The Schools of Psychology. Several Schools or Systems of Psychology School or system is a systematic method of study guided by a set philosophy or theoretical.

Intro to course and What is learning?

The Schools of Psychology

Several Schools or Systems of PsychologySchool or system is a systematic method of study guided by a set philosophy or theoretical viewpoint

Defines the subject matter to be studied

Great Systems or Schools of Psychology led us to where we are theoretically and philosophically today!

2Volunteerism or IntrospectionWilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)German rationalist traditionGoals: study consciousness as it was immediately experiencedCould study consciousness scientifically, as systematic function of environmental stimulationFind basic elements of which all thoughts consist

Interestingly, VERY interested in how culture affected our consciousness:

Volkerpsychology: critical book on cultural or group psychologyInterested in studying peoples mental experiences.

Studied human will and selective attention or apperception

3StructuralismEdward Titchner (1867-1927) brought Wundts teachings and methods to US.

Used method called introspection: subjects trained to report immediate experience as they perceived objectNot report interpretations of that objectraw sensory experiencesLearning = hindrance!

Structuralists stressed laws of association, not of human willPassive human mind, in contrast to volunteerists

4FunctionalismWilliam James (1842-1910) founded the school of psychology known as functionalism.

Focused on the roles or functions that underlie mental processes

Utility of consciousness and behavior in adjusting to the environmentWhy we do what we doBehavior, thoughts, feelings have function

Interested in what the function of mind is

Highly influenced by Darwin

5GestaltismWertheimer (1880-1943) was fascinated by the illusion of movement by objects in the distance.

How does the brain organize and structure our perceptions of the world

Whole is greater than the sum of its parts

Perception psychologists, but laid groundwork for modern cognitivists, sensation/perception

Most of theories later supported by the other great schools

6PsychoanalysisUnderstanding behavior by understanding unconscious

Sigmund FreudFounded view of psychology called the psychodynamic perspectiveFocused on the unconscious mindEmphasized importance of early childhood experiences

Led to form of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis

Many of newer psychoanalytic folk moved into Humanistic PsychologyIdea that everyone has the potential to be self-actualized (be the best they can be)Everyone has the right to be loved, regardless of their behaviorIs an important area of Psychology because unlike ALL other schools, humanistic psychology assumes that people are essentially good and treatable.Is NOT a deterministic approach.

7BehaviorismWatson (1878-1958) founded the school of psychology known as behaviorism.Psychology should be a science of behavior only.Believed that environment molds behaviorBy 1920s, behaviorism became dominant force in American psychology

E.L. Thorndike (1897-1949)Original Law of EffectExamined role of rewards and punishers on behaviorDid so in absence of knowledge of Pavlovs work.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)Classical conditioning: the effects of predictive stimuli on behaviorConditional not conditioned!idea of "conditioning" as an automatic form of learning

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)Studied how behavior is shaped by rewards and punishmentsPrinciples of learning apply to animals and humans alike

Edwin Ray Guthrie (1886-1959) went against Watson and Skinner: One-Trial Learning : all learning is done within a single exposure to a situation.[The Principle of Association : The Principle of Postremity : The Principle of Response Probability :8

9But what is psychology today?No overarching paradigm guides psychology

Several dominant camps todayCognitiveBehavioralPhysiologicalHumanistic

Intro textbooks focus on the biopsychosocial approacBiological: brain and bodyPsychological: behaviorism, cognitivism, humanismSocial: social influences (societal influences)

And what is behaviorism today?....lets take a look!It is probably NOT what you have been shaped to think that it is!And just WHAT IS Behaviorism?

Several kinds of behaviorism:Methodological Behaviorism:behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as thoughts and beliefsWatson was a methodological behaviorist: objective study of behavior; no mental life or internal states; thought is merely covert speech.

Radical behaviorism: Skinners behaviorismexpands behavioral principles to processes within the organismin contrast to methodological behaviorism it is not mechanistic or reductionistic; hypothetical (mentalistic) internal states NOT considered causes of behavior: phenomena must be observable at least to the individual experiencing them.

Teleological Behaviorism:Post-Skinnerian, Purposive behaviorismHighly related to microeconomicsFocuses on objective observation as opposed to cognitive processes.Several kinds of behaviorism:Theoretical Behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states as long as can measure with modern technologydynamic, but eclectic in choice of theoretical structures, emphasizes parsimony.

Biological Behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules of behaviortheory of behavior systems.

Psychological Behaviorism centers on human behavior. Many applied techniques such as time-out, token-reinforcement behavioral explanations of child development, education, abnormal, and clinical areasCommonalities among BehaviorismsEmphasis on behaviorClassical conditioning: S-R psychologyRelatively passive; organism does not have to make a response

Operant conditioningR-S psychologyEmphasis on organism operating on environment: Classical conditioning: responses are elicitedOperant conditioning: responses are EMITTEDSkinners Behaviorism: From his 1966 articleWhat is the important event or datum to study in the science of behavior?The probability of a given behavior to occur at a given timeWhen, where, under what circumstances

Experimental analysis deals with probability of responding in terms of frequency or rate of responding. Specify topography of response in such a way that separate instances of an operant can be counted. The specification is usually made with the help of an apparatus-the"operandum"-some device that allows the response to be counted Responses defined so that they show a uniformity as the organism moves about in a framework defined by its own anatomy and the immediate environment.Record changes in rateSkinner used cumulative recorder ( we use computers now)Also examine interresponse times, etc. For example: different patterns of responses under 4 basic reinforcement schedules

The IV according to Skinner:Task of EAB: discover all the variables of which probability of a response is a function

These might include:The stimulus: both as an antecedent and as a consequenceDiscriminative stimuli: the stimulus control assigned to a particular stimulusAsks how the organism perceives the stimulus, not how the experimenter designed the stimulus to be seenExamine via generalization and discrimination gradients

The function of the behavior:How does the response operate on the environmentWhat does it gain the subject; what is the reinforcer earned by that response?

Does not alter inner states but environmental manipulations:Not hunger but food intakeNot fear, but aversive stimuliMaturation is a variableThe IV according to Skinner:Role of the contingency is important (critical) feature of independent variables in EAB, for example inShapingExtinctionDelay of reinforcementContingencies involving several stimuli and several consequences

Examine organisms actual behavior under different experimental contingenciesExamine where, when, how behavior changes under different stimulus conditionsCan begin to build rules or laws of behaviorThe IV according to Skinner:Relationships among the variables are very importantUse real time rather than trial by trialfree operant: within given time period, allow subject to make responsesSubject determines when, how often, which responses to make to a given set of stimuli and consequencesSubject controls the rate of behaviorAllows a behaviorist to determine how IVs interact to alter the DV of behavioral responding

Skinner argues his theory is atheoreticalDoes not rely on preconceived hypothesesRather- examines behavior and from the patterns observed one determines systematic rules and descriptions of behavior under various contingency conditions

Inductive and not DeductiveInductive reasoning= reasoning in which the premises seek to supply strong evidence for (not absolute proof of) the truth of the conclusion. Conclusion of a deductive argument is supposed to be certainTruth of the conclusion of an inductive argument is supposed to be probable, based upon the evidence given.

Inductive reasoning = reasoning that derives general principles from (many) specific observations

Deductive reasoning = reasoning that hypothesizes general principles and then looks for specific observations to support the hypotheses.What does distinguish Skinners approach from more typical approaches?Behavior is not a sign of inner mental or physical activitiesNot a means to the end, but the endAllows a careful specification of the behavior and the processes by which the behavior occursReally a functionalist approach: What is the FUNCTION of the behavior? What does that behavior get for the organism?

Behavior is examined because behavior is importantBehavior is not adjusting to a situation or solving a problemExamine the topography of the behaviorLook at the ABCs: The Antecedents, the Behavior, the Consequences

Changes in behavior are studied in and of themselves, and not assumed that they belie some underlying causeStudy behavior because behavior is interesting and a legitimate variable that is orderly and occurs for a reasonEvery behavior has a reason

Examine how a set of responses come under the control of a corresponding set of stimuliUse probability of response and changes in probability of responsesSkinner argues rate of responding is most basic dimension

Not assume behavior is a sign or symptom of inner traits, abilities, processes, etc.

Not rely on verbal behavior alone

Radical Behaviorismscience of behavior = natural science: Assumptions include:animal behavior be studied profitably and compared with human behaviorstrong emphasis on the environment as cause of behaviorStrong tendency to operationalize behavioremphasis on operant conditioning, use of jargontendency to apply concepts of reinforcement/punishment to philosophy and daily life emphasis on private experience.

Embraces genetic and biological aspects of the organismAssumes that behavior evolves as part of the nature of the organism,

Study of behavior is a distinct field of study, butis compatible with biological and evolutionary approaches to psychologyIs a proper part of biology

Radical behaviorism does not involve the claim that organisms are tabula rasa, without genetic or physiological endowment.

Radical BehaviorismSkinner's work focused on operant conditioning:Again, R-S, not S-REmphasized schedule of reinforcement as IV; rate of responding as DVemphasis on outcomes and response rates that include areas of study such as decision making, choice, self-control

Myth that organisms are passive receivers of conditioning: rather:operant behavior is titled operant because it operates on the environmentoperant behavior is emitted, not elicited: Animals act on the environment and the environment acts back on them, orthe consequence of a behavior can itself be a stimulus;

But isnt radical behaviorism = logical positivism. Skinnerians maintain that Skinner was not a logical positivist and recognized the importance of thought as behavior. Skinner himself noted this in his book About Behaviorism. Philosophically, radical behaviorism is most similar philosophically to American pragmatism.

Study behavior because it is observable, predictable, orderly and functional.