIrish poet Seamus Heaney, the narratorremarks, "She taught me what heruncle once taught her: how easily thebiggest coal block split if you got thegrain and the hammer angled right."Getting the grain and the hammerangled right is never an easy task forleaders in any complex organization.However, if the coal block-size dilem-mas of education are to be split intoproblems that are manageable, compre-hensible, and mutable, then schoolleaders will have to work assiduouslyand persistently to accomplish just this.

The Teacher/Leader QualityPartnership Program

In an attempt to get the “grain and ham-mer angled right” in the domain of pro-fessional development, 40 math andscience teachers from the RochesterCity School District (Rochester, NY)and surrounding suburban school dis-tricts participated in an initiative enti-tled the Teacher/Leader QualityPartnership (TLQP) program. The pro-gram, through a Title III grant, createdpartnerships consisting of an institutionof higher education and local K-12schools, including at least one high-need school district. Drawing on theirrespective experiences, skills, andknowledge, the program directors andpartners worked together to design and


2 STANYS The Science Teachers Bulletin Fall 2011

uine inquiry and thoughtfulness.Instrumental to this vision was a con-ception of teaching that challenged thedominant view of professional devel-opment - merely as the linear transmis-sion of knowledge from presenter toparticipant. Rather, it envisioned pro-fessional development as a venue formeaningful learning and inquiry whereteachers actively and purposivelyengaged in action research projects thatwere transformative, thereby enablingthe participants to view themselves asboth practitioners and researchers.

What is Action Research?Action research is a systemic and oftencollaborative inquiry conducted byteachers and teacher leaders for thepurpose of improving their practice andperformance. By gathering informationand evidence about effective instruc-tional strategies, teacher-researchersexplore their teaching methods for spe-cific situations and how students learnbest - ultimately leading to increasingstudent motivation and academicachievement.

As a spiral and reflective process, theinclination toward undertaking anaction research project often com-mences with a single observation orphenomenon that arises from a class-room discussion or a student comment.For the TLQP program, the actionresearch started with the formulation ofa question, a problem, or an awarenessof an achievement gap. Through coach-ing and informational sessions, partici-pants planned (a) a means to investi-gate and to study the phenomenon; (b)

collected and organized both quantita-tive and qualitative data related to theirquestion; and (c) kept journal notesand anecdotal records. The teachersthen analyzed evidence provided in theform of student work, portfolios, orstandardized achievement tests andcommunicated their findings to otherTLQP participants as well as col-leagues at their individual schools.

Action Research into SecondarySchool Science Learners

During the TLQP program, one high-school science teacher, Kathy Hoppe,focused her multi-year action researchon Problem-Based Learning (PBL) atan alternative education program forat-risk students. Here she monitoredimprovement in academic perform-ance, attitude, and interest in science.

Her action research project, “TheEffect of Problem-Based Learning(PBL) Curriculum on AcademicPerformance, Behavior, andMotivation in High School BiologyStudents,” connected real world biolo-gy situations to the students’ livesthrough integrated PBL labs. Duringthe first year of this project, Kathyfound that students expressed a greaterinterest in biology when participatingin problem-based learning units versustraditional instruction. In addition, stu-dents’ results on the New York StateBiology Regents final examinationdemonstrated an increase in academicachievement with PBL lessons. Thefirst part of this action research projectled seamlessly into the second part inwhich she analyzed a four-week PBL



curriculum implemented with a region-al summer school program. Duringyear two, student motivation, behavior,attendance, and academic achievementwere measured. In all categoriesKathy’s findings and supportive evi-dence strengthened the claim that stu-dents in PBL biology classes weremore motivated, attended class morefrequently, and achieved higher passinggrades versus the traditional instructionat that same summer school programwith a comparable group of students.

What are the Benefits ofAction Research?

In spite of the day-to-day demandsteachers have placed upon them, onemight expect that adding another task,namely conducting classroom research,would seem like “the straw that brokethe camel’s back.” TLQP participants,however, through on-going support,embraced the notion of their role of“teacher as a researcher” and used theirclassroom as a laboratory for investi-gating both their profession and theirpractice. The project directors andcoordinating team members providedprint resources including Hubbard andPower’s The Art of Classroom Inquiry -A Handbook for Teacher-Researchersand Mertler’s Action Research -Teachers as Researchers in theClassroom, Second Edition to assistparticipants in narrowing a question fortheir inquiry, designing a data collec-tion system, and analyzing and inter-preting the evidence from their explo-rations.

In addition, sets of theme issues from

Educational Leadership were pur-chased for discussion via jig-sawstrategies. Issues included “Science inthe Spotlight” (December 2006-January 2007, “Teachers as Leaders”(September 2007), “Making MathCount” (November 2007), and “Data:What Now?” (December 2008-January 2009). In the end, TLQP par-ticipants expressed numerous positivedeclarations concerning their actionresearch projects. Feedback from eachof the monthly sessions and focusgroup discussions indicated that teach-ers felt the experience was a rewardingand fulfilling process - one that deep-ened their understanding of an aspectof their classroom practice not previ-ously examined.

Changing Attitudes throughAction Research

Normally, teachers conduct actionresearch in the interest of enhancingstudent achievement. Although the pri-mary goals of the TLQP program wereto provide an opportunity for teachersto inquire into their own teaching prac-tices as well as their students’ learningfor the improvement academic per-formance, this article focuses on theeffect action research had on changingthe important intangibles: the attitudes,values, and beliefs participating teach-ers held about their own professional-ism and practice. Figure 1 illustratesthe feedback loop identifying theintangibles in transforming teachers’attitudes and dispositions about theirroles and practices.



The TLQP Evaluation DesignFollowing the framework of Loucks-Horsley, et al. (2010) for designing pro-fessional development and Guskey’s(2000) model of evaluating profession-al development, the TLQP goals wereassessed in a systematic approach atfive interlocking levels: (1) partici-pants’ reactions, (2) participants’ learn-ing, (3) organizational support andchange, (4) participants’ use of newknowledge and skills, and (5) studentlearning outcomes. Of particular inter-est for this project was Level 4: partic-ipants’ use of new knowledge andskills. Qualitative data was collectedfrom a focus group and analyzed as theprimary assessment indicator.

Focus GroupA focus group session was conductedwith seven participants of the TLQPprogram, as part of a summative evalu-ation. The focus group session wasaudio-taped, transcribed, and examinedfor key themes using content analysis.Six themes emerged, each denoting achange in participants’ attitudes orbeliefs concerning: (a) effective profes-

sional development, (b) conductingaction research, (c) the role of theteacher-researcher, (d) inquiry-basedteaching, (e) listening to students, and(f) teacher leadership.

Based on the respondents’ perspec-tives, the TLQP model appears to haveraised the teachers’ expectations forwhat effective professional develop-ment should embody; namely, it shouldbe research-based, collegial, centeredon genuine inquiry, and data-drivenusing multiple measures for assess-ment. Focus group members also per-ceived constructive professional devel-opment as a vehicle for bridging theoryand practice.

Several focus group participants men-tioned the restructuring process foreffective professional development andhow well action research modeled it,helping them guide the efforts of theprofessional learning communities andcollegial circles that were emerging intheir respective schools. A train-the-trainer dynamic seemed to emergewhere the participants brought mean-

Figure 1: Feedback loop



ingful models and messages back totheir students and colleagues.

Numerous focus group participantsdescribed the action research project asa worthy form of professional develop-ment that can replace supervisoryobservations as a method of evaluatingthe growth of tenured faculty in someschools. They talked about how analyz-ing student work and collecting alterna-tive and authentic forms of data atschool was becoming more common-place in their practice. They describedthese practices as a part of their owncontinuous development as teachers,but also connected the activities toimprovement efforts in their buildingsor districts. “Action research, for me,”said one participant, “really validateseverything that I do. I know how to col-lect the data, I know how to analyze thedata, and I know how to assess the data.It’s no longer just using my intuition.”

When asked about the role of theteacher-researcher in schools, one par-ticipant commented, “It is not anassigned role,” which received consen-sus from the other participants. “Beinga teacher-researcher is not in the jobdescription.” The teacher continued, “Idon't have an assigned role as that ofteacher-researcher and I am not aTeacher on Special Assignment in thebuilding. I am a 4th grade teacher. Butwith my combined knowledge of actionresearch and the leadership develop-ment I've learned here (and with myMaster’s degree in literacy), I have a lotof people wandering into my class-room. I don't get additional pay for

anyone asking for advice, but I do feelgood when people come to me andrequest help.”

Intellectual engagement and stimula-tion was another attribute that permeat-ed much of the talk of the teacher-researcher identity in the focus groupdiscussions. Participants talked aboutusing inquiry-based methods learnedthrough the action research process andhow meaningful that learning had beento their own scholarly growth. To thatnotion a high school teacher affirmed,“For me, I think being a teacher is themost important profession. Then Ithink about doctors. And I think, gosh,I really wouldn’t want to go to a doctorwho has not kept abreast with all of themedical changes when taking care ofme. I really can't honestly look at a kid(pause) and I can't look at myself in themirror (pause) if I don't keep on top ofmy craft. And yes, it's exhausting, but Ithink we owe it to our kids. And theseare kind of the things that - I mean - Idrive all the way from Penn Yan tocome to this. But this is what I waslooking for. This is really meaningful.”

Listening to students was anothertheme that emerged from the focusgroup comments. Teachers suggestedthat their action research experiencehelped them to be better observers andlisteners of students. In spite of thepressure of accountability in theirschools, these teachers wanted to lookbeyond standardized test scores to seeif they were being successful with chil-dren. “I'm seeing the grades of the kidsas not being the ultimate judge of what



they are getting out of the class,”explained one teacher. “This was whatI was looking for - Do they understandit better? Maybe they’re still havingdifficulty with algebra. Are they havingtrouble figuring out how to use the keyson their calculator? I think teacher-researchers see their students as activelearners and not as acquisitionists ofcontent. I no longer view students’minds as containers with me pouringinformation into them.”

Several participants believed thataction research helped them become abetter resource for administrators andother teachers, and with that addedresponsibility comes a certain level ofrespect and trust. One participant com-mented, “Administrators who encour-age and support teachers to be teacher-researchers demonstrate respect andtrust for the person in a profession thatcultivates personal and professionalgrowth. I feel bad for teachers in otherplaces that don't have that.”

ClosingThe coal block is the symbol of theproblems and the promising possibili-ties embedded in many of social andorganizational systems that we inhabit.The problems are large, bulky, andever-present - just like our physicalresources of coal. The possibilities arewaiting to be created.

If we are to turn that coal potential intopower, into something usable, we willneed to break it into manageable piecesjust like the enormous challenges edu-cators face. To do that we will need

teacher-researchers with both problemknowledge (the grain) and the righttools (the hammer). Action researchand teacher leadership is an untappedresource for many schools. Changingthe attitudes and beliefs of teachers andtheir profession can start with a singleswing of the hammer.

ReferencesGuskey, T. (2000). Evaluating profes-sional development. Thousand Oaks,CA: Corwin Press.

Loucks-Horsley, S., Stiles, K., Mundry,S., Love, N., & Hewson, P. (2010).Designing professional developmentfor teachers of science and mathemat-ics, 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA:Corwin Press.

Douglas Llewellyn teaches scienceeducation courses at St. John FisherCollege (Rochester, NY). He was theco-director for the TLQP program andis interested in topics on teacher lead-ership in science . Llewellyn is theauthor of four books and numerousarticles on scientific inquiry, and canbe reached at [email protected]

John Travers has held a number ofteaching and leadership positions inpublic and private education (K-12)both in New York City and in Rochester,New York. Previously, he served as theDirector of the English as a SecondLanguage (ESOL) Program for theRochester City School District and asan assistant professor in theDepartment of Educational Leadershipat St. John Fisher College. In March



AbstractInquiry Centers are science-focusedstations consisting of everyday materi-als, along with open-ended questionsor open-ended tasks. Using an InquiryCenter Approach, upper elementaryand middle school students can con-struct their own Inquiry Centers andinteract with their classmates’ centers,while teachers support and assess thedevelopment of their basic processskills. Deliberate instruction andencouragement of the development ofthese skills is essential in preparingstudents for successful problem-solvingexperiences.

PurposeThe vast majority of inquiry-based sci-ence curricula used in Elementary andMiddle Schools are referred to as“skills-based” curricula. Scienceprocess skills or abilities reflective ofthe behavior of scientists (e.g. observ-ing, inferring, predicting, measuring,

etc.) are used while students areengaged in the active exploration ofscience concepts. The use of scienceprocess skills and the learning of sci-ence concepts become inseparablewhen a skills-based curriculum isimplemented. Colvill & Pattie (2002)state that a “skills-based” science pro-gram is necessary if teachers base theirlessons on problem-solving or inquiry-based learning experiences; “nothingcan be more frustrating in a problem-solving program if the work is held upby a lack of skill in the basic processes”(pp. 20-21). Problem-solving activitiesrequire scientific reasoning and criticalthinking abilities which, in-turn,require proper use of the basic scienceprocess skills. Therefore, teachers mustnot take for granted that students haveadequately developed these skills;rather, “we must be deliberate in howwe instruct students and encouragetheir development of these skills”(Froschauer, 2010, p. 6).

2003, he received a Doctorate in Educational Leadership. Currently he serves asa dissertation chair and committee member for doctoral candidates in theAbraham S. Fischler School of Education at Nova Southeastern University.

Dr. MikeWischnowski is an Associate Professor in the executive leadership doc-toral program in the Ralph C. Wilson Jr. School of Education at St. John FisherCollege where he teaches courses in leadership, program evaluation, and actionresearch. He can be reached at [email protected]

Developing and Assessing Studentsʼ Science ProcessSkills: Inquiry Centers

Aaron D. IsabelleThe State University of New York at New Paltz

School of Education, Department of Elementary EducationNew Paltz, NY



Providing upper elementary and middleschool students with a wide range ofmeaningful, hands-on science experi-ences to assess their developingprocess skills should be a primaryobjective for all science teachers. Oneway to achieve this goal is through theuse of Inquiry Centers. Inquiry Centersare science-focused stations consistingof everyday materials, along withopen-ended questions or open-endedtasks. Using an Inquiry Centerapproach, students can construct theirown Inquiry Centers and interact withtheir classmates’ centers. In doing so,teachers can actively support andassess students’ understanding and useof science process skills. This, in-turn,will help to inform teachers about stu-dents’ readiness to participate in prob-lem-solving activities which require theuse of “integrated process skills” or“experimenting abilities” (i.e. skillswhich require the use of basic processskills).

BackgroundIn the field of education, there is nostandard definition of “scientificinquiry.” Rather, educators find it moreeffective to describe key characteristicsof inquiry or inquiry behaviors. In thevision presented by the NationalScience Education Standards , scientif-ic inquiry is described as a “hands-on”and “minds-on” approach to learningscience in which students learn skills,such as observation, inference, andexperimentation. The vision of theStandards is a holistic one whichrequires that students combine processskills and scientific knowledge as they

use scientific reasoning and criticalthinking to develop their understandingof science. It is important to note thatthe use of Inquiry Centers as describedin this article is consistent with thevision of the Standards and is not areturn to a piecemeal, process skillscurricular approach popular in the1960s through the late 1980s whereprocess skills were separated from con-tent knowledge (Padilla, 2010, p. 8).Rather, Inquiry Centers are presentedas a type of performance task thatteachers can use to assess students’competence and understanding of thebasic process skills before transitioningto learning experiences characterizedby critical thinking, scientific reason-ing, and problem-solving. At the sametime, Inquiry Centers provide anauthentic learning experience whichallows students to continue to developand practice their skills. According toBeeth, Cross, Pearl, Pirro, Yagnesak,and Kennedy (2001), “In combinationwith district and state level evaluationof specific science content and themes,information obtained from assessingstudents’ science process knowledgecan provide a more complete picture ofthe process knowledge a student needsto master in order to learn science well”(p 16).

According to the Standards, “Engagingstudents in inquiry helps studentsdevelop 1) understanding of scientificconcepts; 2) skills necessary to becomeindependent inquirers about the naturalworld; and 3) the dispositions to use theskills, abilities, and attitudes associatedwith science” (National Research



Figure 1. The Inquiry Triad

Council, 1996, p. 105). Accordingly, ifstudents are going to be engaged ininquiry in the classroom, they shouldbe provided with a framework to helpthem think about and organize theirscience learning experiences. Teacherscan help students understand that sci-entific inquiry can be thought of as setof interrelated elements by which sci-entists pose questions about the naturalworld, investigate phenomena, andcultivate deeper understanding.Science content, process skills, anddispositions/attitudes associated withscience (e.g. wonder, curiosity, respectfor evidence, openness to new ideas)are key elements that characterize sci-entific inquiry as a way of knowingand finding out new things about theworld (See “The Inquiry Triad” in fig-ure 1).

This description or framework for sci-entific inquiry focuses on the activelearning of science in which the use ofbasic science process skills play amajor role. In my experience, intro-

ducing students to this framework canbetter help students comprehend whatit means to think and act scientificallyrather than simply offering the scien-tific method as an explanation of whatscientists do. Using the Inquiry Triad,teachers can help students realize thatscientific inquiry entails scientists ask-ing questions about objects and eventsbecause they are curious (disposi-tions/attitudes); scientists use their sci-ence process skills to construct expla-nations and test those explanations(skills); when evidence confirms theirexplanations, scientists develop andfurther their understanding of science(content knowledge).

Introducing Science Process SkillsAfter students are presented with the“Inquiry Triad” as a framework tounderstand the core elements of whatit means to think and act as a scientistdoes, students can then be introducedto the basic science process skills:observing, inferring, predicting, meas-uring, classifying, communicating



dents should know that they will beparticipating in a variety of activitiesin which they will have a chance tofurther develop their science processskills. The use of Inquiry Centers hasbeen adapted from Koch’s “sciencecircus” (2005) in which she describesa teacher in a fourth grade classroomwho made use of simple, everydaymaterials that were familiar to the chil-dren. The teacher used several differ-ent stations for the purpose of develop-ing science process skills. As the chil-dren visited each station, they per-formed various activities and recordedtheir ideas (pp. 87-96). Using anInquiry Center approach, studentswork together in small, cooperativegroups to construct their own InquiryCenters rather than having the centerspre-made by the teacher. This strategywill not only allow students to have asense of ownership over the activity,but also it will immediately providestudents with the opportunity to thinkabout the basic science process skillsin ways that are meaningful to them. Ihave found it helpful to offer a fewexamples of Inquiry Centers to givestudents a concrete idea of what anInquiry Center looks like. As previous-ly stated, there are good examples pro-vided in Koch’s book, however, I havealso provided a sample listing ofInquiry Centers (See Appendix C for asample listing of Inquiry Centers).

A key component of the InquiryCenter strategy is the use of an open-ended question or open-ended task toinvite exploration of the materials atthe center. For example, you might ask

recording data, comparing and con-trasting, and planning an investigation(Adapted from Koch, 2005). (SeeAppendix A for a working definition ofthe basic science process skills.) Whenintroducing the basic science processskills, I have found that it is importantto emphasize that “observation” is thelaunching pad for all other processskills and, therefore, is an incrediblyimportant skill to develop. Also, theprocess skills are not just confined tothe field of science, but are used inmany subject areas, as well as oureveryday lives. To make the initiallearning of these skills meaningful, it isimportant to make reference to a vari-ety of everyday situations in which weuse these skills. For example, we useclocks as a tool for “measuring” time;we use the skill of “comparing and con-trasting” when we decide upon an itemto purchase; and the skill of “classify-ing” is used in the organization of gro-cery stores to help partition the storeinto appropriate sections and aislesdepending upon food type. The intro-duction of science process skills usinga discussion format will be quite help-ful in setting the context for the use ofInquiry Centers. In addition, dependingupon the grade level, as well as stu-dents’ readiness, teachers may alsowant to begin to introduce their stu-dents to the “integrated process skills”also referred to as “experimenting abil-ities” (See Appendix B for a workingdefinition of the integrated processskills).

Constructing Inquiry CentersWhen introducing Inquiry Centers, stu-



on the index card provided for you.

c) Think about and write down whichScience Process Skills will be practicedat your Inquiry Center.

d) Develop a title for your InquiryCenter. Write the title on the oppositeside of your index card.

Give the students about five minutes tobrainstorm what types of materials theythink would be fun to work with andwhat the question or task will be. Thenhave each group explore various every-day materials placed in boxes or tubs atthe front of the classroom. Some ideasfor materials to include are: dish soap,magnets, pipe cleaners, sponges,blocks, clay, string, plastic cups, craftsticks, water, paper clips, rubber bands,leaves, etc. – the possibilities are end-less! Also, certain tools such as a ruler,graduated cylinder, pan balance, stop-watch, and a magnifying glass shouldbe available for the students. Be pre-pared for a high level of motivationamong the students; they will be talkingwith each other, moving about theroom, and excitedly searching for itemsnecessary to construct their centers.(Note: It is also important to briefly dis-cuss safety considerations and theimportance of using the materials in theproper way.) As students bring thematerials back to their tables, it will beessential for the teacher to guide theconstruction of the centers by askingprobing questions such as: What willyour classmates be doing with thesematerials? What science process skill(s)will be used? Can your center easily be

your students to compare the two sam-ple tasks: a) “Sort the objects into threegroups.” versus b) “Sort the objectsinto as many groups as you can.” Thestudents should recognize that the sec-ond task would allow students to clas-sify the objects in different ways andcome up with as many groups as pos-sible. On the other hand, the first taskis much more directive (or convergent)in nature because students can onlysort the objects into three groups.Therefore, the second task is more“open-ended” because students havechoices and are able to explore differ-ent classification possibilities.

The students should then be instructedto work with a cooperative group (3 –4 students) to create their own InquiryCenters (See Appendix D for theInquiry Center Task Sheet). The fol-lowing instructions are given:

Directions for Constructing anInquiry Center

Work with your cooperative group toconstruct your own Science InquiryCenter. Make sure your centers areeasy to reset because each group willhave the chance to explore your cen-ter:

a) Use simple, everyday materialsfound either in the classroom or natu-ral materials from outside to developyour Inquiry Center.

b) Develop an open-ended question oropen-ended task which will invite par-ticipation and interaction with yourInquiry Center. Write your question



re-set? Is your open-ended question/task truly open-ended? Do you thinkyour classmates will know what to dowhen they read the question/task onyour index card? Asking these types ofquestions during the construction peri-od will help to insure the success of theexploration of the centers by the vari-ous groups. Also, collecting eachgroup’s Inquiry Center Task Sheet atthe end of class will allow the teacherto give additional feedback to helpinsure that the centers meet all of theassigned criteria and are clearlyfocused on one or more science processskills.

Exploring Inquiry CentersBefore beginning the exploration, Igive each group a large piece of chartpaper to place on their table. The chartpaper will not only aid in the clean-upprocess after the exploration of the cen-ters, but also it will serve as a focalpoint; all materials should be placed ontop of the chart paper, along with theindex card. I have also found it helpfulif the students write the title of theircenter in large letters at the top of thechart paper for each group to clearlysee. Each student should be given an“Inquiry Center Log” which is essen-tially a T-chart for the students torecord what they did at each center andwhich science process skills they used(See Appendix E). The students shouldbe given approximately 7 – 8 minutesto explore each center and should begiven a two-minute warning before thetime expires. Before the groups rotateto a different center, it is important togive each group approximately two

minutes to complete their InquiryCenter Logs by writing a brief summa-ry of what they did at each center andwhat science process skill(s) they prac-ticed. This should be done independ-ently to assess individual students’competence levels. The Inquiry Centerexploration period ends when eachgroup has visited all of the centers.It is critical to debrief the students’experiences with the centers by creat-ing an inventory of all of the scienceprocess skills used while allowing thestudents to share specific experiences.To extend the learning experience, youmay consider taking pictures of yourstudents in action at the centers.Posting the pictures on a class bulletinboard and using the science processskills as captions for each picture mayassist students in further developingtheir process skills by referring back tothe display. Lastly, the Inquiry CenterLogs should be collected since theywill provide the teacher with formativeassessment data regarding the students’level of understanding of the basicprocess skills.

ConclusionAlthough I have used this approachwith upper elementary and middleschool students, Inquiry Centers havebecome an integral part of my under-graduate methods course in scienceteaching. At the very beginning of mycourse, after I introduce my students tothe Inquiry Triad and the basic scienceprocess skills, pre-service teacherswork in small, cooperative groups tocreate their own Inquiry Centers fol-lowing the procedure outlined in this



ReferencesBeeth, M. E.; Cross, L.; Pearl, C.; Pirro, J.;Yagnesak, K.; Kennedy, J. (2001). A con-tinuum for assessing science processknowledge in grades K-6. ElectronicJournal of Science Education [Online].Available at:http://ejse.southwestern.edu/article/view/7657/5424 [V5 N3, 2001].

Colvill, M. & Pattie, I. (2002). Scienceskills: The building blocks for scientificliteracy (part 1). Investigating, 18(3), 20-22

Colvill, M. & Pattie, I. (2002). Scienceskills: The building blocks for scientificliteracy (part 2). Investigating, 18(4), 27-30.

Colvill, M. & Pattie, I. (2003). Scienceskills: The building blocks for scientificliteracy (part 3). Investigating, 19(1), 21-23.

Koch, J. (2005). Science Stories (3rd Ed).New York: Houghton Mifflin.

National Research Council (NRC).(1996). National science education stan-dards. Washington, DC: NationalAcademy Press.

Padilla, M. (1990). The science processskills. Research Matters - to the ScienceTeacher [Online]. Available:http://www.narst.org/publications/research/skill.cfm [N9004, 1990].

Padilla, M. (2010). Inquiry, process skills,and thinking in science. Science &Children, 48(2), 8-9.

Roschauer, L. (Ed.) (2010). Editor’s Note.In Science & Children, 48(2), 6.

article. Since my science methodscourse is focused on inquiry teachingstrategies, I emphasize the importanceof students’ understanding of the basicscience process skills for effectivelycreating an inquiry learning environ-ment. As Colvill & Pattie (2001) state,“A science program that ignoresprocess skills development is like areading program that ignores the basicsof reading and writing” (p. 20). Padilla(1990) explains, “The research litera-ture indicates that when scienceprocess skills are a specific plannedoutcome of a science program, thoseskills can be learned by students”(Summary and Conclusions section,para. 2). Pre-service and in-serviceteachers alike need to realize theimportance of the science process skillsas an integral part of the science cur-riculum and be deliberate in how theyinstruct students in the development ofthese skills. As Froschauer (2001)states, “Don’t assume that studentsdevelop these skills without your care-ful guidance; students must be prompt-ed to investigate in such a way that theycan develop increasingly more sophis-ticated skills and attitudes” (p. 6). TheInquiry Center strategy is one way inwhich teachers can guide students inthe development of their process skillsand, at the same time, provide a forma-tive, authentic tool for assessing theirskills. I find this strategy to be particu-larly effective because it connectsassessment with instruction. I inviteyou to try Inquiry Centers in your ownclassroom.



Appendix A. Basic Science Process Skills1. Observing: using all of your senses (see, hear, taste, touch, and smell) to gath-er information about an object or event. This is the most basic and most impor-tant out of all of the science process skills. We are always observing, always tak-ing in stimuli from our environment.2. Inferring: interpreting or explaining an observation. An inference is an expla-nation of an observation based upon previously gathered information; that is, weinfer about something that happened in the past (i.e. why something happened orhow something happened).3. Predicting: forming an idea of what will occur (a future event) based upon pres-ent knowledge and understandings (not a guess). (e.g. “Predict” what will happen.)4. Classifying: sorting objects or ideas into groups based on similar or differentproperties/attributes.

5. Measuring: comparing unknown quantities (attributes such as length, width,height, mass, and time) with known quantities such as standard units in the metricor English system (e.g., inches, yards, centimeters, or meters) or nonstandard unitssuch as student-generated frames of reference (e.g., using paperclips to measurethe length of an object).6. Communicating Ideas & Recording Data: gathering and conveying informa-tion and ideas to others using the written and spoken word, graphs, demonstra-tions, drawings, diagrams, or tables. Communication is another very importantprocess skill that permeates all areas of science. To share ideas in a collaborativesetting or to convey information in an organized nonverbal way (charts, graphs,etc.) is extremely powerful. The sharing of information and knowledge consistent-ly occurs in scientific communities and helps to sustain and maintain scientificcommunities.7. Comparing and Contrasting: discovering similarities and differences betweenobjects or events. Comparing and contrasting is a process often used whileobserving and/or classifying.8. Planning an Investigation: determining a reasonable procedure that could befollowed to test an idea including listing the materials needed, basic procedures tobe followed, and identifying which variables to keep constant (extraneous vari-ables), to change (independent variable), or that respond to change (dependentvariables). Usually, in planning an investigation, a thought experiment is the bestway to proceed. Once an investigation has been mentally planned with only oneindependent variable identified, one can then conduct the investigation.



Appendix B. Integrated Process Skills(…require the use of the basic process skills)

1. Interpreting Data: analyzing and synthesizing data using tables, graphs,and diagrams to locate patterns that lead to the construction of inferences, predic-tions, or hypotheses.

2. Formulating a Hypothesis or Hypothesizing: making an educated guessbased on evidence that can be tested through experimentation. A hypothesis shouldbe in the form of a causal statement, along with a reasonable explanation of whatis going on (e.g. If I do this… then this should happen… because this is what Ithink is going on.)

3. Making Models: constructing mental, verbal, or physical representationsof ideas, objects, or events to clarify explanations or demonstrate relationships.Scale models have a lot of explanatory power (e.g. a scale model of the solar sys-tem). Making models can also help to make complicated objects and events moreapproachable and understandable.

4. Defining Operationally: explaining a variable in working terms or basedupon observable characteristics. When you define a variable operationally, youexplain exactly how you will measure a variable in an experiment so that otherscan replicate your experiment. For example, if you want to measure bean growth,you can define that variable operationally by stating that the change in height willbe measured from the top of the soil to the top of the highest shoot. This variablecan be measured in millimeters per day or centimeters per week.

5. Experimenting: performing an experiment to test a hypothesis. This is acomplex skill which begins when the scientist observes some event or object in theuniverse that interests her. She then makes an inference or hunch as to what mightbe going on. The inference can be tested by formulating a hypothesis. If the resultof the experiment matches what was stated in the hypothesis, then the hypothesisis verified. If this does not happen, further testing and modification of the hypoth-esis is required until the result matches the stated hypothesis. When this process ofexperimental verification occurs a large number of times, the hypothesis maybecome a “theory.” However, it is important to note that a hypothesis or a theoryis never “proven”; rather it can only be verified or unverified/disproven.

Appendix C. Sample Inquiry Centers(see following page)





Appendix D. Inquiry Center Task Sheet

Constructing & Exploring Science Inquiry Centers

Directions: Work with your cooperative group to construct your own ScienceInquiry Center. Make sure your center is easy to reset because each group willhave the chance to explore your center.

Group Members: ___________________________________________________

a) Use simple, everyday materials found either in the classroom or natural materi-als from outside to develop your Inquiry Center. List the materials in the spacebelow:

b) Develop an open-ended question or open-ended task which will invite partici-pation and interaction with your Inquiry Center. Write your question or task in thespace below and on one side of your index card:

c) Think about which Science Process Skills will be practiced at your InquiryCenter. Write the science process skills in the space below and briefly explain howthey will be used by your classmates

d) Develop a title for your Inquiry Center. Write the title in the space below andon the other side of your index card.



Appendix E. Inquiry Center Log

Inquiry Center Log

Center title: _____________________

Center title: _____________________

Center title: _____________________

Center title: _____________________

Center title: _____________________

Summarize what you did at eachInquiry Center in each space below:

Identify the science process skill(s)you used at each Inquiry Center.



Aaron D. Isabelle is an Associate Professor of Science Education in theDepartment of Elementary Education at the State University of New York at NewPaltz. He earned his B.A. in Physics from the College of the Holy Cross and hisM.A.Ed. and Ph.D. from Clark University. After serving as a middle school sci-ence teacher in Worcester, Massachusetts and an assistant professor of elementaryeducation at DeSales University in Center Valley, Pennsylvania, he joined theSUNY New Paltz faculty as a science educator in 2003. Aaron is active in both pre-service and in-service teacher professional development. His current researchagenda includes the creation and use of history-of-science-inspired stories, alter-nate conceptions in science, university-school partnerships, and a various inquiry-based strategies for improving science teaching. He can be reached by email at:[email protected]

Constellations Are Out of This WorldA Historical and Present Day look at Constellations and

the Stories Behind ThemJoan Gillman

The Calhoun SchoolNew York City, New York

What child does not gaze at the nightsky and is held spellbound by the awe-some sights above! Their feelings ofawe are not unlike those of the ancientcivilizations. Ancient observers fromaround the world would look at thenight sky and imagine that the groupsof stars formed pictures of animals,people, and other objects. Those pat-terns are what we call constellations.

If you look at different cultures, youwill be able to see that the various civ-ilizations had their own names and sto-ries for the patterns they viewed in thesky. For example, Ursa Major-The BigBear becomes “The Never-EndingBear Hunt” for the Micmac people ofNova Scotia, Prince Edward Island,eastern New Brunswick, and the Gaspe

Peninsula of Quebec. The bowl of theBig Dipper is the bear, the handle andstars in the Herdsman are the hunters,and the Northern Crown is the bear’sden.

Since Astronomy is a major topic in the5th grade science curriculum, I decidedto use the study of constellations as theback drop for myAction Research proj-ect. As in most schools, my classesinclude students with varying degreesof knowledge and skills. With this inmind, I decided to look at ways toaddress all learning styles in the class-room so that the constellation unitwould be comprehensible to all my stu-dents. I also wanted to use cooperativelearning to create a more student-cen-tered environment.



This year, I began with a constellationpre-assessment to identify what knowl-edge my students already had. For thisactivity, the 5th graders were shown asheet with a variety of constellationpictures. Students were asked to iden-tify what was on the sheet. The major-ity of my 5th graders were able to artic-ulate that the pictures showed differentconstellations. Once this fact wasestablished, the students were asked tocome up with their own definition of aconstellation. Sample responses includ-ed, “They are group of stars that form apattern in the sky.” Another commentwas, “Stars that look like a picturewhen grouped together.”

The next step involved much more of achallenge. The 5th graders were giventhree sheets of paper containing variousconstellations. An additional twosheets recorded the names of the con-stellations found in the original threesheets. Working in groups, the studentswere asked to match the names of theconstellations to their actual picture.The 5th gradershad a few success-es matching theconstellation to itstitle. Gemini-TheTwins was easilyfound as well asthe three starsforming Orion’sBelt. Most of theother constellationswere very chal-lenging to identify.As a result, the stu-dents came to the

conclusion that ancient astronomersmust have had a “vivid imagination”when it came to grouping stars andnaming constellations.

The next activity used a ConstellationGlobe with a darkened classroom to geta better picture as to what the constel-lations really looked like in the eveningsky. With the first activity alreadybehind them, the students were begin-ning to develop more facility with con-stellation identification. It was quiteexciting to hear the students’ enthusi-asm mount as they found the variousconstellations.

Activity three used both Northern andSouthern sky maps. The maps I havein my classroom are quite large in size.The advantage of the large size is thatthe students can all gather around themap as we use a ruler, chalk, and stringto sketch out what constellation wouldbe present in the sky on a certain date.As in the past, the 5th graders all want-ed to see what constellations would be

A student attempting to match the picture of theconstellation to its correct title



es in their Humanities ancient civiliza-tion classes, this really made for a ter-rific interdisciplinary connection. Leothe Lion, Orion, the Hunter, Cygnus,the Swan, The Big Bear, the Little Bear,and Cassiopeia, the Queen were the sixstories we examined. Children tookturns reading the passages and dis-cussing the context. In addition, wealso examined the Native Americanconstellation myths so that we couldcompare and contrast their stories withthose of the ancient Greeks.

present on their birthday. To make thisactivity more valuable, we usedJanuary, April, July, and October-months in the four seasons to see howthe Northern sky changed throughoutthe year. Since I was fortunate to alsohave a Southern sky map, the pupilswere able to compare and contrast thetwo maps. Of course, the studentswere amazed when they saw theplethora of stars in the Southern sky.

The next activity looked at some of themore famous constellations and thestories behind them.Since the children werelearning about ancientGreek gods and goddess-

Right: Using theConstellation Globe inthe darkened class-room

Below: Using theNorthern SkyConstellation Map



One of the major difficulties in using the star charts is that they are large and bulkyto use when outside during the evening hours. As a result, the 5th graders weregiven an opportunity to make their own portable star wheels. We were able toobtain the necessary materials from the LHS Hands-On Universe Project. Theirwebsite contained a variety of materials that would be suitable for classroom use.To begin this project, the students glued the two sheets onto a manila file folder.The file folders give the wheels more support, and this prevents them from gettingeasily torn or damaged. From there, the students followed the directions on thesheets and cut out the necessary parts. For some of the students, this can be a chal-lenge. Usually in my classroom, I will assist those that need help with the cutting.Since I stress that we are a community of learners, it is also not unusual to see theother students helping their peers. Once “Uncle Al’s Star Wheels” are construct-ed, the 5th graders now have their own personal star guide to use when viewingthe night sky. The wonderful part of this wheel is that they can be used year round.You can also choose a particular hour in the night for more specific viewing.

For a few of the 5th graders, use of the star wheels can create another challenge.Sometimes the pupils will have difficulty lining up the date and time on the wheel.Others may find it hard to read the small print. Nevertheless, a recommendationwould be to pair up the students so that a stronger pupil can help guide their part-ner. For the majority of the class, the students enjoy identifying the constellationpresent on their birthday or during other special dates and holidays.

Above: Constructing theConstellation Star Wheels

Right: Using Uncle Alʼs StarWheel



This takes us to our next activity. Afterconstructing the Star Wheels, we begina discussion of circumpolar stars.These are the stars that circle aroundthe pole. Polaris will always be at thesame spot, but the other stars will circlearound it. An example of circumpolarconstellations includes The LittleDipper, Draco, the Big Dipper,Cassiopeia, Cepheus, and Perseus. Agood exercise for the students would beto pick one circumpolar constellation.Have them select a date and then drawthe constellation at different times ofthe evening. They could begin with 8PM and then go to 10:00 PM, 12 AM,and end with 4 AM. This will givethem an excellent opportunity to seehow the position of the constellationchanges as the night continues. Thestudents could also do this to see howthe constellation changes throughoutthe year.

Here is another fun activity to do withthe students so that they can begin tomaster the shapes and names of theconstellations. This next activity worksespecially well with students who needmore of a visual and tactile approachfor learning.

Divide the class into groups of five ormore. Have each group select a differ-ent constellation. Use the Star Finderto see the date and time when their con-stellation could be found in the sky.Have each group form the constellationthey have selected. Each person in thegroup could be a different star in theconstellation. They could use string orcord to connect the stars in the patterns.

Once the students have practiced mak-ing their constellations, have thegroups come up to the front of the classand form their specific constellation.Provide the audience with a clue tohelp them decipher which constellationis being presented. Clues wouldinclude a date and time when their con-stellation would be present in the nightsky. The audience would use their StarFinders and clues to identify the stargroups.

At the end of this constellation unit, wedecided to have a star gazing and con-stellation identification night at myschool. Since the Calhoun School hasa “Green Roof” we thought that thiswould be the perfect place to hold ourconstellation night. This year, the stu-dents in the Calhoun High School wereconstructing their own telescopes, sowe decided to make this more of an allschool event. The High School studentswould lead the activity and share theirequipment with the students. The 5thgraders would show the other classeshow to use the Star Wheels to identifywhat was in the sky.

For the constellation post assessment,the 5th graders were given an assign-ment to design a new constellation andwrite a myth describing its origins. Inthe past, all of the students were giventhe identical assignment. This year, Idecided to have a basic assignment andthen a second one that would stretchthe students’ learning.



Basic Assignment: Using black con-struction paper and stick on stars,design your own constellation. Usewhite pencil to name the new constella-tion. Connect the stars using whilepencil and add any necessary details tomake the picture of the constellationstand out more clearly. Finally, writeyour own constellation myth. This canbe done in the style of a Greek orNative American myth.

More Advanced Assignment: Examinethe star charts. See if you can connectthe stars in a new way to form yourown special constellation. Using blackconstruction paper and stick on stars,design your own constellation. Usewhite pencil to name the new constella-

tion. Connect the stars using the whitepencil and add any necessary details tomake the picture of the constellationstand out more clearly. Keep a recordof the actual stars you chose to use inyour new constellation. On anotherpiece of paper, identify the names ofthe stars and add any information youcan find out about the star’s status.Possible information could include thesize, temperature, color, mass, andluminosity. Finally, write your ownconstellation myth. This can be done inthe style of a Greek or NativeAmericanmyth.Examples of the new constellations

and myths



My school is very fortunate to be within walking distance of the AmericanMuseum of Natural History. As the constellation unit came to a close, we took afield trip to the planetarium to see the IMAX show- “Journey to the Stars.” Wewere also given a tour of the planetarium hall and exhibits. This really crowned awonderful science unit for the students.

All in all, this unit has been a very positive one. The students have developed anappreciation of constellations and they have been actively engaged in all of thelessons. Students were able to correctly use their Star Wheels to identify the var-ious constellations in the sky. The course also enabled me to reach all levels oflearners. The more advanced students were able to extend their comprehension bychoosing to do the more advanced assignment. The other 5th graders were able tofind success in their work while at the same time demonstrate pride in a job welldone.

Unit Timeline

ReferencesBryant, Megan E. 2009. Oh My Gods!: A Look-it-Up Guide to the Gods of Mythology(Mythlopedia). Franklin Watts Publisher

D’Aulaire, Ingri. 1992. D’Aulaires’ Book of Greek Myths. Delacorte Books for YoungReaders



Henarejos, Philippe. 2000. Guide to the Night Sky. Konemann Publisher

Matthews, R.; Millard, A. 1986. Usborne Illustrated Guide to Greek Myths and Legends.E.D.C. Publisher

Miller, Dorkas S. 1997. Stars of the First People: Native American Star Myths andConstellations. Puett Publishing Company

Prentice Hall Science Explorer. 2007. Astronomy. Pearson/Prenticce Hall. Boston, MA

Internet ResourceUncle Al’s Star wheels for the Northern Hemisphere. LHS hands-On Universe Project.May 2009www.handsonuniverse.org/activities/uncleal/NorthStarwheel.pdf

Connecting to the StandardsThis article relates to the following National Science Education Standards (NRC1996)

Joan Gillman ([email protected]). Joan is a 5th and 6th grade middleschool science teacher at The Calhoun School in New York City. (212) 497-6500.The school’s address is : 433 West End Avenue New York, NY 10024

Content Standards

Grades k-4 and 5-8Standard A: Science as Inquiry*Abilities necessary to do science inquiry*Understanding about science inquiry

Standard D: Earth and Space ScienceGrade K-4*Objects in the Sky*Changes in Earth and Sky

Left: Reading from oneof the constellationstories



AbstractThere has long been the belief that thephase of the moon, particularly the fullmoon, can have an effect on humanbehaviors. From werewolves to anincreased number of childbirths, thereare numerous examples throughout his-tory of the belief in lunar effects.Discipline referrals were selected as aproxy of behavior among high schoolstudents. Six years of discipline refer-ral records were obtained and analyzedto determine the average number of dis-cipline referrals on the full moon +/-three (FM) days, and the average num-ber of discipline referrals on all other(AO) days. While two of the years instudy did show an increased number ofreferrals on FM days, only the data forone of those years was significant.Further, when the data for all six yearsunder study was analyzed together, nosignificant difference was foundbetween FM days and AO days. Areview of the literature concludes thatthe most probable reason for anychange in human behavior during FMdays is purely psychosomatic.

IntroductionIt has been observed that there is a con-nection between human behavior andthe phase of the moon (Snelson 2004).The literature is, however, ambivalent

on the topic (Russell and de Graaf1985). Many papers suggest that thereis a strong correlation (Thakur andSharma 1984), while others, even thosewith sample sizes in the thousands,find no significant correlation (Bickis,Kelly and Byrnes 1995). The only phe-nomenon, social, geophysical or other-wise to which the phase of the moonhas been strongly and consistentlyrelated is the tides. The phase of themoon causes tides not because of thedegree of lunar illumination, but ratherbecause of the location of the moon rel-ative to the earth. The position of themoon relative to that of the sun con-tributes to the tidal phenomenon aswell. At times, the gravitational forceof the sun and moon are pulling on thewater on the earth in line with eachother causing high tides, while some-times the moon and sun pull at rightangles, causing low tides.

The belief that human behavior can beinfluenced by the phase of the moondoes not, however, have any significantscientific evidence to support it(Snelson 2004). While several studieshave shown that a relationship can bedemonstrated to exist, there is nothingin the literature to suggest a mechanismfor the relationship. As an example,Liu and Tseng (2009) studied the

The Full Moon Does Not Have A Significant Effect On TheNumber Of Discipline Referrals Among High School

StudentsD.M.H. Syracuse

Groton High SchoolGroton, NY



behavior of financial markets in rela-tion to the phase of the moon. Theirstatistical analysis determined that forthe stock markets of G7 countries, theaverage return per investor is higherduring the new moon than during thefull moon. Interestingly, they foundthat in many Asian markets, the aver-age return is higher during the fullmoon. They also discovered that therewere more variations in average returnper investor during the full moon in G7nations. The authors conclude that thisdata is easily explained by behaviorbeing altered by the phase of the moon,but again fail to suggest a mechanismby which the moon influences humanbehavior.

An interesting instrument known as theBILE survey (Belief In Lunar Effects)was developed and has been givennumerous times to many thousands ofindividuals. In one study of 325 indi-viduals (Vance 2005), the author foundthat 43% of those surveyed thoughtthat the phase of the moon had aneffect on human behavior. Snelson(2004) goes on to confirm that nursesworking in different wards had differ-ent scores on the BILE survey. As anexample, those working in mentalhealth wards had a higher BILE scorethan those working in an emergencyroom setting. Data from this surveyshows that the work or living environ-ment is strongly correlated to a beliefin lunar effects, and, as such, theauthors conclude that the mechanismfor the upswing in emergency roomvisits or mental health ward problemsis psychosomatic. That is, because

many workers believe that more prob-lems are likely on full moon days, theyare more willing to perceive a situationas problematic or more likely to be onthe “look-out” for evidence to supporttheir theory.

Removing the human factor from anexperiment (and thus, it seems, remov-ing our penchant for unconsciousanalysis and psychosomatic factors),would seem to be an interesting way tosee if an organism can be affected bythe phase of the moon. Bhattacharjeeet. Al (2000) discovered that the num-ber of humans bitten by dogs is signif-icantly higher on the full moon than onany other day of the month. Further,Raegan et. al. (2007) describe a studyin which more visits to a veterinaryclinic were noted on “fuller moon”days (days with a large percentage ofthe moon illuminated, not necessarilyjust a full moon) than on other days.The authors go on to posit that theincrease may be caused by increasednocturnal activity due to the addedlight from a fuller moon, but, theyadmit that their clinic is in an urban set-ting with copious artificial light. Thismakes the theory seem less plausible.They do not describe any other poten-tial mechanisms. Even so, it must benoted that it is still humans who arebringing animals to the clinic, orhumans who are being bitten by dogs,so we cannot completely exclude thebehavior of humans even from theseanimal trials. The humans involvedmay be behaving in a way that inducesinjury or bites.


SKIP PAGE!



While the literature is ambivalent onthe subject, further study is certainlyjustified. The aim of this study is todetermine if the behavior of highschool students is influenced by thephase of the moon using the number ofdiscipline referrals filed each day as aproxy of behavior.

MethodsData was collected from Tomkins-Seneca-Tioga BOCES in the form ofseveral Microsoft Excel spreadsheets.The data ranged from the 2005-2006school year to the 2010-2011 schoolyear. The data for the 2010-2011school year is incomplete and extendsonly to February, as the school yearhad not yet finished at the time ofanalysis. The average number of refer-rals on the full moon +/- three days wascalculated for each year. The averagenumber of referrals on all other dayswas also calculated. A Student’s t-testwas used to evaluate the significance ofthe findings. In addition to the yearlycalculations, all data for all schoolyears was collected into one table forevaluation.

ResultsThe school years 2005-2006, 2006-2007 and 2008-2009 were the onlyyears that showed a greater averagenumber of referrals on the full moon+/- three days (FM) than on all otherdays (AO). Of those three schoolyears, only the 2005-2006 school yearhad a significant difference (see figure1, page 30). The 2006-2007 and 2008-2009 school years had a greater num-ber of referrals on FM days, but the dif-

ference in the data was not significant.All other years showed more referralson AO days, but only the 2007-2008school year showed a significant differ-ence.

When all the data for all years (a totalof 1,572 days of data) was collectedand analyzed, the data showed thatthere were a greater number of referralson AO days, though the results werenot significant and the difference wasslight (about 0.15 referrals per day).

DiscussionThis study, though not equal in scopeto many others, is not unusual in thatthe data were, on the whole, somewhatambivalent. Within the data set, therewere three years during which therewere more referrals on FM days thanon AO days. However, the differencewas significant in only one of theseyears. Overall, though, the data pointsto the fact that there is no significantdifference between the number ofreferrals on FM days vs. AO days.

The study has several limitations. Thedata has not been corrected for changesin administrators or teachers. The dataalso only encompasses six schoolyears. This may not be enough time tosee patterns that may emerge over alonger period of time. Further study isalso needed to correct for the numberof students enrolled (which changedeach year) and for full moons that coin-cide with holidays, weekends, etc.

All sources of error aside, the moresalient discussion surrounds why the



Figure 1. The average number of referrals on FM and AO days. T-testresults with an asterisk are significant (p-value < 0.05).

phase of the moon might have anyeffect on the behavior of students in thefirst place. Several studies and metas-tudies have shown that in a large num-ber of situations ranging from materni-ty wards (Kuss and Kuehn 2008) andcrisis call centers (Wilson and Tobacyk1989) to emergency rooms in India(Zargar et. al. 2004) and hockey fightsin Canada (Russl and deGraaf 1985),there is no correlation between thephase of the moon and human behav-ior. So why does this belief persist inthe population?

Rotton and Kelly (1985) devised a sur-vey called the Belief In Lunar Effect(BILE) test. It has been administeredwidely and often, and in one case, 46%

of undergraduate students surveyedindicated that they believed thathumans behaved strangely during thefull moon. Possible reasons for the per-sistence of this belief in the power ofthe moon can be attributed to folklore,stories or other societal reasons. Thefact remains, however, that there is pre-cious little science to back up theseclaims. Careful consideration will leadthe reader to understand that the onlytwo things that might have a reasonablechance of affecting behavior are thegravitational force exerted by the moonor the amount of light that it reflectstoward the earth.

The moon is in an eccentric orbit, andas such is at some points closer or far-



ther away from the earth (by about50,000 km). These changes, though, donot always line up with the phase of themoon. On average, the perigee (theclosest point of the moon to the earth)only lines up with a full moon onceabout every 1.2 years. Even so, theforce of gravity exerted by the moon isnot much different during perigee andapogee.

At the closest recorded perigee inrecent history, the force of gravitybetween the earth and moon was about2.31 x 1020 N. At the farthest calculat-ed apogee, the force will be about 1.77x 1020 N. While we are contendingwith very large numbers (on the orderof 17,000 to 23,000 exanetwtons), thedifference between these values isinsignificant. It is also misleading,because we are concerned with theeffect of gravity on humans, not theearth. Running those numbers, we findthat at perigree, a 70 kg human wouldexperience a force of 0.2179 N from themoon, while at apogree, the humanwould experience a force of 0.1687 N.Keeping in mind that a newton is verysmall amount of force, it is hard toimagine that this small change wouldhave an effect on behavior, and evenmore difficult to find support for theidea in the literature.

There is, however, some evidence thatsupports the idea that gravity (or thelack thereof) can affect humans physio-logically, if not, behaviorally. Koga(2004) describes a study in which EMGreadings were taken of neck muscles of

an astronaut on earth and in space. Thereadings were different when the astro-naut was performing the same task inthe two environments. The authorattributes this difference to the lack of agravity cue to orient the subject.Further, Grabherr and Mast (2010) con-ducted a review of several other low-gravity studies, and found that certainaspects of cognition (such as estimatedbody tilt or writing with closed eyes)were affected by a lack of gravity. Itwould be a very large logical leap tosuggest that simply because bodymovements or writing were different inaltered gravity environments, thatbehavior would be altered as well.

Going deeper, several studies presentedby Sajdel-Sulkowska (2008) suggestthat increased or decreased gravity canaffect the development of the centralnervous system in laboratory animals.Further, gene expression in the nervoussystem of mature laboratory animalscan be altered with increased ordecreased gravity. While both of thesefactors may logically lead to a changein behavior, the gravity changesdescribed in the study were many timesgreater, more rapid and repeated thanthose experienced by humans from themoon.

The one idea that has been put forthinvolving gravity is that of “humantidal waves.” The logic, howeverfuzzy, for this argument is that beingmade mostly of water, humans areaffected in much the same way as largebodies of water, e.g., they experiencetides. This logic is faulted to the point



of absurdity; the only reasons that largebodies of water are affected are thatthey are (a) deformable, and (b) large.Their mass allows them to experience agreater force than a 70 kg human. Inaddition, humans are not always point-ed toward the moon, and so the water,even if it was being tugged upon by themoon, would be moving in differentdirections in each person.

The other factor that might be differentbetween FM days and AO days is theamount of light reflected from the sun.It is highly unlikely that the amount oflight reflected is a cause of behavioralchanges in human. Full moon nightsare not always clear, and, while there isevidence to suggest that length of daycan affect human mood, hormone lev-els and gene expression, there is no evi-dence that suggests that the amount ofmoonlight can affect mood.

Absent any factor that could logicallyaffect the behavior of humans, we areleft to conclude that the root cause ofany possible changes in behavior ispurely psychosomatic. That is, the per-sistence of the belief in lunar effects (asdemonstrated by instruments such asthe BILE survey) has caused humans toalter their behavior themselves withoutany gravity or light induced physiolog-ical changes.

*The author is deeply indebted to Dr.Julie Carmalt of Cornell University,whose statistical prowess provedinvaluable in analyzing the data forthis project. A great deal of gratitude

is also owed to Betty Cosentino of theCentral New York RegionalInformation Center for expertly pro-viding the raw data. Mrs. DebbieVanZandt of Groton High School alsodeserves thanks for her knowledge ofpretty much everything.

ReferencesBhattacharjee C, Bradley P, Smith M,Scally AJ, Wilson BJ. 2000. The BritishMedical Journal. 321: 1559–1561.

Bickis M, Kelly IW, Byrnes GF. 1995.Crisis Calls and Temporal and LunarVariables: A Comprehensive Examination.The Journal of Psychology. 129(6): 701-711.

Grabherr L, Mast FW. 2010. Effects ofmicrogravity on cognition: The case ofmental imagery. Journal of VestibularResearch. 20: 53–60.

Koga K. 2004. Human Visual Perceptionunder Altered Gravity Environment. SwissJournal of Psychology. 63(3): 165–171.

Kuss O, Kuehn A. 2008. Lunar cycle andthe number of births: A spectral analysis of4,071,669 births from South-WesternGermany. Acta Obstetricia etGynecologica. 87: 1378-1379.

Liu S, Tseng J. 2009. ABayesian Analysisof Lunar Effects on Stock Returns. TheIUP Journal of Behavioral Finance. 6(3/4):67-83

Rotton J, Kelly IW. 1985. A scale forassessing belief in lunar effects: Reliabilityand concurrent validity. PsychologicalReports. 57:239-245.



Russel GW, de Graaf JP. 1985. Lunar Cycles and Human Aggression: A Replication.Social Behavior and Personality. 13(2): 143-146.

Sajdel-Sulkowska EM. 2008. Brain development, environment and sex: what can welearn from studying graviperception, gravitransduction and the gravireaction of the devel-oping CNS to altered gravity? The Cerebellum. 223-239.

Snelson A. 2004. Under the Brighton Full Moon. Mental Health Practice. 8(4): 30-34.

Thakur CP, Sharma D. 1984. Full Moon and Crime. British Medical Journal. 289: 1789-1791..Vance DE. 1995. Belief in Lunar Effects on Human Behavior. Psychological Reports.76(1): 32-34.

Wilson JE, Tobacyk JJ. 1989. Lunar Phases and Crisis Center Telephone Calls. TheJournal of Social Psychology. 130(1): 47-51.

Zargar M, Khaji A, Kaviani A, Karbakhsh M, Masud M, Abdollahi M. 2004. The fullmoon and admission to emergency rooms. Indian Journal of Medical Science. 58:191-195.

David M. Syracuse attended Williamsville North High School, then went on toearn his bachelor's degree from Ithaca College in 2006. David began teaching atGroton High School after graduating, and received his master's from SUNYCortland in 2009. He's since spent summers with the ASSET program at Cornelldesigning labs for middle and high school students using the protist Tetrahymena,as well as in several other internships at area colleges. He will begin his sixthyear of teaching at TST BOCES in Ithaca, NY in the fall of 2011. He can bereached at [email protected]



The Geology of Howe CavernsArt Palmer

Professor Emeritus, State University of New York at OneontaOneonta, New York

How old is the cave?The caves are probably less than onemillion years old. We don’t know forsure because most of the clues aremissing. Deposits in nearby caves havebeen dated to more than 350,000 yearsago. The rate of downward cutting ofunderground streams in some of thesecaves indicates an age of more thanhalf a million years.

Cave Origin: Dissolvingof limestone

Limestone dissolves easily in freshwater, especially if the water haspicked up some kind of acid. The mostcommon natural acid is carbonic acidwhich is formed when carbon dioxidegas in the air and soil is picked up bythe water. The soil contains a lot more

Right here in New York State, in the hills and valleysformed by Ice Age glacial runoff, is a superb example oflimestone dissolution and deposit. You and your stu-dents can experience it firsthand! Imagine stepping intoan elevator that takes you 156 feet below the Earth'ssurface. You don't have to be a serious caver or spe-lunker to appreciate the geology of Howe Caverns.Touch the stalagmites and stalactites. Hear the drippingof water as these processes continue on. See nothing asyou experience absolute darkness on the undergroundboat ride. And remember, this cave was here long beforeeven the ancient, extinct animal known as the woollymammoth appeared on Earth! Students can also pan for gemstones. They will dis-cover garnets, rose quartz, fool's gold, emeralds, aquamarines and many otherbeautiful stones and use the identification charts to accurately identify exactlywhat they have found. While here, your group can also challenge themselves onHowe High Adventures Ropes Course and aerial zip lines!Howe Caverns was formed by the dis-solving of limestone bedrock by under-ground water. Limestone is depositedon the ocean floor as soft slimy materi-al (calcium carbonate) that later hard-ens into rock. The cave is located in theHelderberg Group of limestones, whichwas deposited from sea water on theocean floor about 400 million yearsago. These layers were later buriedbeneath younger rocks such as sand-stone and shale (composed of hardenedsand and mud). Much later they wereuplifted above sea level as part of theAppalachian Mountains. The lime-stones were exposed at the surface inthe Howe Caverns area a couple of mil-lion years ago as rivers eroded awaythe overlying rocks.



filled it entirely (at least during highflow). The passage is about 30 ft wideand about 20 ft high with a canyon cut8-15 feet deep in its floor. The streamin the passage is the same one thatformed the passage in the first place. Inthe past there was more water becausesome of it has been pirated throughother passages to more recent springs.The original passage was tube-like, butas the water table dropped, the streamcut the canyon in its floor. In places,this makes the passage cross sectionlook like a keyhole. The Winding Wayis a narrow canyon that formed abovethe water table. It once carried astream that was a tributary to the mainstream. Water still pours out of thispassage during high flow, but duringlow flow it follows lower-level routes.Upstream from the elevator, the mainpassage can be followed a short dis-tance to breakdown. This passage mayhave originally been the downstreamcontinuation of a passage in McFail’sCave which lies about 2 miles to thenorthwest. The Winding Way is thelargest of several tributary passagesand the only one that can be followedfor any great distance. Like most ofthem, it enters the main passage fromthe up-dip side. At Titan’s Temple, thelargest room in the cave, the lowerlevel canyon branches off from theupper-level tube. The stream followsthe lower level, which becomes moretube-like farther downstream, becauseit spent much time at a new, lowerlevel of the water table. The upperlevel is clay-choked in the formerdownstream direction. Where the twopassages diverge, the cave intersects a

carbon dioxide than the outside airbecause of decay of organic material inthe soil. Carbonic acid is the same acidthat gives soda its fizz. The carbonicacid in the ground is usually muchweaker. However, it easily dissolveslimestone. Groundwater widens inter-connected fractures by dissolving thesurrounding limestone and a few flowroutes eventually grow large enough tocarry actual underground streams. Thisrarely happens in non-soluble rockssuch as sandstone and shale. Theresulting cave passages are fed bywater draining into the ground at high-er elevations and lead to outlets innearby valleys. In the Howe Cavernsarea the water collects on the plateaunorth of the cave and drains south tosprings in the Cobleskill valley. Alongthe way, the water is deflected alongfavorable routes through the limestone,so it does not follow a straight linefrom north to south.

Interpretation Of Howe CavernsHowe Caverns is the largestNortheastern cave open to the public.The original entrance lies in the south-eastern corner of the Howe CaveQuarry whose operation has removedthe connection with the main part ofthe cave. The elevator leads directlyinto the main passage of the cave. Thewalls are composed of ManliusLimestone. The bottom of the nextlayer up, the Coeymans Limestone,can be seen in the highest ceilings.

Passage typesThe main passage formed along thewater table, and originally, the water


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low angle fault. This is the same onethat is exposed in the Howe CaveQuarry. Here the fault dips 14 degreesto the south southwest.

The fault can be seen in the chin of theOld Witch. The main passage contin-ues a couple of thousand feet beyondthe end of the tour. Its water drains outof a hole in the quarry wall and thendown into a mine that underlies thequarry. The water eventually emergesat springs at the base of the quarry.The tours exit the cave through an arti-ficial tunnel between the Winding Wayand the elevators. Much of this tunnelis excavated through a fault zone con-taining white calcite veins.

Glacial depositsFarther downstream the passage con-tains thick deposits of clay. These weredeposited as very thin beds when LakeSchoharie ponded the water in thecave. They appear in all major caves inthe Schoharie Valley but in almost noother caves in the state. The clay bedsoccupy the lowest part of the passageand the present cave stream has noteven eroded down to their base.Therefore, almost the entire solutionalhistory took place before the latestretreat of glacial ice about 14,000years ago. Since they were deposited,much of the clay has been eroded awayby the cave stream.

Cave featuresThe effects of water flow can be seenin the rock surfaces in the cave.Scallops are small hollows dissolved inthe rock by flowing water. The smaller

the scallops, the faster the flow.Scallops have cross sections like smallsand dunes, and like sand dunes, thesteepest side points in the downstreamdirection. In the main passage there isno question what the flow direction hasbeen. Do scallops in the Winding Wayhelp to indicate the original flow direc-tion? Solution pockets are randomdead-end holes dissolved in the wallsand ceilings by water that ponds upduring severe floods. Most of them arelocated along joints or bedding planesin the limestone. The limestone showsdifferential solution - the more resist-ant beds stick out, while the less resist-ant beds and the bedding planesbetween them are dissolved inward.The most resistant beds are composedof sandy or clay-rich limestone whichdissolves more slowly.

There are many mineral deposits in thecave (“cave formations,” more proper-ly known as speleothems). These arealmost all made of the mineral calcite(calcium carbonate), the same materialthat forms the limestone. Water thatseeps through the overlying soil picksup lots of carbon dioxide. This waterdissolves much limestone on its waydown toward the cave. The cave aircontains much less carbon dioxide thanthe soil, so when the water drips intothe cave it loses enough carbon dioxideto precipitate much of the dissolvedlimestone. This doesn’t happen in largestreams, because they do not containenough dissolved limestone.Stalactites are formed in this way.They are icicle-like features that hangfrom the ceiling. Stalagmites grow



upward where drips hit the floor. Some stalactites and stalagmites fell into thestream thousands of years ago and have been pulled out and placed elsewhere, so,they are not necessarily in their original locations. Flowstone forms cascades ofcalcite where water drains downward over slopes. Rimstone has formed at thejunction with the Winding Way. Rimstone consists of small dams that form at theedges of pools making the pools deeper with time. This rimstone is no longeractive and has been moved during trail-building. Actively forming rimstone can beseen in the main passage.

Most speleothems are light brown, which contrasts to the dark gray of the bedrock.This is because the bedrock contains many impurities such as clay and organic car-bon, while the speleothems are composed of purer calcite.

All of these features are thousands of years old and some are hundreds of thou-sands of years old. They form very slowly according to how much water is drip-ping onto them and how much dissolved limestone is precipitated by the water.Sand and gravel can be seen in the stream bed just as in a surface stream. Thismaterial consists mainly of sandstone pebbles that have been carried in from thesurface. Breakdown blocks are seen in several areas. These are blocks of limestonethat fell from the walls or ceiling, most of them in the remote past. Breakdown isvery rare and very few cave explorers have ever seen a block fall on its own. Mostbreakdown takes place during severe floods, or when the water table is droppingrapidly.

Please check our website www.howecaverns.com for further information and sup-plementary lesson plans. Howe caverns is open all year!

MISSINGBIOGRAPHY



Discovering And Analyzing Magnetic Fields WithSolenoids

James KennicuttDepartment of Physics, SUNY-Buffalo State College

Buffalo, NY

My introductory high school physicsstudents struggled with concepts asso-ciated with magnetic fields and theeffects of electromagnetism. In order tohelp students anchor these ideas in con-crete objects, it was important to pro-vide my students the opportunity togain visual and kinesthetic experiencewith electromagnetism (Arons, 1997).Visualizing magnetic fields in threedimensions is a significant challengestudents face (Nguyen, 2005). The abil-ity to fill in empty space with what a

magnetic field may look like is a diffi-cult task for students (Sawicki, 1997).Allowing students to construct modelsof a solenoid (or a wire wrapped in acoil) was beneficial for helping stu-dents with visualizing magnetic fields(MacIsaac, 2009) (Picture 1, Page X).My goal was to create an interactiveactivity for my students to help themunderstand how magnetic fields behaveand to gain the hands-on experiencethat has been widely believed to helpstudents understand magnetism. Thissimple activity, constructing low costsolenoids, provided students experiencewith magnetic phenomena and isdesigned to increase student spatialunderstanding of three-dimensionalmagnetic fields. This activity facilitatedthe exploration of the magnetic interac-tions of solenoids with different materi-als and the effects of different geome-tries of current-carrying wires on themagnetic fields created. By editing theassociated mathematical examples, theactivity could be modified (reduced orextended) as appropriate to meet theneeds of a conceptual physics, APphysics, or even a calculus-based intro-ductory college physics course.

Prior to this solenoid constructionactivity, my students read the basic the-ory of magnetic fields surrounding per-manent magnets and current carryingwires using various activities (Knight,

AbstractUnderstanding electricity and magnet-ism is difficult for introductory physicsstudents partially due to a lack of famil-iarity, exploration and reflection uponelectromagnetic phenomena. Thisactivity was designed to help studentsexperience and reflect upon magneticphenomena and visualize magneticfields around a current-carrying wire.Students constructed solenoids using aD-Cell flashlight battery, copper wire,a nail, and a straw. Students were guid-ed though activities and explored thechanges in intensity of magnetic fieldsat different distances away from thesolenoid, and the effects due to intro-ducing an iron core into the solenoid.Supplementing the qualitative concep-tual experience, sample relevant calcu-lations were also included for thisactivity.



2008; Modeling Curriculum, E&MUnit 4 Lab 1 v 3.0, available from<tiny.cc/modeling01>). In relatedactivities understanding these con-cepts, students utilized a magneticcompass and iron filings (Diagram 2and 3, Page X) to view the magneticfield around a vertical current carryingwire. The Modeling activities weredesigned to help students becomefamiliar with magnetic fields as well asintroduce them to the Right Hand Rule#2 (Diagram 4, Page X). Another activ-ity used iron filings and a compass toview the magnetic field around perma-nent magnets. Students placed a com-pass at various distances from a singlepermanent magnet to observe how themagnet attracted and repelled the northand south poles of a compass. This wasa great activity for students to see howthe needle of the compass deflectedgreatly when close to the magnet anddeflected only slightly when placed afoot away (Riveros & Betancourt,2009). Other topics covered includedmagnetic fields created by a currentrunning through a circular wire andwork problems using the Right HandRules to determine the direction themagnetic field is pointing inside, out-side, and around a current carryingwire in a loop (Knight, 2008). After Icompleted these introductions, I feltmy students were prepared to constructa solenoid and predict its magneticfield.

Activity materials required were bothinexpensive and readily available. Foreach student or team, the followingmaterials were required: A plastic

drinking straw, some magnet wire(enamel coated copper wire - about ameter per person), a steel (iron) nail(about 9 cm long), a D-Cell, a magneticcompass, and a few paper clips (Picture1, Page X). Although magnet wireworks best for winding solenoids, ordi-nary insulated solid copper wire isacceptable. These materials were pur-chased at a variety of local stores or onthe Internet. Because compasses, paperclips and D-cells were readily available,the cost was roughly $10 for a class of25 students (see product list), and manyof these materials were able to be recy-cled for future classes.

Constructing the solenoids was quitestraightforward. When I began theexperiment, I made sure that both endsof the copper wire were stripped. I thenasked my students to wrap the wirearound the straw with the nail placedinside for support. I instructed my stu-dents to record the number of times theywrapped the wire loops around thestraw for subsequent calculations. Toelicit discussions between partnersregarding the number of loops vs. themagnetic field strength, I asked my stu-dents to wrap their solenoids with dif-ferent number of loops. Students wereinstructed to avoid wrapping the wiretoo tightly around the straw in order topermit easy insertion and removal of thenail; this allowed the solenoid to haveeither an open core (no nail) (Picture 3,page X) or an iron core (nail inside)(Picture 4, page X). It was also impor-tant to leave a few inches of unwrappedwire at both ends of the solenoid asleads so that there was enough room to



Place Here ALL DIAGRAMS AND PICTURES

Pictures 1-4

Diagrams 1-4



press the stripped sections of wire tothe D-Cell terminals. With their sole-noids completed, the students connect-ed the two-stripped ends of wire to theD-Cell terminals, sending a currentthrough the wire and creating a mag-netic field around the solenoid(Diagram 1, page x). I encouraged thestudents to touch and tap and monitorthe time the circuit is closed to prolongthe working life of the D cell.

In this experiment, it was important toalert the students that the D-Cell would,in essence, be shorted causing the wireto become warm, and to call their atten-tion to this phenomenon during andafter the activity. I explained to the stu-dents that the wire has a low resistance,thus creating a very large current,which heated up the wire. Studentswere instructed to open the solenoidcircuit every few seconds to allow theD-Cell and wires to cool down.Allowing the D-Cell to rest every fewseconds also greatly increased both thelife of the cell and the accuracy of theresults. Note that my students were notin danger of actual burns from the wire,though this is a faint possibility withthinner wire.

In order to learn about different designsof solenoids and gain a better idea ofthe magnetic fields they create, stu-dents constructed their own solenoids.Throughout the activity I instructed mystudents to try a variety of differentsolenoid designs in order to comparethe different effects with their partners.Before the activity, I cut the straws intodifferent lengths. Not only did this



permeability constant or magnetic sus-ceptibility. Exempting the differences inthe current in each D-Cell from consid-eration, for a given type of solenoid(open core or iron core) the only signif-icant variable that was not the same foreach student was n (and the amount ofiron for the iron core solenoids). Thus,it became apparent to the students thatthe greater number of loops per unit oflength resulted in an increased magnet-ic field created by the solenoid.

I began the activity of experimentallymeasuring the magnetic field byinstructing the students to connect theD-Cell to their open core solenoid(without the nail inside the straw) andobserve the interactions between theirsolenoids, a compass, and paper clips.One approach to find the magnitude ofthe magnetic field was to see how manypaper clips the solenoids would lift up.If a solenoid lifted more paper clipsthan another student’s solenoid, a rea-sonable prediction was that the solenoidthat picked up more paper clips wasstronger. A more accurate approach Ihad my students explore was to see howfar away their solenoids would deflectthe compass 10°, 45°, or 90° and alter-natively to compare the solenoid dis-tance from the compass necessary toexactly deflect the needle by 45°. Iinstructed the class to make sure thatthere were no other steel items or mag-nets on the desktop while measure-ments were being taken to avoid inter-ference to the compass needle. Theinstructor also must check the desktopsfor steel beams and screws and try toavoid these when comparing magnetic

reduce straw waste but also it guaran-teed that the students would wrap theirsolenoids with a different number ofloops. This was important for demon-strating the relationship between thenumber of loops and the magnitude ofthe magnetic field of the solenoids(Picture 2, page x).

My students readily calculated anapproximate value of the strength of themagnetic field created by their solenoidgiven the standard equation: [Equation1] with n=N/l, where Bsolenoid is themagnitude for the magnetic field inTeslas, N is the number of loops in thesolenoid, l is the length of the solenoidin meters, is the number of loops permeter, is the current in amperes, and isthe permeability constant depending onthe material of the core which is equalto: [Equation 2] for an air core (no nailinside solenoid) solenoid, or 2000Xstronger: [Equation 3] for an iron core(nail inside solenoid). Units are inTeslas-meters per ampere (Knight,2008; Lide, 2008).

Equations 1-3 (in order)

The permeability constant for the ironnail is much higher because iron willferromagnetically respond to a magnet-ic field. This produces an enhancedmagnetic field strength. The moreresponsive a material is to an inducedmagnetic field the higher the materials



noid’s magnetic south pole) and whichend of the solenoid attracted the southseeking end of the compass (solenoid’smagnetic north pole). Attempting todetermine the polarity of the solenoidusing a bar magnet was difficult. Thesolenoid's magnetic field (especiallywith the iron core inserted) is muchstronger than the weaker magnetic fieldof most bar magnets and, when thesolenoid was in contact with the ironbar magnet, the solenoid usually mag-netized the iron permanent magnetoverwhelming the usual magnetizationand attracting both ends of the bar mag-net. To see repulsion with the bar mag-net required carefully starting out withthe solenoid and the bar magnet sepa-rated and closely observing theirbehavior as they were graduallybrought close to one another. To deter-mine the polarity correctly, my studentswere instructed to always use a com-pass and initially have the (open core)solenoid a foot or so away, slowly mov-ing the solenoid towards the compassuntil they could determine which endsof the solenoid attract the different endsof the compass. Then the students putthe nail back into the middle of thesolenoid, creating an iron core sole-noid, so they can see how the interac-tions with the compass and paper clipscompared to their open core solenoid.Students would see that the iron coresolenoid was much stronger than theair-core solenoid. They may not haveknown how much the magnetic fieldhad increased but they soon noticedthat they were able to pick up morepaper clips and that the solenoid withiron core deflected the compass needle

field strengths with a compass.Students measured the distancebetween the solenoid and a magneticcompass (the latter being deflected bythe predetermined number of degrees)using a meter stick and a protractor.Students were given time to discusstheir results with a partner to see whatsimilarities and differences they meas-ured. Then I had the students try toexplain why their results were differentor similar. We then discussed the rela-tionship of the deflecting force of themagnetic field and compared it toCoulomb’s law. I explained that themagnetic field created by the solenoiddeflects the compass needle by theinverse square of the solenoid’s dis-tance away from the compass (Knight,2008). For example, if two solenoidsboth deflect a compass needle 10° butone solenoid is twice as far away fromthe compass than the other, then themagnetic field of the farther solenoid isfour times as strong as the closer sole-noid.

After a discussion about the interactionsbetween their solenoid, paper clips, thecompass needle, and their partner’ssolenoid, my students created a sketchof the solenoid including the directionof current flow and polarity of the sole-noid’s ends (Diagram 1, page X).Though my students had examined themagnetic fields of permanent bar mag-nets already, this was still a difficulttask to complete. When students deter-mined the polarity of their solenoid, Ihad them use a compass to establishwhich side of the solenoid attracted thenorth seeking end of the compass (sole-



magnitude of the magnetic field(Knight, 2008).

Other extensions to this activity includ-ed encouraging exploring modifieddesigns and comparing the magneticfields produced. For example, studentswho doubled the number of loops onthe solenoid by putting another layer ofwire on top of the previous layer with-out making the solenoid any longer,found the solenoid magnetic fieldstronger, as predicted by Equation 1.When the number of loops was dou-bled, N was twice as large for a givenlength. This lead to n being twice aslarge and consequently Bsolenoid dou-bled in magnitude. I found that allow-ing free time for students to alter theirsolenoids’ design was a great way forstudents to explore how differentchanges affect the solenoids magneticfield. The changes to the magnetic fieldwere observed from the solenoid pick-ing up more paper clips or deflectingthe compass needle a greater amountwhen held at the same distance. Mystudents found that some solenoiddesigns create a larger magnetic fieldthan other designs. Other modificationsI had my students experiment withincluded wrapping the solenoids lesstightly, wrapping the solenoid in differ-ent directions around the straw, andputting loops of wire on top of oneanother while always recording thenumber of loops they wrapped aroundthe straw. Wrapping the wire less tight-ly and putting loops of wire on top ofone another decreased and increasedthe magnitude of the magnetic fieldrespectively, changing the direction the

more from the same distance as previ-ously measured. Discussing the inter-actions between the different solenoidsand how they affected the deflection ofthe compass needle (or how manypaper clips they lifted) helped the stu-dents connect the visual examplesusing solenoids to other magnetic fieldapplications.

After the experimental measurements Iinstructed my students to calculate themagnetic field using Equation 1. Iasked my students to calculate thestrength of the magnetic field by count-ing the number of loops on their sole-noid, measuring the total distance oftheir solenoid, using 1 Amp as the cur-rent flowing through their solenoid, andusing the permeability of the open coresolenoid given in Equation 2. Thesecalculations were not exact because thecurrent output was different dependingon the age of the battery; however, theyprovided a good approximation. Withthe nail inside, the solenoid became aniron core solenoid and the permeabilityconstant changed to the permeability ofiron given in Equation 3. The magneticfield strength for an iron core solenoidshould increase approximately 2000times. This approximation may nothave agreed with the experimentalresults depending on the quality of thenail; however, the iron core solenoiddid have a noticeably stronger magnet-ic field. I explained to the class thatthis effect is due to the magneticdomains in the iron nail, which will lineup with the magnetic field created bythe solenoid, i.e. the iron will act like abunch of little magnets and amplify the



noids to strike chimes and make music.

To further supplement this activity, Ifound it beneficial to introduce studentsto the simulations found on TheUniversity of Colorado at Boulder’sPhET website (http://tiny.cc/PhET).Specifically, the simulation Generator2.02 (Frankel, 2009) has interestingsolenoid diagrams that allowed my stu-dents to visualize the magnetic fieldcreated by the solenoid as well as whatfactors affect the magnitude of themagnetic field. I found these applets tobe helpful for students trying to under-stand the interactions between magnet-ism and current flow in their solenoids.The simulation added visual effectwhile the physical experiment allowedstudents to reliably and consistentlytake numeric measurements and calcu-late the magnetic field created. Both thestrongly numeric simulation and themore qualitative real world experimentcomplemented one another to create amore complete experience on magnet-ism.

Entering the electromagnet tab underthe simulation Generator 2.02, the stu-dents were able to visualize the mag-netic field created by the solenoid. Thestudents were instructed to select a DCcurrent source, show the field meter,and change the number of loops to one.Using the field meter, studentsobserved that the magnetic fieldbecomes larger the closer to the middleof the solenoid they get. Because thefield meter measured the magnetic fieldin units of G, or Gauss, instead of Tesla,it was necessary to provide my students

wire was looped around the straw so asto create partial or complete cancella-tions did not have as obvious an effect.Changing the way the wire waswrapped around the straw, say fromclockwise wrapped to counter-clock-wise wrapped around the straw, wouldchange the solenoid’s polarity.However, if the students reversed theD-Cell terminals while rewrapping thesolenoid, this would have a compensat-ing effect resulting in no change inpolarity. Because the number of differ-ent solenoid designs is virtually end-less, I encouraged my students toexperiment with different ideas.

After my students completed their sole-noids and observed how differentdesigns created different magneticfields, I showed them examples ofcommercially designed solenoids.These are available through most sci-ence material magazines, such as sci-ence kit (http://sciencekit.com/), oronline for around $100.00. My studentswere impressed that their solenoidswere so similar to the ones that costhundreds of dollars. I discussed howthese solenoids were constructed andworked the same way as their sole-noids. I had access to a “ring flinger”(an electromagnetic ring launcher)(Hall, 1997; McAlexander, 2005)(PASCO) so I amazed my students bydemonstrating how strong a solenoids’magnetic field can get. I then showedmy students how solenoids play amajor role in our everyday lives. Iexplained that solenoids are used inMRI machines, car starters and alterna-tors, and doorbells, which use sole-



this experiment to be quite versatile,allowing me to explore many differentfacets of magnetism inexpensively. Animportant additional benefit to per-forming the experiment with my stu-dents is that they enjoyed constructingtheir own solenoids and learning aboutthe interesting magnetic fields sur-rounding them. The feeling of empow-erment experienced by students withthis activity was evident. This activityprovided students with confidence intheir work and positively affected theirattitude, not only towards magnetismand physics but towards science in gen-eral. Arons observed noticeableimprovement in students’ attitudestoward magnetism following concreteexperience measuring the magneticfield of a source, such as a solenoid(Arons, 1997). If sufficient supplies areavailable, students can enjoy takingtheir solenoids home and showing themoff to their peers and parents. With theconstruction of simple solenoids andthe use of these supplemental diagramsand applications, students are affordeda visualization of this topic whileexploring some of the properties andcalculations associated with magneticfields.

Constructing solenoids with studentscan be taught through whiteboarding(MacIsaac & Falconer, 2004) and theobjectives provided in Table 1 belowhelped guide the students through theexperiment as well as guided instruc-tor’s discussions with the students(MacIsaac, 2009).

with the straightforward conversion of10,000 Gauss equals 1 Tesla. Althoughthis applet did not provide sufficientinformation to calculate field strengthdirectly using Equation 1, it did giveconsistent data about the variables thataffect the magnitude of the magneticfield. By increasing the number ofloops and increasing the potential dif-ference of the current source, studentsvisually and quantitatively saw theincrease in magnetic field strength.They were also able to see how the dis-tance between the field meter and thesolenoid affected the strength of themagnetic field. The two features, showfield and show electrons, were bothbeneficial for visual learners who havedifficulty understanding the concepts ofcurrent flow and magnetic fields sur-rounding solenoids. In my opinion, thissimulation is not a substitute for thesolenoid construction; however, unlikephysical experiments which can pro-vide unreliable data, these computersimulations provide ready, continualqualitative data that can be reproducedin each class. This application was avaluable addition to the lab and provid-ed visual aids that are not easily repro-duced experimentally.

Constructing solenoids is a simple andlow-cost activity that allowed my stu-dents to see first-hand how the differentproperties of a solenoid affect the mag-netic field surrounding it. This activityheightened my students understandingof magnetic fields associated with cur-rent-carrying wires as well as more dif-ficult magnetic field setups. Asidefrom being inexpensive, I have found



Product List (prices and availability will vary)

* Note: You only need to buy one type of wire. Home Depot or other building sup-plies stores may be a lot more convenient but the enameled copper wire will makebetter electromagnets.



References:Arons, A. (1997). Teaching Introductory Physics. New York, NY: John Wiley &Sons.Frankel, M. (2009). Physics Simulations, Retrieved from: http://tiny.cc/PhETHall, J. (1997). Forces on the jumping ring. The Physics Teacher, 35(2), 80-83.Knight, R.D. (2008). Physics for scientists and engineers (2nd ed.). San Francisco,CA: Pearson Education.Lide, D.R. (2008). Properties of Magnetic Materials. Handbook of chemistry andphysics (89th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC.MacIsaac, D. (2009, March 24) Solenoids and Electromagnets, Retrieved from:http://tiny.cc/solenoidsMacIsaac, D., & Falconer, K. (2004). Whiteboarding in the Classroom,Manuscript in preparation, available from the authors. See also <http://tiny.cc/whiteboarding>McAlexander, A. (2005). PSSC turbo ring flinger. The Physics Teacher, 43(12),613-615.Nguyen, N.L., & Meltzer, D.E. (2005). Visualization tool for 3-D relationships andthe right-hand rule. The Physics Teacher, 43(3), 115-157.PASCO. (2009, October 24). Pasco ring launcher. Retrieved from:http://tiny.cc/ringlauncherRiveros, H.G., & Betancourt, J. (2009). Interacting compasses. The PhysicsTeacher, 47(7), 460-462.Sawicki, C.A. (1997). Magnetic field demonstration/mystery. The PhysicsTeacher, 35(4), 227-229.

MISSING BIOGRAPHY?

Acknowledgement: This manuscript partially fulfilled requirements forPHY690: Master's Project at SUNY- Buffalo State College, advised by Dr.Dan MacIsaac.


The Science Teachers Bulletin - SUNY New Paltz

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