The Roots of Remembrance:

TheRootsofRemembrance:

TracingtheMemoryPracticesoftheChildrenofFarEastPrisonersofWar

TerrySmyth

AthesissubmittedforthedegreeofDoctorofSociology

DepartmentofSociology

UniversityofEssex

July2017

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TABLEOFCONTENTS

ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................

5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................................

6

ABBREVIATIONS.....................................................................................................................

7

ANOTEONTERMINOLOGY...............................................................................................

8

PREFACE.....................................................................................................................................

9

INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................... 11 Chapter1: Establishingthemethodology.............................................................

23

Chapter2:

Traumaandintergenerationaltransmission............................... 49

Chapter3:

LifeinthecampsandrepatriationtoBritain............................... 79

Chapter4: Bringingwarintothehome.................................................................

105

Chapter5:

Memory,postmemoryandremembrance.....................................

133

Chapter6: Narratingandreconstructingthepast............................................

159

Chapter7: Thesearchformilitaryfamilyhistory.............................................

187

Chapter8: Placeandpilgrimage............................................................................... 211 SUMMARYANDCONCLUSIONS....................................................................................... 243 REFERENCES............................................................................................................................

255

Appendix1 Participantgrid.........................................................................................

327

Appendix2 Numericaloverviewofparticipants................................................ 333

Appendix3 Thumbnailsketchesofkeyparticipants........................................ 335

Appendix4 Invitationtoprospectiveparticipants............................................

343

Appendix5 Informationsheet.................................................................................... 345

Appendix6 Consentform............................................................................................. 347

Appendix7 Websites...................................................................................................... 349

Appendix8 TextofspeechbyJohnduringpilgrimageinJapan.................. 353

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ABSTRACT

ThisthesisisaboutthechildrenofformerFarEastprisonersofwar(FEPOWs):their

memoriesofchildhood,howtheyfashionedthosememoriesinadulthood,andthe

relationshipbetweenthetwo.TheFEPOWexperiencereverberatedthroughpostwar

familylife,andcontinuedtoshapethelivesofparticipantsacrosstheintervening

decades.Althoughagreatdealisnowknownaboutthehardshipssufferedbythemen,

captivityhadadeepandenduringimpactontheirchildren,buttheirhistoryisrarely

heard,andpoorlyunderstood.

InRootsofRemembranceIinvestigatethelivesofthesechildrenthroughin-

depthinterviews,usingapsychosocialapproachtobothinterviewsandanalysis.

Bytracingintergenerationaltransmissionthroughthelifecourse,Ishowthatthe

memorypracticesofthechildrenofFarEastPOWshadpsychosocialrootsinthe

captivityexperiencesoftheirfathers.Forsome,childhoodwascolouredbyovert

physicalorpsychologicaltrauma;forothers,whatpassedasa‘normal’upbringingled

latertoapressingdesiretodiscovermoreabouttheirfathers’wartimehistories.

Myresearchdemonstratestheneedforamorenuancedandholisticapproachto

understandingintergenerationaltraumatransmissionwithinthisparticulargroup.I

arguethatparticipantsmadecreativeuseofmemorypracticesacrossthecourseof

theirlivestorevisit,reviewandreconstructtheirrelationshipswiththeirfathers,in

ordertoreachanaccommodationwiththeirchildhoodmemories.Findingsincludethe

valueofattachmenttheoryinunderstandingtheassociationsbetweenchildhood

experienceandlatermemorypractices,theroleofthebodyandotherimplicitmeansof

transmittingtrauma,andtheneedforagreaterawarenessoftheimpactofcumulative

andcomplextraumawithinthesefamilies.Finally,Iconcludethatthepsychosocial

methodologyenabledmetoaccessareasofsubjectivityandintersubjectivitythatmight

otherwisehaveremainedintheshadows.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly,IwishtothankallthosechildrenofFarEastPOWswhogavetheirtimeas

participantsinthisresearch.Theirwillingnessandenthusiasmtosharememoriesof

theirfatherspressedhomethesignificanceofgivingavoicetoeveryonewhosestories

mightotherwisebepushedtothemarginsofhistory.

Mysupervisors-ProfessorMichaelRoperandDr.MarkFrost-wereexceptionally

generouswiththeiradviceandencouragement,andprovidedjusttherightbalanceof

supportandchallenge.Serendipitymatters,anditworkedwellformeinthiscase!

IwanttothankmywifeLalithafortoleratingmyacademicexcesses;shehasgivenme

farmoreinlifethanIeverdeserved.MydaughtersJulieandAmanda,andson-in-law

Murray,haveremainedcuriousandencouragingthroughoutthePhD.Tomygrand

twins,MayaandAden,Iwanttosaythankyouforgivingmesomuchpuredelight;in

return,Ihavedonemybesttobearolemodelforlife-longlearning.

ParticularthanksgotomymanyJapanesefriendsforhelpingtoputmyideasand

emotionsintoawidercontext.KeikoHolmes,thefounderofAgapeWorld,organised

bothour‘pilgrimages’toJapan,withoutwhichthisPhDwouldneverhaveseenthelight

ofday.

Finally,thanksgotomyfatherforbravingthechallengesofPOWlifeanditsenduring

consequences,andtomymotherforbearingthebruntoftheconsequencesthathewas

unabletoabsorb.

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ABBREVIATIONS

APA AmericanPsychiatricAssociation

Bdr Bombardier(rankequivalenttocorporal)

COFEPOW ChildrenofFarEastPrisonersofWar

CRU CivilResettlementUnit

DSM DiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders

DistinguishedServiceMedal

FEPOW FarEastPrisonerofWar

ICD InternationalClassificationofDiseases

ITT Intergenerationaltransmissionoftrauma

IWM ImperialWarMuseum

MoD MinistryofDefence

NMA NationalMemorialArboretum(Alrewas,Staffordshire)

OT Occupationaltherapist

PTSD Posttraumaticstressdisorder

RA RoyalArtillery

RAOC RoyalArmyOrdnanceCorps

RN RoyalNavy

TA TerritorialArmy

VEDay VictoryinEuropeDay-8thMay1945.

VJ VictoryinJapanDay-15thAugust1945

WHO WorldHealthOrganization

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ANOTEONTERMINOLOGY

Ihaveusedtheterm‘participants’or‘thechildren’(or‘adultchildren’)formyresearch

subjects,unlessthecontextdemandedadditionalclarification,orwhereIhavequoted

otherauthors.

Althoughawkwardandungainly,theabbreviations‘FEPOW’(FarEastprisoner

ofwar)and‘COFEPOW(child,orchildrenof,FarEastprisonerofwar)arewidelyused

amongsttheex-FarEastprisonersofwarandtheirrelatives,andalsousedasacronyms.

Tohavewrittenthemoutinfulloneachoccasionwouldhavebeentediousforthe

readerso,onbalance,Idecidedtoconformtocolloquialusage.‘COFEPOW’isalsothe

abbreviationfortheeponymousorganisation,butthecontextwillmakeclearwhich

meaningisintended.

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PREFACEPersonalfamilyexperienceliesbehindthisresearch.In1942,myfatherwastaken

prisonerbytheImperialJapaneseArmyandspentthenextthreeandahalfyearsasa

prisonerofwar(POW)inJavaandJapan.Uptohisdeathin1995heremaineddeeply

affectedbythisperiodofhislife,andhistraumaticwartimeexperienceshavehada

profoundeffectonmeandonmyfamily.

Afterretiringfromfulltimeemploymentin2003,Ibegantoresearchmy

father’stimeintheFarEast.WiththegeneroushelpofpeoplehereandinJapan,I

eventuallydiscoveredthenameandlocationoftheprisonerofwarcampinwhichhe

hadbeenincarceratedandfromwherehehadmadehisdailytrektoworkinthecoal

mines.OnceIhadfoundoutwherehehadlivedasaPOW,Iwantedtovisit.Andso,in

2010,mywifeandItravelledtoJapan,aspartofa‘pilgrimage’ofreconciliation.We

visitedJapanagainin2014toattendtheunveilingofamemorialtoPOWswholosttheir

livesinanotherofthecamps.

Inthecourseofmybackgroundwork,ImetmanysurvivorsoftheFarEast

PrisonerofWar(FEPOW)camps,andmanymoreoftheirchildren.Asaresultofthese

meetings,Ibecameintriguedbywhyitwasthatsomanyoftheadultchildrenseemedto

begrippedbytheirfathers’captivity,doggedlyresearchingthefacts,andregularly

participatinginremembranceactivities.Inshort,whywasitthatsevendecadesafter

thewar,somanychildrenofFEPOWswerestillfascinatedbywhattheirfathershad

gonethrough?Andwhydidthisfascinationholdsomuchemotionalchargeafterall

theseyears?ItwastoaddressthesequestionsthatIedgedmywaytowardstheideaofa

PhD.Halfwaythroughtheresearch,IbecameawarethatIhadsetmyselfthetargetof

completingitinthesameperiodoftimemyfatherhadspentasaPOW.Acoincidence,of

course,butonethatgavememomentsofreflection,andplacedthequestionoftime

verymuchintheforegroundofmythinking.

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Lossliesattheheartofthisresearch:inmydecisiontoembarkonthisPhD,in

theinterviews,andinthebarbaricrealitiesofwar.Asachild,IfeltIhadlostafather.I

wasn’tquitesurewhoorwhatIwantedinhisplace,butIknewthatsomething

importantwasmissingfrommylife.AndIknew,vaguely,thatitwassomehow

connectedwithhisbeingaprisonerofwar.Uncommonlyasitturnedout,myfatherwas

oneofthosewhospokeabouthiscaptivity.Butthatdidn’thelpbecause,asayoungboy,

Iwasinnofitstatetolisten,toreallylisten.AfterawhileIshutoutallthestories,closed

myearstothearguments,andwaitedforsixtyyearstopass.

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INTRODUCTION

ThisthesisisaboutthechildrenofformerFarEastprisonersofwar(FEPOWs):their

memoriesofchildhood,howtheyfashionedthosememoriesinadulthood,andthe

relationshipbetweenthetwo.Althoughagreatdealisnowknownaboutthehardships

sufferedbythemen,captivityhadadeepandenduringimpactontheirchildren,but

theirhistoryisrarelyheard,andispoorlyunderstood.1

InRootsofRemembranceIinvestigatethelivesofthesechildren.Throughin-depth

psychosocialinterviews,2Iexaminedwhattheyrememberedabouttheirchildhoods,

therelationshiptheyhadwiththeirfathers,andhowtheirmemorypracticesasadults

wereinfluencedbypsychicfactorsandthewiderculturalcontext.Idiscussanumberof

‘memorypractices’inthethesis,includingstate-sponsoredremembranceevents,

pilgrimagestositesconnectedwiththefathers’captivity,thepursuitofmilitaryfamily

history,anddomesticmemorialization,bywhichImeanthecurationofphotographs,

mementoesandotherartifacts,aswellasonlineactivitiessuchastributewebsitesand

socialmediasettings.

Fromtheirchildhoodexperiences,Iarguethatmanyparticipantswereleftwith

persistent,andsometimesdistressing,psychicneedsthatthroughthecourseoftheir

livestheyaddressedbyengagingwithvariousmemorypractices.Attheircore,these

needsemanatedfromthemannerandforminwhichthefathers’traumaswere

transmittedtothechildren.Bytracingtheconnectionsbetweenchildhoodmemories

andlatermemorypractices,Ishowhowparticipantswereabletorevisit,reviewand

reconstructtheirrelationshipswiththeirfathers.1ThefewexceptionsincludeAllport’s(2009)Demobbed,Summers’(2009)Strangerinthehouse,TurnerandRennell’s(1995)WhenDaddycamehome.ButthesedonotfocusonthechildrenofexFEPOWsortheireffortstocometotermswiththeirmemories.2Iconductedthirty-fourface-to-faceinterviews.InadditionIalsohademailresponsesfromseventeenparticipants.Someofthelatterwereverydetailed,andequivalentincontenttotheface-to-faceinterviews,othersweremoresketchybutcouldberemarkablyinsightful.

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Tounderstandtheseprocessesbetter,wemusttakeastepback,totheautumn

andwinterof1945whenacohortofnearlyfortythousandBritishservicemenreturned

toBritainfollowinganincarcerationofthreeandahalfyears.TherepatriatedFEPOWs

carriedtheemotionalandphysicalscarsofcaptivityintothehome,withramifications

that,atthistemporalandsocio-culturaldistance,wefindhardtoimagine.Thewhole

experienceofbeingaFEPOWwasamajorandunusuallydisruptivelifeeventand

severelydislocatedthemen’smaterialandpsychiclives.However,despiteconditions

differingbetweenthecamps,therewerecertaincommonfeatures:psychological

humiliation,exhaustinganddangerouswork,inadequatefood,littleornocontactwith

home,andtheregularthreatoftropicaldiseases.Repatriationfailedtobringimmediate

relief;indeed,formanyfamilies,theimpactofthemen’schronichealthproblemswas

feltfordecades,andwivesandfamilieswereexpectedtopickupthepieces.

ThemajorityofformerFEPOWsdidnottalkopenlyabouttheirmemories,

especiallywithinthefamily.Thechildrenoftenmentionedthis‘silence’,andalso

remarkedonhowtheysensedanemotionaldistancefromtheirfathers.Forafew

participants,childhoodandadolescencewerehauntedbymemoriesofaggressionand

evenviolenceatthehandsoftheirfathers,butthefearofsocialshameand

condemnationoftenpersuadedthefamiliestokeepsuchbehavioursecret.Byenabling

thesepreviously‘hidden’facetsofpostwarfamilyandsociallifetobevoiced,Ihopeto

highlighttheintrapsychic,relational,andsocialstrugglesofwhatHoffman(2004)calls

the‘postgeneration’.

Recentdecadeshaveseentraumaemergeasadominantyetratherunwieldy

umbrellatermcapableofcloudingaswellasclarifyingthenatureofharmorsuffering

atpersonal,social,orsocietallevels.JeffreyPrager(2011)describeshowtraumabegan

asatermtodescribephysicalharm,then‘migrated’toincorporatemajorpsychological

distressandnowembracesdamagedonetosocietyasawhole.Theparticipantsinthis

researchhavelivedthroughthepost-Holocaustandpost-Hiroshimadecadesand

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thereforewitnessedtheradicaltransformationinourunderstandingoftrauma.Many

cametointerviewswiththatconceptualinflationdeeplyingrainedintheirpersonaland

culturalbackgrounds.Jamesspokeoftraumainawaythatsuggestedaneasyfamiliarity

withitscontemporaryusage.

‘WhatIrememberis...isshouting.AndIthinkwhatwasmorefrighteningwaswhenitwasintheotherroom...It'sawellknownthing,isn’tit,wherethepersonnothavingitdonegetsabitmoretraumathantheoneit’sbeingdoneto.’

Turningtothestateofresearchintotheintergenerationaltransmissionoftrauma,we

discoverthatitreflectsthesharptheoreticalandmethodologicaldivisionsthat

underpinthedifferentinterpretationsoftrauma.Forexample,thereisanestablished

strandofquantitativemedicalresearchthatchasescorrelationsbetweenthesymptoms

ofposttraumaticstressdisorder(PTSD)inchildrenandinfathers.Elsewhere,

psychoanalystsendeavourtounravelhowpsychicandbehaviouralpatternsmightbe

passedbetweengenerations,asweseeintheworkofBar-On(1995),FelmanandLaub

(1992)andRosenthal(1998),andinFromm’sinsightfulvolumeLostinTransmission.3

Kidron’s(2009)ethnographicfieldworkspotlightstheparticularpotencyofunspoken

traumatransmission.WecanseethisinoperationinBrenda’stestimony,whenshe

describedhowherfatherdidn’ttalkatallofhiscaptivitybutregularlywithdrewinto

the‘frontroom’forseveraldaysatatime.4Fromaculturalperspective,Marianne

Hirschexplorestransmissionbothwithinthefamilyandthroughculturalproducts,

suchaspaintings,photographsandfiction.InTheGenerationofPostmemoryshe

discussesherinfluentialnotionof‘postmemory’whichisthetermsheusestodescribe

thewholesaletransferringofmemoriesacrossgenerations(Hirsch2012),theeffectof

whichistoleavethechildrenfeeling‘crowdedout’(p.4).5

3Fromm,G.M.(ed.)(2012).4SeeChapter4formydiscussionofBrenda’sinterview.5SeeChapter5.

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Existingresearchhastendedtocompartmentalizetheanalysisoftraumaand

intergenerationaltransmission,beingdrivenontheonehandbydisciplinesfocusingon

the‘psyche’(thebiographicalorpsychoanalyticapproaches)orthe‘social’(thecultural

andhistoricalapproaches).However,thelivesofparticipantsinmyresearchwereblind

toanyseparationbetweentheculturalandthebiographical;instead,bothdimensions

intermingledfreelyacrossacomplexcat’scradle.Whathasbeenmissingtodateis

researchthatdrawstogetherthesedifferentperspectivesinanexaminationoflived

experienceacrossthelifecourse,andexploresthepsychosocialconnectionsbetween

childhoodexperiencesandadultmemorypractices.

Themarkedgrowthofinterestinremembrancehasattractedtheattentionofhistorians

inrecentyears,6whohavetendedtoframethetopicinculturalratherthanbiographical

terms(e.g.Shanken2015,Schumacher2015,Winter2006and2014,Young1993).The

childrenofFEPOWshaveparticipatedregularlyinremembranceevents,takingon

activistrolesintheCOFEPOWcommunityas‘memoryentrepreneurs’(e.g.Conway

2008).The70thanniversaryoftheendofthewarintheFarEast(‘VJDay70’),7

commemoratedonAugust15th,2015,wasanoccasionmarkedbymajoreventsin

London,inLichfieldCathedral,andattheNationalMemorialArboretumin

Staffordshire.8Providingmuchoftheenergyandexpertisefortheseeventswerethe

threeprincipalactivistorganisations:COFEPOW,9theJavaClub,andNationalFEPOW

FellowshipWelfareRemembranceAssociation,eachofwhichwasfoundedormanaged

bydaughtersofFEPOWs.10Bothnationalandlocalmediaincreasingly‘personalise’

6ThegrowthofinterestinrecentwarcommemorationshasbeenamplifiedofcoursebytheanniversaryeventsassociatedwiththeGreatWar.7https://www.gov.uk/government/news/vj-day-70-plans-announced8http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-339368309ChildrenofFarEastPrisonersofWar10ThedetailsofwebsitesfortheseorganisationscanbefoundinAppendix7.

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theseeventsbyfeaturingthestoriesofformerFEPOWs.11Thechildren’surgeto

preservethememoryoftheirfathersremainsverystrong,12withmembersofthe

COFEPOWcommunitycontinuingtoinstigatenewmemorials.Intheyearsimmediately

precedingthe‘VJ70’anniversary,plaqueswereerectedonLiverpool’sPierHead13and

inSouthampton’sTownQuayPark14tocommemoratetherepatriationofformer

FEPOWsandcivilianinternees.Fundraisingforbothplaqueswasinitiatedbythe

daughterofaFEPOW.15

Nationalremembranceeventshighlighttheclashbetweenculturalandpersonal

memoriesandattitudes.Whenparticipantssupportedandattendedsuchevents,they

broughtwiththemtheirownpersonal,moreintimatememories,buttheserarely

surfacedbecausetheirexpressionmightjarwiththepublicnarrative.Bydefault,the

mediafocusonthefathers’storiesofcaptivityhaskeptthelivesofthechildreninthe

shadows.Asaresult,theyfindthemselvesinaconflictedposition,albeitunconsciously

forthemostpart.TheyfacilitatepubliceventsthatpromotetheFEPOW’sstories,

‘knowing’thattheirownarebeingpushedfurtherintothebackground.Their

determinationtopreservetheirownfathers’stories,andthebroadertendencyto

lionizetheformerprisonersofwar,hasdeflectedattentionawayfromtheirownlives.

Nodoubtforsome,thisdeflectionwaswelcomed(oratleastnotresisted).By

11 ‘VJDay:AmazingstoryofBritishPoWwhosurvivedhavinglegssawnoffwithoutanaesthetic’ http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/vj-day-amazing-story-british-6253954.VJDay70thanniversary:aveteran'sstoryhttp://www.telegraph.co.uk/history/world-war-two/11803402/VJ-Day-70th-anniversary-a-veterans-story.htmlVillagerspreparetomarkthedaytheSecondWorldWarfinallyendedforBelfordhttp://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north-east-news/villagers-prepare-mark-day-second-9832707;YorkfamilymarkVJDaywithharrowingmemoirofdad'stimeasJapanesePOWhttp://www.yorkpress.co.uk/news/13590336.York_family_mark_VJ_Day_with_harrowing_memoir_of_dad_s_time_as_Japanese_POW/12Wemightsaytheywere‘captivated’bytheirfathers’experiences.13https://nationalfepowfellowship.org.uk/2011/10/16/unveiling-of-the-fepow-plaque-in-liverpool/14https://nationalfepowfellowship.org.uk/2013/10/27/unveiling-the-southampton-fepow-plaque-27th-october-2013/15MegParkes,ChairoftheResearchingFEPOWHistoryGroup.https://fepowhistory.wordpress.com/

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unconsciouslyorconsciouslydrawingaveilovertraumaticfamilyevents,anxietiesover

tarnishingthefamily’sreputationcouldbeminimized.Underthecircumstances,neither

theacademicnorthepopularmediahasanygreatincentivetolookbeyondthestories

oftheFEPOWsthemselves.Asaconsequence,thegeneralpublicremainslargely

ignorantofthestrainsimposedonfamilieswhentheFEPOWsreturnedfromthewar.

Oneneedstoaskwhethertheremighthavebeenanyalternativeroutesforthe

expressionofthechildren’sstories,suchasatCOFEPOWeventsorthroughonlinesocial

mediasites.16However,thecultureofmemorydisclosureinsuchgroupstendsto

encouragethecirculationofnarrativesthatarecircumspectandnormative.BythisI

meanthattheygenerallysteerawayfromthesubjectofchildhoodtraumasoranyother

memoriesthatmightappeartobeimplicitcriticismofthefatherorhisfamily,or

threatentobesmirchthewiderFEPOWcommunity.Tohearthequieter,transgressive

voiceswemustturntomoreintimate,moremarginalsituations,towhatRosenwein

(2010)referstoas‘emotionalrefuges’(p.22)17wherethechildrenmightspeak

privatelyandinconfidence.Coffeebreaksandthecorridorsofconferencesprovide

theseopportunities,asdoresearchinterviews.Theofficialprogrammeofarecent

FEPOWconferencelistedspeakerscoveringhistoricalandculturaltopics,manyof

whomwerethechildrenofFEPOWswithin-depthknowledgeofaparticularhistorical

orculturalniche.Butitwasintheunofficial,interstitialspacesoftheconferencethat

thechildrencametogetherintwosandthreestosharepersonalmemoriesoftheir

upbringings.OnceIhadnoticedthis,andafterraisingitwithoneortwoother

delegates,Ibecameawarethatmyresearchmightindeedbetappingintoacurrentof

unexpectedpsychicenergy.WhatImighteasilyhavefailedtonotice,ordismissedas

insignificant,emergedinsteadasanimportantstepintheprogressoftheresearch.As

16E.g.TheFEPOWFamily(UK)https://www.facebook.com/groups/1248087371902974/17Rosenweincontrasts‘emotionalcommunities’which‘prescribethedominantnormsofemotionallife’with‘emotionalrefuges’thatoffer‘safereleasefromprevailingemotionalnorms’(Rosenwein2010,p.22).

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AndrewAbbott(2007)hasnoted‘thereareplacesinthesocialworldwherethelawsof

humanbehaviourriseverynearthesurface’(p.72).

Whenitcomestothedisclosureofpotentiallytraumaticmemories,timing

matters.DanielBar-On(1995)emphasizeshowinterviewswiththreegenerationsof

Israelifamilies,whohadsufferedintheHolocaust,hadtowaituntilthelate1980s,

when‘theneedtotalk...becamegreaterthantheneedtomaintainsilence’(p.20).

Timingalsomatteredinmyresearch.WhenIbeganin2013,mostformerFEPOWshad

died,andmanyoftheirchildren-themselveswellintomiddleageandbeyond-seemed

readytotelltheirstories.Thetimingwasalsopropitiousbecausethe‘babyboomer’

generation,intowhichmostparticipantsfell,wasstilllargelyhealthy,andwasprepared

torethinkitsattitudesandexpectationstowardsretirement.Byandlarge,baby

boomersexpectedtoremainengagedinproductiveactivities.18Withthis‘second-wind’,

manyparticipantsbegantodiscoverorrediscovertheirfather’swartimehistories.Now

socialmediasavvy,manywereworkinghardtopreservetherecordoftheirfathers’

captivity,thushelpingtosubtlyreshapethememoryindustrythathadgrownup

aroundthehistoryofWorldWarTwo.Thesemoveswereencouragedbythewayin

whichemotionalcultureswerechanging,awayfromthemorerestrictedcodes

prevalentduringthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturyandtowardsacultureofgreaterself

expression.Thereinventionoftraumaalsoplayeditspart,byallowingthe

‘unprecedentedabilitytotalkabout-andhencetoexperience-theviolenceofthe

world’(FassinandRechtman2009,p.277).

Workingattheinterfaceoftheculturalandthebiographicalcalledfora

particularconfigurationofmethodologies.Acriticalquestionwashowbesttoaddress

theparticipants’subjectivities,hoveringastheydidbetweendistant,butpsychically

18Weshouldrecognisetherisksofhomogenizingthecircumstancesofthebabyboomers.HamiltonandHamilton(2006)andSinclair(2015)bothremindusthatnotall‘babyboomers’enjoyhighincome,andthoseonlowincomesandfromdeprivedareashavefeweroptionsinrespectoftheirretirementprospects.Thiswasclearlyseenamongstparticipants,someofwhomcouldnotaffordexpensivememorypracticessuchaspilgrimages.

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active,memoriesofchildhoodandforcesemanatingfromwidersocialstructures,such

asFEPOWnarratives,statediscoursesandgeopoliticallegacies.Thechallengeswere

bothepistemologicalandmethodological,andthetheoreticalscaffoldinghadto

accommodateanexperientialworldthatwasoftenconflicting,multi-level,andmulti-

modal.ChapterOnedescribesindetailhowIdecideduponapsychosocialmethodology

(HollwayandJefferson2013)setwithinanoralhistoryframework.Theparticular

strengthofthepsychosocialapproachwasthatitenabledmetobridgetheapparent

dividebetweentheinteriorlivesoftheparticipantsandtheirhistorical-social-cultural

context.

Althoughthisresearchplacestheemphasisonthedistinctivenessofindividual

experience,socialresearch(qualitativeorquantitative)isalsoalwayslookingfor

‘patternsandrelationships’(RaginandAmoroso2011,p.37;Abbot2004).Fromthe

data,IidentifiedtwogenresofmemorypracticethatIexploreinparticulardetail.

Firstly,Iexaminetheyearningtodiscoverthefinedetailofthefather’sFEPOWhistory.

Inthisspecificscholarlycontext,thearchivalimpulse(Boscacci2015,Steedman2001)

islargelyvirginterritory.Togetapurchaseonthesubject,Ihavedrawnonarangeof

theoreticalapproaches,includingresearchintofamilyhistoryresearch,psychoanalysis,

socialpracticetheory,andliterarystudies.Theothermaingenreis‘pilgrimage’.Many

participantsfeltapowerfulurgetovisittheplacesassociatedwiththefather’s

incarceration.Pilgrimagesofferedparticipantsnewcontextsinwhichtoaddresstheir

memoriesandtherelationshipwiththeirfathers.19Theimpactcouldbemomentous.As

Kimobserved‘Ilookedaroundandthought,mygoodness,mydadactuallysawthese

sites,thatI’mseeing.’WhileScates(2013),Kidron(2013,2015)andMurakamiand

Middleton(2006)haveanalysedpilgrimagesinspecificwar-relatedcontexts,nonehas

attemptedtointegratepilgrimagewithchildhoodmemoryandmemorypracticesacross

thelifecourse,orhasadoptedapsychosocialapproach.Havinganalysedthe

19SeeChapter8.

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testimonies,Ibecamegraduallyawarethatthereseemedtobeasmallnumberof

recurringneedsunderpinningparticipants’memorypractices.Whilestilltentative,I

haveproposedaheuristicframeworkthatsuggestsanalignmentbetweenmemory

practicesandcombinationsofunderlyingneedsthatclusteraroundthreedimensions:

knowledge-based,emotion-based,andvalues-based.20

AbriefbutremarkableextractfrommyinterviewwithGwencapturestheessenceof

thisthesis,andtherationaleforusingapsychosocialapproach.Oneeveningin1994,

GwenwaswatchingaTVdocumentarythatincludednewsreelfootageofreturningFar

Eastprisonersofwardisembarking.Toheramazement,sherecognisedherownfather

amongthem:

AndwhenIsawhimbeinghelped…onthatship,andhelookedlikeaskeleton,withskinon.Andhelookedlike…helookedlikehedidn’tknowwhatwashappening,andhewas…hewasn’told.Hewasjustayoungman.And…helookeddazed.AndIwantedtothrowmyarmsaroundhimandhughim,andsay,I’msorry,Dad[hugginggesture,cries].I’msorryIwasnaughty.I’msorryIdidn’taskyou,andI’msorryIdidn’tappreciateallyouwentthrough.Butitwastoolatebecausehewasn’tthere.

Thesewordsreflectadaughter’srawemotionsandpowerfulfeelingsofempathy

towardherfatherwhohadbeenaprisonerofwarontheThai-Burmarailway.Theyalso

revealherinnerconflicts,andthefeelingsofguiltandregretthatsofrequentlyinhabit

memoryandtraumawithinthefamily.Sheismomentarilycastbacktochildhood,and

indoingsoconveyshowinsistentlythepastclingstothepresentinhermind.Her

gesturesandtearsalsoremindusoftheneedforaholisticapproachaswetryto

unravelcomplexandsometimescontradictoryhumanemotionsandbehaviour,

recallingwhatEdwardCaseyreferstoasthe‘activeimmanenceofthepastinthebody’

(Casey2000,p.149).

20SeeChapter6.

20

Bytracingtherelationshipbetweenmemoriesofchildhood,andmemorypracticesover

alifetime,RootsofRemembrancemakesauniquecontributiontothescholarlyliterature

onthechildrenofBritishFEPOWsand,Ibelieve,addsanewdimensiontoPOWstudies

andmemorystudiesmoregenerally.

Chapteroutline

Thestructureofthethesisfollowsthebroadtrajectoryoftheparticipants’lifecourse,

andisorganizedintoeightchapters.Thereviewofliteratureanddataextractsare

integratedintothechaptersasappropriate.

ThisIntroductionsetoutthebroadcontextoftheresearch,identifiedsignificant

gapsintheliterature,andoutlineditsprincipalclaims.ChapterOnedescribesthe

processofestablishingamethodologythatwassensitivetotheissuesarisingfromthe

fieldwork.ChapterTwoprovidesatheoreticalcontextforunderstandinghowtrauma

hadanimpactonparticipantsandtheirfathers.Itexaminesthecoreconceptoftrauma

anditsramifications,suchasposttraumaticstressdisorder.Thisthenunfoldsintoa

discussionofattachmenttheoryasaframeworkwithinwhichtoconceptualizehowthe

impactofcaptivitycouldunsettletherelationshipbetweenfathersandtheirchildren,

thusleavingthechildrenwithunresolvedpsychicneeds.Thespectrumofliteratureon

intergenerationaltransmissionisconsiderednextandselectsthoseareasofparticular

relevancetothisthesis.

ChapterThreeoutlinesthehistoricalbackgroundtothemen’scaptivity,and

highlightsthoseaspectsofcamplifeandrepatriationthathadacriticalbearingontheir

laterbehavioursandemotionalstates.Takentogether,ChaptersTwoandThreeprovide

thetheoreticalandhistoricalcontextforChapterFourinwhichIpresentandanalyse

the‘rawmaterial’oftheparticipants’memoriesofchildhood,andexplorethevariations

inhowthe‘warwasbroughtintothehome’.

21

Ithenbegintofocusonmemorypractices,beginninginChapterFivewitha

reviewoftheliteratureonmemory,postmemoryandremembrance,beforeturningto

theinvolvementofparticipantsinpublicremembranceeventsandinthehome.Chapter

Sixexploresthepsychicprocessesbywhichparticipantsrevisitedtheirchildhood

memories,andreshapedthosememoriesandpastrelationshipsintonewnarratives.

Theconceptualanchorsinthischapterarenarrative,turningpoints,generativity,

redemptionandreparation.ItisherethatIsetouttheheuristicframeworktoaid

thinkingabouttheconnectionsbetweenmemorypracticesandpsychicneeds.Thefinal

twosubstantivechaptersconcentrateonspecificgenresofmemorypractice.Chapter

Sevenexploresthepracticesofthoseparticipantsforwhomthemostpressingneedwas

touncoverthemilitaryhistoryoftheirfathers’captivity.ChapterEightaddressesthe

questionofwhysomeparticipantsfeltcompelledtoincurthematerialandemotional

costsoftravellingtolocationsthatriskedreactivatingpainfulchildhoodmemories.In

the‘SummaryandConclusion’,Irecapthekeyfeaturesofthethesisanddrawtogether

itsmajorfindingsandlessons.

AppendicesOne,TwoandThreeprovidebackgrounddetailsoftheparticipants

inthisresearch.AppendixOneisagridthatsetsoutsummaryinformationofall

participantswhoformedpartofthefinalcohortofforty-seven.AppendixTwoisa

numericaloverviewofthecohort,basedonsex,maritalstatus,ageatinterview,social

class,andhomeregion;inaddition,Iprovidedetailsoftherank,serviceandsocialclass

ofparticipants’fathers.AppendixThreecomprisesthumbnailsketchesofthetwenty-

threeparticipantswhosestoriesfeaturemostprominentlyinthethesis.

Iintroduceinterviewdatathroughoutthethesis,includingsomelengthy

extractsthatconstitute‘minicasestudies’.Theseaimtoresistthe‘fragmentationof

data’(HollwayandJefferson2013,p.63).Joanna(Ch.4),PeteandJeff(Ch.7),andSally

(Ch.8)arecasesinpoint.Someparticipantsfeaturestronglyacrossseveralchapters,

includingJoanna,DeirdreandDerek.

22

23

CHAPTERONE

ESTABLISHINGTHEMETHODOLOGY

‘Themoreonelooks,themoreonesees.Andthemoreonesees,thebetteroneknowswheretolook’(TeilharddeChardin1965,p.308).

‘Successfulinterpretationdependsonapassionateengagementwithwhatyousee.Useyourmethodologytodisciplineyourpassion,nottodeadenit’(Rose2012,p.xx).

IntroductionInthischapter,IexplainwhyandhowIdecidedupontheresearchmethodology,and

discusstheissuesthataroseinthecourseofthefieldwork,illustratingthesewith

extractsfromtranscriptsandfieldnotes.IdescribehowIoperationalizedthestagesof

theresearchdesign:therecruitmentofparticipants,undertakingtheinterviews,and

theprocessesoftranscribingrecordingsandanalysingthedata.Iplacespecialemphasis

onthe‘researchrelationship’becausemyawarenessofitssignificancegrewdirectly

andprogressivelyfromtheempiricalwork.

Evolvingamethodology

Assomeonewhomightequallywellhavebeenaparticipant,Iwasawarethatthelevel

ofintersubjectivitywouldbeheightenedfromtheverystart,andthechosen

methodologywouldneedtoreflectthesubtletiesofmotivationintrinsictothis

situation.Thatbeingthecase,Idecidedtobasemydatacollectiononin-depth

interviews,situatedwithinanoralhistorytraditionalliedtoapsychosocial

epistemologyandmethodology.TheoralhistorytraditionensuredIkeptatightgripon

‘broaderhistoricalthemes’(K’MeyerandCrothers2007,p.92),whilethepsychosocial

approachencouragedconsiderationofpsychicprocessesandtheirarticulationwiththe

socialand‘scenic’contexts(Hollway2009,2011a,2011b,2011cand2013,Hollwayand

Jefferson2013),whichhelpedtooffsetconcernsoverlogocentrism(Kidron2009).

24

Ontologicallyspeaking,mystartingpositionwasthatouractionsandbeliefsare

oftentheproductsofunconsciousfactors.Giventhatthesefactorsarebydefinition

difficulttodiscern,IconcurwithHollwayandJefferson(2013)thatanapproachto

qualitativeresearchthatassumedthe‘transparencyoflanguage’(p.9),andthattended

tofragmentdata,wouldnotbeappropriate.Theirpsychosocialapproachenableddata

tobeheldtogether,andtheintervieweetoremain‘whole’,whilerequiringthe

researchertoremainalerttoinconsistencies,silencesandgapsinboththeexplicitand

theemotionalnarrative.

Incorporatingemotionsandreflexivityintoqualitativeresearchasdistinct

‘waysofknowing’allowsacloserapproximationtooureverydayexperience,inwhich

theemotional,thecognitiveandthecorporealworkhandinhand.Byacceptingthis,we

bothbroadenandcomplicatetheepistemologicalfoundationsofqualitativeresearch.

Despitetheinherentmethodologicalchallenges,theliteratureshowsagrowinginterest

intheresearcher’sownroleandsubjectivityintheresearchprocess(forexample

Bourdieu1996,Elliottetal2012,Ezzy2010,Kidron2009,SparkesandSmith2012).

Adoptingthepsychosocialapproachenabledmetoexploreandbetter

understandthelifeexperiencesoftheparticipants.Inparticular,howtheytracedtheir

pastrelationshipswiththeirfathers,andtheirmemoriesand‘re-memories’ofthat

relationship,their‘postmemories’oftheirfathers’POWexperiencesandhowtheyused

memorypracticestobringtogetherpastandpresentintoaliveableintegration,

accommodationoralignment.Inbrief,myresearchexposedhowthepastcanseemto

liveinthepresent.Putmoreelegantly,itsetouttoshowhow:

thatwhichappearstobenotthereisoftenaseethingpresence,actingonandoftenmeddlingwithtaken-for-grantedrealities,theghostisjustthesign,ortheempiricalevidence...thattellsyouahauntingistakingplace.Theghostisnotsimplyadeadormissingperson,butasocialfigure,andinvestigatingitcanleadtothatdensesitewherehistoryandsubjectivitymakesociallife(Gordon2008,p.8).

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Theoralhistorytradition

Oralhistoryhaslongbeenusedtoinvestigatewaranditsmultipleconsequences.1One

aimofthethesiswasto‘recoverlosthistories’inlinewithwhatSummerfieldcallsthe

‘originalradicalmissionofBritishoralhistory’(Summerfield2016,p.10;seealso

Abrams2016).However,myresearchdidnotstopattherecoveryofhistory,but

adoptedacumulativeapproachbybringingforwardthesememoriesintothepresentto

examinehowtheycontributedtotheperson’scurrentpsychosocialstate,including

theirexpectations,memorypractices,andthoughtsaboutthefuture.Althoughoral

historiansoftenadvocateastructuredapproachtoquestioning(Thompson2000,Yow

2015),somerecognizethepotentialofstaying‘alerttotheemotionalandunconscious

aspects’oftheirinterviews(Thomson2013):

Whenoralhistoriansinterprettheirinterviewees’lifestories,wesometimesdrawuponideasfrompsychoanalysis:abouttheenduringsignificanceofformativerelationships,aboutunconsciousmotivationsandinfluences,orabouttransferenceintheinterview(p.128).

ButThomsonisquicktodrawafirmdemarcationlinebetweenoralhistoryand

psychoanalysisproper:‘Myinterpretationwasintimateandhistorical,butitwasnot

psychoanalytic’(p.128).OtherapproachesincludeField(2006)whouses

psychoanalysisasa‘sensitizingtheory’(p.34)orFraser(1984)whosemorerobust

approachembeddedpsychoanalysiswithinanautobiographicalaccountofchildhood

memories.Roper(2003)alsousesapsychoanalyticframetodrawattentiontothe

complexmotivationsoftheinterviewerwhomayfeeltheurgetoamelioratethepainof

theparticipant:

Themotivationtowanttogivebacksomethingtopeoplewhohaveinsomewayexperiencedoppressionorbeensilenced-therecuperativeurge-wasandremainsakeystoneoforalhistory.Intheoralhistoryinterviewitself,suchmotivationsmaytakeunconsciousforms,forexampleasmanicreparation,the

1Forexample,Abrams(2014),Bennett(2015),Bornat(2010),Cabanes(2013),DeNardi(2014),Field(2006),Parkes(2012),Parr(2007),Roper(2014),Summerfield(2016),andWessely(2005).

26

omnipotentdesiretowanttomakegoodanother'spast,asifwewerecapableofeffacingtheprivatepaincausedbysocialoppressionandexclusion....Aggressiveanddestructiveurges-whicharealwayspresent-maynotbegivenexpression,butsquirreledawayinadesiretoencouragewhatisfelttobeamorepositivesituation,ofnarrativefluency,warmthandameasureof'oneness'betweeninterviewerandinterviewee(pp.29-30).

Roper’sobservationsresonatewithSmithetal(2009)whowarnofthesituationin

whichthelimitsofempathyarenotrecognised,wheresympathyoverwhelmsempathy

totheextentthattheresearchprocessiseffectivelycloseddown.OnceIbelieveI

‘understand’theotherperson’sreality,thenwhycontinue?Theparticipantisalways-

andneedstoremain-‘other’anddialogueisonlysustainedifweremainwithinthe

‘boundaryspace’(p.349).

Thepsychosocialapproach2

Thegoalofpsychosocialresearchistoexplorewaysofunderstandingthatdonotreducetoeitherpsychologicalorsocialexplanationsanddonotuncriticallylocatethesein"theindividual"or"society",orin"internal"and"external"worlds(HollwayandFroggett2012,unpaginated).

Thepsychosocialperspectiveofferstheresearcherameansofengagingsimultaneously

withdifferentlevelsofsubjectivity:‘therelationshipbetweenthebiographical

experienceandpsychiclifeoftheindividualhumansubjectandthesocialformationin

whichshelives,relatesandisformed,withtheintertwiningofthepsychicandthe

social,ofinnerandouterworlds’(Roseneil2013,p.233).Fromtheirearliestdays,

participantsweresubjectedtotacitcommunicationsfromtheirparentsthatwere

inflectedormouldedbywartraumas.Myresearchacknowledgedthereforethe

interactionsbetweenexternalpersonalandpublichistoricalevents,innermental

conflicts,andparent-childrelationshipsthatthenwereexpressedandsymbolized

throughparticulargenresofmemorypracticeintheindividual’spresent.Memory

2Bar-On’s(1995)workwithHolocaustsurvivorsandtheirchildren-referredtolaterinthethesis-hasbeenapowerfulinfluenceonHollwayandJefferson’spsychosocialmethod,andacknowledgedassuch(HollwayandJefferson2013).Healsoallowsintervieweestoreconstructtheirownlifestories.Inthisway,andintheanalysis,thereconstructedstoryissuspendedbetweenthesubjectivityoftheintervieweeandtheexternalcontextoftheirlifehistory.

27

practicesthemselvesrepresentcomplexintegrationsofthe‘psycho’andthe‘social’-the

‘intertwiningofexternalandinternalworlds’(Volkan2012,p.79)-andthereforethe

psychosocialapproachaidedtheunderstandingofthisnexusoflinkagesbetween

personalmicro-historiesandpublicmacro-histories(Walkerdineetal2013).

The‘BritishSchool’ofpsychosocialstudies,asexemplifiedbyHollwayand

Jefferson(2013)andRoseneil(2014aand2014b),is‘characterisedby...itsexplicit

interortrans-disciplinarity’,3andfrequentlydrawsonpsychoanalyticconcepts,suchas

transferenceandcountertransference.Butthisfledglingfieldofstudiesremainswarmly

debated,especiallyoverhowfarpsychoanalysiscanbeappliedoutsidetheconsulting

room(seeFroshandBaraitser2008,Holmes2014,Jefferson2008,andTaylor2010).4

Recentyearshavewitnessedagrowingnumberofacademicsfromdifferentfields

willingtoexplorethedynamicunconsciouswithinresearchinterviews(forexample

Bondi2003,2007,2014a,2014b;Lapping2016;Pile2010;Proudfoot2015,and

Thomas2007).5

Throughalargelyunstructuredinterviewingstyle,thepsychosocialapproach

enablesresearcherstorevealmemoriesandpsychicprocessesthathavebeenmediated

‘notbyrecallbutbyimaginativeinvestment,projection,andcreation’(Hirsch2012b,

p.5).Italsohighlightstheintersubjectivitywithintherelationshipandusesthese

responsesasassets,essentialandactivecomponentsofthedataavailableforanalysis.

Analysisinthepsychosocialapproachisholisticandintegrative,andstrivestoavoidthe

riskof‘fragmentingqualitativedata’thatcanoccurthrough‘coding’techniques

(HollwayandJefferson2013,p.63).

3FromthewebsiteofTheAssociationforPsychosocialStudieshttp://www.psychosocial-studies-association.org/about/4SeealsoTaylorandMcAvoy(2015)andRedman(2016)whograppleheroicallywiththeentrenchedterminologicalandconceptualdifficulties.5Freudhimselfwasnotaversetotakinghisideasoutsidetheconsultingroomandapplyingthemtoeverydaylifeandtosocialandculturalsettings(forexample,Freud1914).

28

Byadoptingthe‘freeassociationnarrative’method,Iencouragedparticipantsto

reconstructtheirlifestoriesintheirownway.Althoughthereweresomebumpsalong

theroad,participantswereabletotaketheleadoverwhattoinclude,whattoleaveout,

andthechoiceofnarrativestyle.Asaresult,Ifoundthatintheimmediacyofthe

interview(andsubsequentlyintheanalysis),theemergingstoryhoveredandflitted

betweenthesubjectivityoftheinterviewee(includingthecontextoftheirlifehistory,

andexternaleventsimpingingontheircurrentlifecircumstances),andthesubjectivity

oftheresearcher.Byconductinginterviewsinthisway,Iremainedopentonewthemes

andareasofconcernImightnothavepredictedattheoutset(Yow2015);the

significanceofsiblingrelationshipswasonesuchexample.

HollwayandJefferson(2013)arguethattheexplanatorypowersof

psychoanalysiscanbeemployednotonlytoanalysethetwistsandturnsofa

participant’snarratedlifestory,butalsotoexposeunconsciousmanoeuvreswithinthe

interviewrelationshipitself.However,indescribingthisrelationship,theycoinedthe

ratherunfortunatetermsthe‘defendedsubject’andthe‘defendedresearcher’.The

hard-edgedadjective‘defended’-especiallywhenattachedtoanindividualandnot

merelytoanabstractprocess(asin‘defencemechanism’)-conveysafixed,embattled

andone-dimensionalidentitythatseesitself‘onthebackfoot’andpermanently‘under

attack’,andconflictswiththefluidintersubjectivitytheyassumeelsewhere.

Furthermore,itmarginalizesthemorepositiveaspectsofhumannature,suchas

resilience,courageandforgiveness,thatareneededforpsychicgrowth(Akhtar2002,

2014)andwhichwererevealedinthelivesofmanyparticipants.

Giventhecontroversiesstirredupbythegrowthofinterestinpsychosocial

studies,IneedtoclarifyhowIemployed‘psychoanalytically-informed’6conceptsinthis

research.Idrewoncertainfoundationalconceptswhich,overanumberofdecades,

6ThistermisHollwayandJefferson’ssuggestedqualificationtoallayconcernsthatthepsychosocialapproachisemployingpsychoanalyticconceptsandmethodsinidenticalfashiontotheirapplicationwithintheclinic.

29

havehelpedme-professionallyandpersonally-tounderstand,andtoexplainto

others,someoftheintriguingcontradictionsinherentinhumanbehaviour.7Myoverall

experienceofundertakingthisresearchconfirmedtheempiricalworthoftheseideas,

asfilteredthroughthepsychosocialapproach.AsHollwayandJefferson(2013)make

clear:‘Iftheconceptmakessenseoftheevidence(aswebelieve),itaidstheuseofdata

andisthereforeavaluableidea’(p.153).

Reflectingonmyuseofpsychoanalyticconceptsinthisthesis,IfindthatIhave

mademostuseofthefollowing:theunconscious,identification,reparation,

transference-countertransference,repression,freeassociation,sublimation,

internalization,displacement,projectionanddissociation.Themeaningoftheseterms

becomesclearthroughtheirusageinthethesis;asLapping(2013)observes,

psychoanalyticconcepts‘arenecessarilyreiteratedandtransformedintheprocessof

researchandanalysis’(p.369).

However,Iwanttoexaminetransferenceandcountertransferenceingreater

detailatthisjuncturebecausetheylieattheheartofwhatmakesarelationship

‘distinctivelypsychoanalytic’(Frosh2010,p.3)andarealsoassociatedwithwider

criticismsofthepsychosocialapproach.Itiseasytoseewhy,becauseboth

psychoanalysisandpsychosocially-orientedresearchmakeclaimsoversimilar

territory:thenatureofhumanrelationshipsandsubjectivity,howpsychicalphenomena

unconsciously‘passbetween’people,andwhatusecanbemadeofthat‘exchange’

epistemologically.However,therisetoprominencewithinpsychoanalysisof

transferenceandcountertransferencehasbestowedonthemacertainmystiquethat

threatenstodetractfromtheeverydaynatureoftheprocessesthemselves(Craib2001,

p.193;HollwayandJefferson2013,p.158).

Intheiroriginalincarnationswithinpsychoanalysis,transferencemeantthe

unconscioustransferringofemotionsembeddedinapastrelationship(usuallywitha

7Thisrefersprimarilytomybackgroundasapsychiatricnurse,andeducatorinthesamefield.

30

significantfiguresuchasaparent)ontotheanalyst;countertransferenceindicated

‘feelingsunconsciouslyprovokedintheanalystinresponsetomaterialmobilizedbythe

patient’(Ffytche2016,p.32),thatis,towhathadbeen‘transferred’.However,Ffytche

claimsthat‘contemporaryconceptsoftransference’refermorebroadlyto‘the

permeabilitybetweenconsciouslifeandthestrataofemotionalconflictperpetually

provokingit,orprovokedbyit’(p.32).Thiswiderconceptionexplainsitsrelevanceto

psychosocialstudies,andformypurposesisexpressedinsomewhatplainerlanguage

byHeimanninherclassicpaperfrom1950:‘Iamusingtheterm“counter-transference”

tocoverallthefeelingswhichtheanalystexperiencestowardshispatient’(Heimann

1950,p.81).Theassumptionisthat‘theanalyst’sunconsciousunderstandsthatofhis

patient’,andis‘muchnearertotheheartofthematterthanhisreasoning’.Itisthe

analyst’staskto‘sustainthefeelingswhicharestirredinhim...inordertosubordinate

themtotheanalytictask’(p.82).8

Holmes(2014)inadetailedanalysisofthetopicarguesthat‘the

straightforwardmappingoftheclinicalconceptofcountertransferenceontothe

researchsettingismisleading’(p.167).Hesuggeststhatthisisbecausequalitative

researchershaveadoptedanoverlynarrow,rigidandperhapsout-dateddefinitionof

countertransferencethatleanstowardspositivism.Instead,heargues,theyshould

‘engagewiththosecontemporary,relationalandconstructivistconceptionsofhow

feelingsintheanalyticsettingcanbeseenasmutuallycreated’(p.167),andtobegin

identifyingwherepsychoanalysisandqualitativeresearchoverlap.

FollowingHeimann’slead,Idecidedtousecountertransferenceastheumbrella

termformyresponsestotheparticipant.AlongwithHollwayandJefferson(2013),my

psychosocialresearchpracticeconvincesmethat,comparedwithpsychoanalysis,the

8Inararelycitedpaper,Chediak(1979)makesaninterestingcontributiontothiscomplexfieldbyidentifyingcountertransferenceasbutoneinasetofwider‘counter-reactions’thattheanalystmayhavetowardsthepatient.Thesewerethe‘generalresponsetothepatientasaperson’,theanalyst’stransferencetothepatient’,‘theanalyst’scountertransference’and‘empathicidentificationwiththepatient’(p.117).

31

useoftheresearcher’scountertransference‘willbelimitedbyitsmethodsto

transferencesmuchmoreaccessibletothought’(p.159).Thatsaid,Isuggestthat

countertransferencesintheresearchrelationshipcanrevealthepresenceof

unconsciousissuesintheparticipantand/ortheresearcher,withoutnecessarily

revealingtheirprecisenatureorcontent.Bycontrast,thepsychoanalyst’saimisto

interpret‘into’thetherapeuticencounter,andtoexploredeeperpsychiclevelswiththe

aimoffacilitatinginsightonthepartofthepatient;researchers‘savetheir

interpretationsforoutsideit’(HollwayandJefferson2013,p.72).Thevalidityofthe

researcher’sinterpretationsisenhancedbysupportivedatafromelsewhereinthe

researchanalysis:‘likethrowingastoneinapond,ifaninterpretation“works”the

ripplesreverberatethroughtherestoftheanalysis’(p.55).Insimilarvein,Lapping

(2011)confirmsthatsocialresearchershavenointerestinofferinginterpretationsto

researchparticipants,butusethe‘awarenessofthese[psychoanalytic]ideas’to

‘developsensitivitytomaterialthatarisesinempiricalresearch’(p.4),andwhichmay

indicatethatunconsciousdynamicsareinplay.Theseincludeinconsistenciesin

testimony,unexpected‘turns’inthenarrative,suddenintrusionsofemotionthatseem

outofkeeping,and‘...slipsofthetongue,confusionsofpastandpresent,confusionsof

identity,momentarylapsesofreasoning,prolongedpauses...’(Fonagy1999b,p.95).

Wideningthemethodologicalnet

Thequalitative-researcher-as-bricoleuroramakerofquiltsusestheaestheticandmaterialtoolsofhisorhercraft,deployingwhateverstrategies,methods,orempiricalmaterialsareathand...Ifnewtoolsortechniqueshavetobeinventedorpiecedtogether,thentheresearcherwilldothis.Thechoiceofwhichinterpretivepracticestoemployisnotnecessarilysetinadvance(DenzinandLincoln2011,p.4).

Workingbetweenhistory,memory,psychicandsocialworlds,inthecontextofboththe

everydayandgrandnarrativesofwar,requiressomemethodologicalagility.Asthe

fieldworkgraduallytookshape,IfoundthatIneededtopullinadditional

32

methodologicaltools.9So,whileoralhistoryandthepsychosocialapproachremained

thesolidcore,Ibegantoincorporateideasfromvisualethnographyandactornetwork

theory(ANT).

ThefirstindicationoftheneedtowidenmymethodologicalnetcamewhenI

discoveredthatmuchofwhatIwaswritinginfieldnoteswasconnectednottothe

participants’verbalnarrativesbuttocontextualfeatures.Froggettetal(2014),Hollway

andFroggett(2012)andHollway(2015)advancethenotionof‘sceniccomposition’10as

ameansofmakingthedatagatheringprocessmoreholistic,moreembodied,by

recognizingthesignificanceofthematerialandsocialenvironmentanditsconnections

tothe‘socialandcollective’(Bereswilletal2010,p.224).Forme,adoptinga‘scenic’

approachentailedcarefullyobservingthematerialandsocialenvironmentofthe

interview,includingtakingphotographs,11thenlaterwriting‘free-association’reflective

fieldnotes.ThefollowingexampleistakenfrommynotesaftermeetingEsther,and

showsthecloseconnectionsbetweenthephysicalityoftheenvironment,the

psychosocialdynamicsoftheinterviewandtherelationshipbeingforgedbetweenus.

Thelivingroomwasquitesmallwithlittlechoiceoverwheretosit.Webothsatonthesinglelargesettee,oneateachend,andIhadtotwistmyneckslightlytomakereasonableeyecontactwhich,afterhalfanhourorso,begantoache.Thetaperecorderswereonthecoffeetableinfrontofthesettee.Assheturnedtowardsme,thelightfromthewindowdirectlybehindherthrewherfaceintodeepshadow-anawkwardarrangementbutoneIcoulddonothingabout.Myfaceontheotherhandwasinfulllight.

9AsProfessorEwaMorawskaputsit,‘thefieldshouldspeaktoyou’(personalcommunication).10Heretheuseoftheterm‘scenic’derivesfromLorenzer’sclinicalconceptof‘scenicunderstanding’thatheusedtothrowlightonthetransference-countertransferencerelationship.Inthehandsofpsychosocialscholarsitappearstobeasomewhatindeterminateconcept,althoughnolessusefulbecauseofthat.IsubscribetothemoretangibleandconstrainedinterpretationofscenicunderstandingadoptedbyBereswilletal(2010)andHollway(2011b).AccordingtoBereswilletal(2010)the‘scenic’istobe‘understoodasanongoingregisterofaffectiveandembodiedexperienceandmeaning[and]doesnotdisappear.Rather,itpersiststhroughoutlife,infusing,animatingand,importantly,resistingwhatisconsciouslyknown(p.226).‘Likeatheatricalscene,ittapsintoadifferentmodeofunderstanding–scenicunderstanding–thatismoreholistic,closertotacit,unconsciousknowingandcapableofaccessingsocietal-culturalunconsciousknowledge’(Hollway2011b,p.94).11AllparticipantsagreedthatIcouldtaketheir‘portraits’(asamemoryaidforme);theyalsopermittedmetophotographtheirartifacts,imagesanddocumentsasappropriate.

33

Inthisextract,thephysicallayoutofasmallroomwithveryfewseatingoptionsmeant

thatEstherwascomfortablewhileIgotacrickinmyneck.Hershadedfacemirrored

theguardedandself-effacingtoneatthestartofhertestimony.Astheinterview

evolved-andasIlearntmoreaboutthefamilythroughmeetinghersiblings-Ibecame

awarethattheseatingarrangementwastakingonmetaphoricalqualities.Duringher

childhood,shehadbeen‘keptintheshade’byherfatherwhowasaverydominant

figure,andwithwhomcommunicationwasinvariablyone-sided.12Intheresearch

interview,however,shewasableto‘turnthetables’bycreatingasituationinwhichshe

hadtheupperhand.Theseatingarrangementenabledhertoseemyfaceclearly,

whereasthebacklightfromthewindowmeantIcouldbarelymakeouthers.Inthis

physicalandpsychosocialconfigurationshefeltabletotalkwithgreaterfreedom.This

isafurtherextractfrommyfieldnotes:

...shedescribednotbeingabletoanswerherfatherbackatanypointinherlife,thentowardstheendoftheinterviewadded‘Idon’tgetthechancetotalkaboutmyselfveryoften!’...Onthewayhomeinthecar,Iwasfeelingrathertense-afeelingIcouldn’treallyexplain.But,oncethethoughtemergedclearly,thatwhatshereallywantedwasthechancetotalkaboutherself,Isuddenlyrelaxed!Iwasmakingnodemandsonher,neitherwasI‘crowdingherout’withmyownconcernsorpreoccupations.Iwasjustpreparedtolisten.

Thisdelayedawarenessofthetransferenceandcountertransferencedynamicsinthe

interviewraisedquestionsinmymindaboutwhatparticipantsmightbeseeking

consciouslyorunconsciouslyfromtheseinterviews,andalsowhatImightbeseeking.

Interviews,eventhoseconductedbyemail,arerelationalengagementsthatgofar

beyondthemereexchangeofwords.Theyalsoentail‘presence’(facetofaceorby

email),emotionaltone,andnon-verbalbehaviours:complexreciprocitiesthatimpact

theprocessandoutcomesoftheresearch(forexample,Dickson-Swiftetal2007,2009,

Ezzy2010,Pink2015,Rose2012,andSparkesandSmith2012).

12Herfathercommittedsuicide,anactthroughwhichhecontinuedtodominatethepsychiclivesofhischildrenformanydecades.

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Astheinterviewsprogressed,Icametorecognisethatallpartsofmyresearch

wereelementswithinadynamicandinterconnectedwholethatwassuffusedwith

‘movement’.Participantspossessedmemoriesorfantasiesofmovementandtravel,and

theobjectsandimagestheyshowedmeoftenembodiedmovement.Objectswerelike

partnersindancesofremembrance,attimesvaluableorevensacredlikemedalsand

diaries,atotherstheycouldbecomesourcesofjealousyandargumentsbetween

siblings.Theartifactsanddocumentsthemselveshadbeenonthemove,notsimply

geographicallybutemotionally,asparticipantscameto‘re-see’itemstheyhadlosttrack

of,orhadforgottenabout.Theobjectshadalife‘onthemove’thatcouldbetraced:in

andoutofdifferentcontainers;outofoneatticandintoanother;boxed,baggedand

sometimesdiscarded;strewnacrosscontinentsandoceans;variouslyloved,hated,or

ignored.ButIcouldnotignorewhatIwasobservingandfeeling,partlybecauseofits

intrinsicintellectualfascinationandpartlybecauseitresonatedsoacutely,and

accurately,withmyownexperiences.WhatIwasobservingwerenotstaticandfixed

tableaux(theinterviewenvironment,mementoeslaidoutonatable,nailed-down

memories)buttransitionalrestingplaces,thresholdsbetweendifferentlocationsand

statesofmind,heldinawebofintersectingspatialandtemporalmovements.

Movement,inbothitsphysicalandpsychosocialsenses,heldaspecialplaceinthe

mindsandheartsofthechildrenofFEPOWs:thefathers’travelsfromhometoforeign

countries,traumaticjourneysafterincarceration(the‘hellships’),thereturnhome,and

thepsychologicalshiftsneededtoreintegrateintoachangedsociety.

IrealisedthatIneededsomemethodologicalassistancewiththisgrowing

awareness.Thepsychosocialapproach-andpsychoanalytictheoryinparticular-seem

lessateasewhenfacedwithaspectsofthematerialworld.13Therefore,whenI

13Therearesomeexceptions.Winnicott’s(1991)notionsofthe‘transitionalobject’and‘transitionalphenomena’areclearandsignificantexceptions,andmoveussomewaytounderstandingaspectsofcultureasadevelopmentof‘play’(andtheobjectsrelatedtothat).Moreconcretely,inanexpansive,evenexuberant,essaypsychoanalystSalmanAkhtar(2003)

35

encounteredactornetworktheoryitseemedtoofferacounterbalance.Itsoriginator,

BrunoLatour,wasexplicitinhisaspirations:

WhatIwanttodoistoredefinethenotionofsocialbygoingbacktoitsoriginalmeaningandmakingitabletotraceconnectionsagain.Thenitwillbepossibletoresumethetraditionalgoalofthesocialsciencesbutwithtoolsbetteradjustedtothetask(Latour2007,p.1).

SomeobjecttoANTbecauseitappearstogivemoralequivalencetoobjectsand

humans.However,Williams-JonesandGraham(2003)correctthismisinterpretationby

clarifyingthat‘humanandnon-human...aretreatedasepistemologicallyequivalentfor

thepurposeofcriticalanalysis’(p.272).MyresponseistotreatANTmoreheuristically

asameansofacknowledgingthesignificanceofobjectsinoursocialnetworks,inour

livesandmemories:thattheyare‘relationalentities’(McGrail2008).14

ManyproponentsofANTmaintainthatisnotatheoryatall,butan‘intellectual

tendency’(Nimmo2011,p.108),a‘sensibility’(LawandSingleton2012,p.2),a

‘disparatefamilyofmaterial-semiotictools’(Law2009,p.141),a‘diasporathatoverlaps

withotherintellectualtraditions’(p.142),orcannotgetbeyondthequestion,‘Isita

theory,amethod,orsomethingelse?’(Baiocchietal2013,p.335).Sointhe

circumstances,Itookadvantageoftheflexibilityonoffer.

...themetaphorofheterogeneousnetwork...liesattheheartofactor-networktheory,andisawayofsuggestingthatsociety,organisations,agentsandmachinesarealleffectsgeneratedinpatternednetworksofdiverse(notsimplyhuman)materials(Law2003,p.2).

Throughmypractice,IconcludedthatANTwasnotinconflictwiththepsychosocial

approach,15butcomplementeditbyaddingasetofnewconceptualtools,alanguageto

beginshispiecewithadedication‘tomymother’sgramophone’andconcludeswithaparablefromthelifeofGandhiinwhichapinplaysthestarringrole.14Inthespiritofreflexivity,Iwouldsuggestthataninterviewtranscriptisa‘non-human’objectwhichneverthelessisofcriticalsignificanceandnolittleagency.AsJacksonetal(2013)arguethe‘textastheobjectofanalysisshouldnotbeconsideredasapassiveartifact.Weexperiencedthenarrativesthatweanalyzedaspossessinganaffectiveagencywhereinthe“narratedparticipant”...wascommunicated,wasemergent,andwasbroughtintoaninteractionalanddynamicrelationshipwithourselves’(p.5).15ThepsychosocialapproachandANTarebothantagonistictounhelpfuldualisms(Murdoch1997).

36

speakofobjects(andotherentities)astheyexistedinrelationtopeople.16Rexhada

profoundlyambivalentrelationshipwithacollectionoffamilyletters:

Rex:TherewasasetofletterswhichIha-…actuallyreallyha-…Ihavenotopened.Ihavenotread.That[mymother]hadsenttomyfatherbeforeSingaporefell.ThegoodoldBritishpostofficereturnedthem.Theywerelaidunopenedinthesameenvelope…AftermymotherdiedIopenedthem,butIhaven’t…[lowersvoice]Ihaven’treadthem.Terry:Youhaven’treadthem.Rex:It’stoo…I’mtoorubbish…Terry:Really?Rex:Yeah,itwouldbe[soundofvoicecracking,andhestartsweeping]Terry:Doyouthinkyou’llever,kindof…?[shakeshead].……No,right.Yeah.

Althoughhereachedthisrevelationinslowandhesitantfashion,therewasalsoasense

ofinexorabilityabouthisdisclosure.Tellingmeearlyintheinterviewsuggesteda

pressingneedtodivulge;itseemedlikeanemotionalhurdletobeovercomebefore

furtherprogresscouldbemade.Itookhiswords-‘AftermymotherdiedIopenedthem,

butIhaven’t…(lowersvoice)Ihaven’treadthem’-tobeamanifestinvitationto

respond.Mymirroringofhiswordsopenedthefloodgates,andhisvoicecrackedinto

incoherenceforafewseconds.Atfirst,IwasquiteconfusedbecauseIthoughthewas

startingtolaughinanembarrassed,selfmockingway,butthenIsawthathewas

crying.Ifeltmyselfdrawnintohisemotion,andwasleftwonderingjustwhathemeant

by‘Iamrubbish’.Afterthisintenseepisode,hekepthisemotionsunderwrapsforthe

restoftheinterview.InANTlanguage,Rexandthesetofletterswere‘actants’17ina

‘network’whoseidentitiesare‘definedthroughtheirinteractionwithotheractors’

(Cressman2009,p.3).But,aswecanseefromtheabovebriefanalysis,itwasthe

reflexivityandintersubjectivityofthepsychosocialapproachthatallowedmeto

addressthedepthandsubtletiesoftheconnectionsbetweenthetwoactants.

16Fellenor(2015)usesthepsychosocialapproachalongsideactornetworktheoryinhisPhDresearchintotheexperienceofmyalgicencephalomyelitis(ME).SeeHunter(2008)whoalsoarguesforthecompatibilitybetweenthetwoapproachesinheranalysisoftheroleofdocuments.17Actornetworktheory‘doesnotlimititselftohumanindividualactors,butextendsthewordactor-oractant-tonon-human,non-individualentities’(Latour1996,p.369).

37

AlthoughIhavefocusedprimarilyonactornetworktheorytoraisetheprofileof

artifactsinmyresearch,scholarsfromotherdisciplinesalsoaddresstheroleofobjects

(someofwhomalsodrawonANT).Theyshowhowartifactsandotherelementsinthe

materialworldmaybecomeentangledinsocialengagementthroughmediating

emotionsandbecomingembeddedwithvarioussocialpractices.Thisgrowing

acknowledgementoftheroleofthematerialcanbeseeninanthropology(Ingold2010,

Miller2008and2010),archaeology(Saunders2005and2009),18culturalstudies

(Highmore2011and2016),ethnography(Pink2015),geography(Allen2011),

sociology(Reckwitz2012)andsocialpsychology(e.g.Turkle2007).

Theresearchrelationship

‘Weareafamilywithcommonthreadsrunningthroughourlives’.(Rory-writingaboutwhatthechildrenofFEPOWsshare)

Asthefieldworkproceeded,Igrewmoreawareofhowtheinterviewwasonlyone

elementwithinthewiderrelationshipthatIwasdevelopingwithparticipants.However,

muchresearchliterature,especiallythatemanatingfromtheoralhistorytradition,

focusesrathernarrowlyonthe‘researchinterview’,andrarelyacknowledgesthewider

‘researchrelationship’.19FromthestartofmyfieldworkIhadnoticedthatrelationships

withindividualparticipantsbeganwellbeforetheinterview.Indeed,theybeganfrom

myfirstawarenessofaprospectiveparticipant(possiblyevenbeforethis,inan

anticipatorysense):thefirstemailorphonecall,aname,anaddress,thenmyreply,

theirlanguageandcommunicationstyles.Theysometimesmentionedtheirfathers:he

wasanofficer,hewasaprivate,hewas‘ontherailway’,hediedinthecamp,andsoon.

Fromthesefirstmoments,unconsciousresponsesbasedonpastrelationshipscame

intoplay,expectationsbegantobubbleunderthesurface,andthese

18Amajorcontributortotheemergentfieldof‘conflictarchaeology’.19Oneofthemajortextsinthefield-TheOralHistoryReader(PerksandThomson2006)-failstomentiontheterm‘relationship’inthechaptertitlesortheindex.

38

countertransferentialreactionscontinuedthroughouttherelationship.So,formeat

least,theresearchrelationshipextendedfromfirstawareness,throughtheinterview

andfollow-upemails,andevolvedfurtherduringtheprocessesoftranscription,

analysisandwrite-up.Evennow,asIbringthisthesistoaformalclose,eachparticipant

remainsformeadynamicpsychicpresence.20

Priortothefieldwork,Idrewupalistof‘open’questionstobeusedasprompts

thatIcoulduseifIfelttheparticipant(orI)washavingparticulardifficultywiththe

freeassociationmethod.Intheevent,Irarelyusedit.WhenIdiditwastowardstheend

ofaninterviewtoensurethatIhadnotinadvertentlyclosedoffanyimportanttopics

throughmyownincompetenceoranxiety.Forsomeparticipants,andformetosome

extent,theunstructurednatureofthefreeassociationinterviewmethoddidprovoke

someapprehension.Therefore,duringthepre-interviewphases,myprioritieswereto

establishaworkingrapportandtoensurethatparticipantshadrealisticexpectationsof

theinterview.Myownpreparationwasimportantinmanaginginterviewanxiety,and

includedchoosingopeningquestionsthatstimulated(oratleastdidnotinhibit)the

narrativeflow.Normally,myfirstquestioninvitedparticipantstotalkabouttheir

earliestchildhoodmemories.Thisfirstquestioncouldcarryparticularweight.How

wouldparticipantschoosetobegin?Howmuchpreparationhadtheyundertakenbefore

myarrival,andhowmightthisaffecthowtheychosetobegin?Wouldemotional

elementscreepin,evenatthisearlystageoftheproceedings,orwouldtheybemore

reticent?WouldIbepresentedwithawell-rehearsedscript,orwouldresponsesbe

morespontaneous?Inpractice,somebeganwithawellcraftedmonologuewhich

evidentlyneededtobeperformedbeforemorespontaneoustestimonycouldappear,

andafewintroducedhighlychargedtraumaticmemoriesalmostfromtheoutset.

20Onanautobiographicalnote,inmycareerasanurseIhadmetanumberofpeople(‘patients’)whosestoriesstayedwithmeovermanydecades.Thiswasespeciallythecasewiththosewhoprovokedstrongcountertransferences.Later,asalecturer,andasadirectresultoftheseearlynursingexperiences,Idevelopedamoduleentitled‘TheCaringRelationship’inwhichexperiencedhealthcareprofessionalswereabletotelltheirstoriesofpatientswhowere‘special’tothem.

39

Ifparticipantsappearedtobestrugglingtorecallsomethinginparticular,or

whenthenarrativeseemedtobe‘dryingup’,Iintroducedthe‘scenicmemory’

techniquesuggestedbyRosenthal(1998,p.3):Iencouragedthemtothinkthemselves

backintoaphysicallocation,andaskedthemwhattheycould‘seeandhear’.Following

whatKidron(2009)learnedfromherinterviewees-that‘theHolocaustwaspresentin

myhome’(p.5)-Iaskedabouthowtheirfather’sPOWlifewaspresentduringtheir

childhood,usuallyindirectly,throughquestionssuchas‘WhatwouldIhaveseenor

heardifIhadbeenaflyonthewallduringyourchildhood?’

Myinterviewsrarelyconformedtoatidyoridealizedmodelofthe‘free

associationnarrativeinterview’(ifthereissuchathing),buttheydidnevertheless

allowparticipantsthetimeandfreedomtotalkabouttheirliveswithminimal

interferencefromme.Reflectingoninterviewsaftertheeventwasnotalwaysa

comfortableexperience.Thefollowingisfromafieldnotewrittenaftermyinterview

withDeirdre:

IrealizethatIamcapableoflisteningtoheraccountofveryharshphysicalandpsychologicaltreatmentbyherfatherwithadegreeofequanimity…andIwonderwhythisis.Lookingback,asachildIhadtoisolatemyselffrompsychologicalstresses.Later,asamentalhealthnurse,Ihadtolistentomanybizarreandpainfulstories,withoutgivingawayanythingpersonal.Didthishavesomeeffectonmycapacitytofeelparticipants’expressionsofpain‘inthemoment’?

Later,listeningtorecordingsandreadingthroughtranscripts,Isometimesfeltmore

emotionthanIdidwhencarryingouttheinterview,anoutcomethatseemedto

contradictKarpf’s(2014)criticismoftheflatteningeffectsofthetranscriptionprocess.I

experiencedsomeguiltaboutthis:notbecauseIdidnotexpresssympathytowardsthe

person,butbecauseIdidnotseemto‘feel’atthetime.

AnexplicitandsignificantfeatureoftheresearchrelationshipwasthatIwas

perceivedbyparticipantstobean‘insider’,partoftheirgeneration.Wiederhold(2015)

arguesthat

40

ameaningfuldifferenceexistsbetweenbeingamemberofthesameculturalgroupasyourparticipantsandactuallysharingapersonalhistory,asocialnetwork,andanassumedplace-basedinvestmentinthefuturewiththem-asexperiencedbythosescholarswhoconducttheirresearchintheplacestheycallhome(p.600).

Myownpositionfellsomewherebetweenthetwo:wesharedabiographicalfact,and

perhapsmembershipofvariousratherlooseFEPOWorganisations,togetherwithsome

activitiesthatderivedfromthosememberships.Butusuallyverylittleelse.

Agreeingtobecomeaparticipantinthisresearchprovidedanopportunityto

speakaboutquitepersonalandoccasionallytraumaticexperiencestoapersonthey

judgedtrustworthyand‘safe’.Iwasgenerallyperceivedtobe‘oneofthem’becauseI

sharedthecriticalexperienceofhavingafatherwhohadbeenaFEPOW.Atthestart,

thistrustwasprovisional,Iwas‘onprobation’,untiltheinterviewgotunderwayand

theycouldtestoutmymannerandlevelofunderstanding,andchecktheir

preconceptions.Ipassedonsomethingofmyownpersonalexperiencesiftheyasked.

However,iftheywantedmorethanaquickresponse-e.g.whichcampwasyourdadin

then?-IexplainedthatIwouldbehappytodothisbutatthe‘end’oftheinterview.In

thefewcaseswherethisoccurred,Idiscoveredthatamodicumofpersonaldisclosure

couldtaketheinterviewtoanew-usuallydeeper-emotionallevel.Thereweredangers

inthis,ofcourse,andtoensurethatthethesisemergedasabalancedanalysis,rootedin

thedata,IhadtoensureIdidnotallowmyormyfather’sstoriestopushasidethoseof

thepeopleIwasresearching.Intheevent,theparticipants’storiesprovedtobean

excellentandpowerfulcorrectivetothistendency.

Militaryrankcouldbeasensitivesubject.Rexaskedmeoutrightwhethermy

fatherhadbeenanofficer.Infact,hewasaprivate-agunnerintheRoyalArtillery-

withalingeringdistrustoftheofficerclass.Oncerevealed,thisfactseemedtoplaya

partinhowhe‘weighedmeup’.Muchlaterintheinterview,though,hefoundawayof

amelioratingthesituation.ItoldhimmyfatherhadbeenacoalminerinJapan:

41

Rex:Itwasacoalmine?Terry:Acoalmine.Rex:Oh,Ididn’tunderstandthat.Oh,myGod....Bloodyhell!...Washefedsufficiently?

Itwasasifhehadbeensearchingforsomethingtovalidatemyfather’swartime

identityandraisehisstatusinbothoureyes(andvicariouslymineinhis).The

relationshipwarmednoticeablyfromthatpointand,verysoonafterwards,heasked‘Do

youwantsomethingtodrink?’

The‘insider-outsider’dichotomyisbothausefulandaconfusingconstruct.Its

utilityasaheuristicdeviceseemswellestablishedintheliterature,andprovedusefulto

meinconceptualizingmyownpositioninthisresearch.21Frommyexperience,while

‘insider’statuscertainlyeasedaccess,therewerealsocountervailingpressures,suchas

theneedtoremainalerttowhatparticipantsweretakingforgranted,andalsowhat

assumptionsImightbebringingtotheinterview.Forinstance,someparticipants

assumedwesharedsimilarattitudestowardstheJapaneseortoHiroshimaand

Nagasaki.OthersexpectedmetobeanexpertonthehistoryofthewarintheFarEast22

orofthepoliticsofFEPOWactivism.

Planningandimplementingthefieldwork

Iwasseducedbythenotionoffieldwork,theideaofgoingsomeplacetofindastoryIwasn’tlookingfor(Behar2003,p.16).Interviewingisratherlikemarriage:everybodyknowswhatitis,anawfullotofpeopledoit,andyetbehindeachclosedfrontdoorthereisaworldofsecrets(Oakley1981,p.31).

Theonlycriterionforrecruitmentwasthatparticipantsmusthaveafatherwhohad

beenaBritishPOWintheFarEastduringWorldWarTwo.Ihadinitiallyconsidered

restrictingthestudytochildrenwhosefathershadsurvivedthewar,butthatwasuntilI

21SeeHellawell(2006)foraperceptivediscussionoftheseissues,andPaechter(2012)forasummaryofthebenefitsanddrawbacksoftheinsiderposition.22Ihaveareasonableworkingknowledgeofthecontext,butIamnotanhistorianinthesensethatsomeparticipantsexpected.Asthisthesiswillshow,someparticipantswereself-madehistoriansofconsiderableexpertise,anissuethatIaddressinChapter7.

42

receivedanemailfromamanwhosefatherhaddiedinaPOWcamp.Despitenot

knowinghisfather,hislifehadbeenscarredbytheloss,andhadplayedonhismind

throughouthislife.Ianticipatedthatothervariablesmightemergeassignificantduring

theanalysis,forexampletherankofthefather,whetherthechildwasbornbeforeor

afterthewar,familysizeandstructure,socialbackgroundandoccupation,education,

andtheageatwhichthechildfirstbecameawareofhis/herfather’sex-POWstatusand

experience.ButIdidnotcontemplateusingtheseasselectioncriteriabecauseIwished

toensurethecohortrepresentedawidespreadofexperience,consistentwithwhat

Bryman(2012)referstoasa‘maximumvariation’sample(p.419).

InJanuary2014,IpostedarequestonaFarEastPrisonerofWarcommunity

internetgroup,23givingbasicdetailsofwhoIwas,thepurposeofmyPhD,andinviting

expressionsofinterest(seeAppendix4).Intheinvitation,Isharedthefactthatmy

fatherhadalsobeenaFEPOW,andtheresponsesIreceivedsuggestedthatthis

disclosuregavereaderstheconfidencetoexpressfurtherinterest(Humphrey2007,

Kidron2004,Paechter2012,Wiederhold2015).Theonlineinvitationgenerateda

healthyresponse(eightwithinthefirstthreehours),andatfirstIwasconcernedthat

thismightimplyexcessivehomogeneityinthefinalsample.However,thisprovednotto

bethecase.TheFEPOWonlinegroupwasmuchmorediversethanIhadexpectedand

includedmemberswhoweredeeplyinvolved-almost‘professional’intheirlevelof

engagementandexpertise-butalsomanyotherswhoseinterestwassporadicor

marginal.Isupplementedthispurposivesampling(Robinson2014)witha‘snowball’

approachwhicharosespontaneouslyinthecourseofthefieldwork,asexisting

participantsrecommendedothers.Muchtomysurprise,Ialsomadecontactwitha

familyoffivesiblingsafteranex-studentofmine,apartnerofoneofthesiblings,

chanceduponmyUniversityofEssexwebsiteprofile.Atthestartoftheresearch,Iwas

oblivioustothepossibilityofinterviewingsiblingsbut,bytheend,Ihadinterviewed23FarEastPrisonerofWarCommunityhttps://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/Fepow-Community/info

43

siblingsfromsevendifferentfamilies(atotalofnineteeninterviews).Althoughthis

limitedthenumberofdifferentfamiliesinvolved,itwasmorethancompensatedforby

thewiderrangeofperspectives.Ifollowedupallonlineexpressionsofinterestby

sendingthe‘informationsheet’fortheresearch(seeAppendix5).

Itisimportanttoremainawareofhowthesamplewasconstructedandhowit

mighthaveshapedmyfindings.ThedatainAppendix3showthatmiddleclass

participantswereover-represented(85%middleclass).Thisisperhapsunsurprising

giventhatIambasedintheEastofEnglandandneededtomanagetheprojectwithin

strictcostandtimeconstraints.AlthoughIusedaweb-basedFEPOWdiscussiongroup

torecruitthesample,ahighproportionofparticipants(36%)werebasedinLondon

andtheSouthEast,andthesearetheUKregionswithagreaterthanaveragemiddle

classpopulationandrelativelyhighincomelevels.24Asisclearfromthetablesin

Appendix2,mostparticipantswereinahighersocialclassthantheirfathers(49%of

fathersweremiddleclasscomparedwith85%oftheirchildren).25

Theculturalcapitalthatoftenaccompaniesamiddleclasslifestylemayhave

givenprospectiveparticipantstheconfidencetoreplytomyinvitation.However,class

isonlyonevariabletoconsider;Isuspectthatemotionalfactorswouldhavebeen

equallyormoresignificant.Assumingthatsomepeoplereadtheinvitationbutdecided

nottoparticipate,wecanonlyspeculateontheirreasons.Theymayhavebeenanxious

nottorevivepainfulmemories26or,alternatively,theymayhaveconsideredtheir

experiencestoomundanetowarrantputtingthemselvesforward.Inaddition,there

24https://www.equalitytrust.org.uk/scale-economic-inequality-uk25Socialchangesinthe1960smayhaveinfluencedthis,especiallythoserelatingtoeducation.Itwasaperiodof‘lowunemploymentandrelativeeconomicprosperity’duringwhich‘forthefirsttimeever,aBritishgovernmentspentmoreoneducationthanondefence’.Seehttp://www.educationengland.org.uk/history/chapter06.html.Highereducationwasexpanded,andmajorcurriculumchangestookplacethroughouttheschoolsystem(Marwick2003).26Deirdre,whosestoryfeaturesprominentlyinseveralchapters,wasfromaworkingclassbackground.Hercurrentprofessionasamanagerplacesherfirmlyinthemiddleclasses.Bothsheandhertwinsistersufferedatthehandsoftheirviolentfather,andDeirdrewasunsureaboutwhetherornottoparticipateintheresearchforfearof‘openingdoorsthathadbeenshutalongtime’.Hersisterhadalsoagreedtobeinterviewed,untilshewithdrewatthelastminute.Deirdre’sthoughtsonthematterareincludedattheendofthe‘SummaryandConclusions’.

44

werelikelytobesignificantnumberswhowerenotinvolvedwith,orindeedwere

unawareof,theCOFEPOW‘community’.Despitetheseimponderables,Iwouldargue

thatthe‘maximumvariationsample’whichfinallyemergedestablishedbroad

parameters,withinwhichlaybehavioursandemotionalcircumstancesrecognisableto

manyofthoseinthewiderpopulationofchildrenwithex-FEPOWfathers.

Myinitialtargethadbeentoconductsingle,face-to-faceinterviewswith25-30

participants.Bytheendofthefieldwork,Ihadcarriedoutface-to-faceinterviewswith

34participants:16womenand18men.Mostinterviewslastedbetweentwoandthree

hours.33oftheinterviewstookplaceintheUK,andoneinJapan(partofa

‘pilgrimage’).13participantscontributedbyemail(6womenand7men):5UK-based

participantsthroughchoiceorbecauseoflogisticalbarriers,and8fromoverseas

(Australia,Canada,NewZealand,USA).Iundertookamaximumoftwoface-to-face

interviewsinanyoneweek,andIcompletedallinterviewsbytheendofJanuary2015.

SeeAppendices1,2and3forfurtherdetailsofindividualparticipants.

Ineverycase,Iaskedfortheconsentformtobecompletedattheendofthe

interview,sothatparticipantswereawareofwhathadbeencovered(seeAppendix6).

Intwocases,spouses/partnerssatinforthewholeinterview.Inone,apartnerwanted

tosupporta‘vulnerable’participantthroughtheprocess;intheother,Iinterviewedin

theeveninganditwasclearonmyarrivalthatthecouplewere‘settled’intotheir

normallivingroomroutine.Thechoiceofwheretoconducttheinterviewwasleftinthe

handsoftheparticipants.Myonlydemandswereforareasonablyquietenvironment

andanearbysurfaceformydigitalrecorders.27Thisarrangementworkedwellandthe

onlyrecordingsI‘lost’wereafewontheback-uprecorderwhenthebatteryorthe

memoryranout.28AlthoughIwarnedparticipantsthatImighttakenotes,andusually

keptapenandpaddiscreetlytoonesideforthispurpose,intheeventIneverdid.Ihad27AgoodqualityOlympusLS-12LinearPCMRecorderforthemainrecording,togetherwithanoldOlympusWS-200SDigitalVoiceRecorderasback-up.28Afterthefirstoccasion,Ialwayswarnedparticipantsatthestartoftheinterviewwhatanunexpected‘bleep’wouldmean.

45

invitedparticipantstosharephotographsandartifactsaspartoftheinterview(de

Nardi2014),andallparticipantsdidso.Indeed,severalwenttogreatlengthsto

organizematerialsreadyformyarrival.Within48hoursofeveryinterview,Ithanked

theparticipantbyemailandaskedanyfollow-upquestions.Thisfurthercontact

extendedtherelationship,andfrequentlybroughtforthnewinformation.

Transcribingandanalysingthedata

Initially,myaimhadbeentofullytranscribeeachrecordedinterviewassoonas

possibleaftercompletion.However,IsoonrealizedthatIneededtodevotemyselffully

totheinterviewprocessoveranextendedperiod.Asaresult,Ifinishedmostofthe

interviewsbeforestartingtotranscribe.Icarriedoutthetranscriptionsmyselfwhich,

forme,wasvitalroleinallowingmeto‘relive’theinterviewandtoavoidany‘flattening

out’oftheemotionalcontent(Scatesetal2014,p.210).Atthestart,Ihadenvisaged

fullytranscribingallface-to-faceinterviews.However,thisprovedimpracticable.AfterI

hadfullytranscribedseventeeninterviews(ninewomenandeightmen),Iadopteda

moreflexibleapproachandonlyselectivelytranscribedtheotherseventeen.Ialsokept

reflexivefieldnotesonallparticipants,atallstagesoftheresearch.Ofcourse,

contributionsfromthethirteenemailparticipantsdidnotrequiretranscription.

ItranscribedtherecordingsintoWorddocuments,andthencarriedoutan

initialthematicanalysisusingNVivoforMac,adoptingstages1-3ofthe‘Framework

Analysis’variant(Wardetal2013).29NVivowasvaluableinmanagingallthewritten

elementsoftheresearch:thewrittentranscripts,fieldnotesandacademicpapers.

However,throughtrialanderror(andadvicefromoneofitsoriginators)30Isoon

realisedthatthisformofanalysishadseriouslimitationsinhandlingcomplexand

29Thestagesare:1.Familiarization-throughimmersioninthedata.2.Developingatheoreticalframeworkbyidentifyingrecurrentandimportantthemes.3.Indexandpilotcharting.4.Summarizingdatainanalyticalframework.5.Synthesizingdatabymappingandinterpreting.(Wardetal2013,pp.5-6).30LizSpencer(e.g.Ritchie,SpencerandO’Connor2003).Personalcommunication.

46

fluctuatingthemeswithoriginsindifferentpartsofthetext.McAdams(2012)makesa

similarpoint:

Apsychologicalthemeisnotlikelytobeindicatedbyanyparticularword,norcapturedfullyinaphraseorsinglesentence.Instead,athemeistypicallydrawnasaninferencefromanextendedpassageoftext.Inthecontextofdiscovery,itisnotnecessarytospecifystrictorformalparametersfordeterminingthemes.Inordertocastthewidestpossibleexploratorynet,theresearcherneedstoreadthenarrativepassageswithanopenanddiscerningmind,searchingforideasthatstriketheearasespeciallysalient,recurrent,surprising,orpotentiallyrevealingofcentralpsychologicaldynamicsandissues...(p.18).

Althoughtheprocessoftranscriptionmayseemdullincomparisonwiththeinherent

vitalityoftheinterviews,Ioftenexperiencedembodiedresponsescomparabletothose

describedbyAndrewSparkes(SparkesandSmith2012):

MystomachchurnsandIfeelawaveofanxietyspreadthroughoutmybody.Ifeelsickandwanttoblockoutsuchthoughtsandfeelings.IoftenfeellikethiswhenIreadpartoftheinterviewtranscripts.Thedeepvisceralnatureofmyfeelingsisasinescapableasitisindescribable(p.60).

Criticaltomyapproachhasbeentheneedtore-immersemyselfintherecordingstore-

animatemyimaginationandrecalloftheinterviews.Inpreparingthethesis,Ihave

aimedtoproduceextractsoftranscriptsthatarereadable,whilststayingtruetothe

senseoftherhythmsandemotionsofthespokenword.Ihaveretainedhesitationsand

fragmentedgrammarwhentheseseemedessentialtoreflecttheemotionalityofthe

narrative.Ihavealsoincludedanumberoflengthyextractswherethesewereneededto

preservenarrativeandemotionalcoherence.

Inusingpsychoanalyticconceptsasthebasisofinterpretation,Hollwayand

Jefferson(2013)arecarefultodistinguishbetweentheinterpretationusedintherapy

anditsdeploymentinpsychosocialresearch.Iaimedtoenterintoadialoguewiththe

datagatheredfrominterviews,applyingpsychoanalyticconstructscautiouslytoavoid

‘wildanalysis’-atermusedtodescribethe‘overstretchedorimplausibleuse’ofsuch

47

ideas(p.154).31Therearealsodangersinusingpsychoanalyticinsightsreductively,as

pointedoutbyRoper(2009,p.24).Unlikelongtermpsychoanalysiswhere

interpretationsaremadewithinasession(HollwayandJefferson2013,p.156),myface

tofacecontactswithparticipantswereconfinedtosingleinterviews,albeitlengthyand

oftenintense.FollowingHollwayandJefferson,anyinterpretativeobservationsImade

werelimitedtopost-interviewdataanalysisandIdidnotdiscussthesewith

participants.Thefactthatinterpretationinthehandsofasocialresearcher‘isseparate

fromtheparticipantandhasadifferentaudience’(p.72)shouldnegateanyserious

ethicalconcerns(seealsothepaperbyAlexandrov2009).Cultivatingapsychoanalytic

sensibilityencouraged,acrosstheentireresearchprocess,butperhapsespecially

duringtheanalysis,aformofintellectual‘roaming’akintoOgden’s(1997,2004)ideaof

‘reverie’throughwhichdisparateideasandexperiencescanbeassociatedor

synthesized.

Conclusion

InthischapterIhavediscussedhowIarrivedatmyparticularmethodology,andhave

exploredsomeoftheintricaciesofimplementation.WhileIrecognisethatthe

psychosocialapproach,oralhistory,visualethnologyandactornetworktheorymaynot

appearobviousbedfellows,Ifoundthatinmyresearchtheyprovedlargelycompatible

andcomplementarytooneanother.

However,Iwanttoconcludeonamoresubjectivenote.Ihadanticipatedthe

levelofemotionaldemand,bothfromthecontentofthetestimonyandfromthestress

entailedinconductinganinterviewoverwhichonehadonlyloosecontrol.ButIwas

muchlesswellpreparedforthecognitivechallenge.Reflectingonwhythismighthave

beenthecase,Ieventuallyconcludedthatmuchofitresultedfromthedemandsof

31Givenmybackgroundinmentalhealthwork,Ihadtoresistthetemptationto‘spotthedefencemechanism’.Inpractice,thiswasmucheasierthanIhadexpected,anoutcomethatIspeculatedmighthavebeenduetomy‘insider’role.

48

handlingtime(or,moreprecisely‘times’)withintheimmediacyoftheinterview.

Throughouteachinterview,IfeltIwasbalancingthreetemporaldimensions

simultaneously:‘physicaltime’(asmeasurebymywatch),‘biographicaltime’(the

chronologiesofbothourpersonalstories-theparticipants’andmine-includingany

intersectionsbetweenthetwo),and‘historicaltime’(relatedtothehistoricalevents

precedingandrunningalongsideourpersonalstories,detailsofthewarintheFarEast

andsoon).Whiletheemotionaldemandsofqualitativeinterviewinghavebeenlong

recognised(e.g.Bornat2010,Goldenberg2002,Hunt1989,Klempner2000,Laub

1992b),thesecognitiveandtemporalaspectsofinterviewingappearnottohave

receivedthesamelevelofattentionintheliterature.

49

CHAPTERTWO

TRAUMAANDINTERGENERATIONALTRANSMISSION

‘Thefathersatesourgrapes,andthechildren’steethweresetonedge.’

(Ezekiel18:1-4)

‘Tightlyguardedfamilysecrets,awkwardpausesincommunication,missingphotographs,hiddenletters,unexplainedtearsatthementionofacityfaraway,phobicallyavoidedtelevisionshows,andtellingslipsoftongue,togetherconstitutetheinvisiblepathwaythroughwhichtraumaticexperiencesofonegenerationarepassedontothenext.’(SalmanAkhtar)1

Introduction

Inthischapter,Ifocusontheprocessesthroughwhichtheexperiencesandmemoriesof

theFEPOWsinfluencedandshapedthelivesoftheirchildren.Coresectionsexaminethe

natureandimpactoftrauma,itsexpressioninposttraumaticstressdisorder(PTSD),

andthecomplexmeansbywhichtraumawastransmittedbetweengenerations.

Amongsttheoriesoftransmission,Iarguethatattachmenttheoryoffersapotent

explanationfortheunsettledearlyrelationshipsbetweenmanyparticipantsandtheir

fathers.Thechapterproceedsfromareviewofselectedliteratureontraumatoresearch

findingsonintergenerationaltransmission,beforebroadeningouttoconsiderthe

relationshipbetweentraumaandhistory,aestheticresponsestotraumarepresentation,

embodiedprocessesoftransmission,andfinishesbyaskingwhethertraumamust

alwaysleadtonegativeoutcomes.

FEPOWtraumaandtheholocaustparadigm

GiventhethinbodyofresearchfocusingspecificallyonFEPOWsandintergenerational

transmission,Ihavedrawnoncognateliteratureasasourceofrelevantconstructsand

conceptualframeworks,especiallytheextensiverangeofstudiesderivingfromthe

1FromAkhtar’sendorsementofLostinTransmissioneditedbyM.GeraldFromm(2012).

50

Holocaust.ThisdeepwellofHolocaustresearchhasbeenregularlydrawnuponby

scholarsinothersettings.2

Withoutinanywaybeingdrawnintothemorallydubioustopicoftrauma

‘ranking’,weneedtoacknowledgethedistinctdifferencesbetweentheHolocaustand

thecircumstancesoftheFEPOWs.WhileHolocaustvictimswereciviliansuprooted

fromtheirhomesandhomelands,andtheircommunitiesdismantled,FEPOWswere

overseasmilitarycombatantswhofoundthemselves,tragically,inthewrongplaceat

thewrongtime.AlthoughtheJapanesemilitaryinflictedwidespreadbrutality,the

FEPOWswerenotsubjectedtosystematicexterminationasamatterofstatepolicy,or

affectedbythe‘culturaltransmission’embeddedwithincenturiesofanti-Semitism,or

therecursiveresponsestothathistory.3Kellerman(2009)writesof‘aprolonged

chronichorrorexistence’todescribethisprocess(p.16,italicsinoriginal).

WritingaboutHolocausttestimonies,LaCapra(2001)debatesthechallenges

implicitintraumaticeventsliketheHolocaustwhichlieontheedgeofhuman

imagination(so-called‘limitevents’),andposesquestionsabouttherisksofconsidering

theseas‘inaccessible,unrepresentableother[s]’,likelytoprovoke‘silentawe’(p.93).

Withadegreeofpassion,hecautionsthatone‘dubiousconsequence’mightbe:

….aconstructionoftheseeventsintermsofanundifferentiated,rashlygeneralized,hyperbolicaestheticofthesublimeorevena(positiveornegative)sacralizationoftheeventwhichmaypromptaforeclosure,denigration,orinadequateaccountnotonlyofrepresentationbutofthedifficultissueofethicallyresponsibleagencyboththenandnow(p.93).

2E.g.AboriginaltraumainCanada(Bombayetal2009),theCambodiangenocide(Kidron2012a),theRwandangenocide(Rothetal2014),theNorthernIreland‘troubles’(Burnsetal2010,Dawson2005),andtraumainbothCroatia(KlainandPavic2002)andinIreland(Colletal2012).3SeeNovick(1999)forawide-rangingdiscussionofthecomplexitiesentailedinthepostwartransmissionofHolocaustexperienceswherethe‘scarsdotheworkofthewound’,includingthedangersof‘makingtheHolocausttheemblematicJewishexperience’(p.281).SeealsoPickeringandKeightley’s(2012)discussionofculturalmemoryand‘communitiesofmemory’regardingtheHolocaust,andhow‘experiencederivedfromothersbecomesintegratedintoourownlife-stories’(p.115).

51

LaCapraiswarningagainstseeinghuman-directedmasstraumaasunrepresentable,

whichcouldcarrythedangerofrestrictingtheopportunitiesforindividualsand

communitiesto‘workthrough’thepain.Societyneedstofindwaysofdealingwith

thesetraumas,andhistorianshavearesponsibilityinfacilitatingthis,andthus‘togivea

placeinhistoriographytothevoicesofvictimsandsurvivors’(p.113).

Kellermann(2009)writesofactsof‘mercilesscruelty’(p.17)thatheargues

wereseenuniquelyintheHolocaust.MyreadingoftheFEPOWsituation,basedon

writtenaccounts,onlinediscussionsandparticipants’testimonies,isthatactsofcruelty

inflictedbytheImperialJapaneseArmywerecomparabletoHolocaustbrutalityinthe

depthoftheirlocalizeddepravity;indeedthesehorrorscontinuetocirculateinthe

darkerrecessesofcontemporaryFEPOWdiscourse.4Massacres,mutilations,medical

experiments,hellships,deathmarches,andcannibalismallfigurepowerfully(seefor

exampleTanaka1998,5andFelton2015).Gwenrecountedoneofherfather’sstories:

...onenightthey[theJapanese]gavethemadinner-thePOWs-andthenthenextdayattenko6theysaid,didyouenjoyyourChristmasdinner,becauseitwasmadewiththeliverofaPOW?

AlthoughGwen’sfamilybackgroundwaschallengingatmanylevels,familymembers

communicatedfreelyandwereemotionallyexpressivewhichmayhaveminimizedthe

risksof‘foreclosure’whenfacedwithimagesofextremetrauma.Iturnnowtothe

notionoftraumaitself,andexploreitsimmediateandlongertermimpactonthepsyche.

4OnavisittoJapanin2010,afellowtraveller-thedaughter-in-lawofaFEPOW-recountedaneventherfather-in-lawhadwitnessedpersonally.ThatisallIcanwriteonthetopic.Tothisday,Icannotbringmyselftoshareherdescriptionwithanyoneelse.Whenthementalimagesthreatentoappear,Iactivelysuppressmyownthoughts.Ichoosenottofurtherinflictthis‘depositedrepresentation’(VolkanandGreer2007).5ProfessorofHistoryatHiroshimaUniversity,YukiTanakaauthoredthefirstaccount,byaJapanese,ofJapanesewarcrimesduringWW2.6TenkoistheJapanesewordfor‘rollcall’.

52

Thenatureoftrauma

Ifeveryagehasitssymptoms,oursappearstobetheageoftrauma.(MillerandTougaw2002,p.1)

Theuseoftheterm‘trauma’hasbecomewidespreadinpopularcultureaswellas

scholarlycircles-‘inflatedinitsapplication’tousethewordsofZepfandZepf(2008,

p.331).JeffreyPrager(2011)setsoutthebroadparameters:

Theconceptoftraumahasmigratedovertime.Atermfirstemployedtodescribeaformofbodilyorphysicalharmbecameadescriptionofanoverwhelmingpsychologicalexperiencesufferedbyanindividual.Traumanowcanalsodescribeeventsofanation’spastwherepriorexperiencesjeopardizecurrentsocialsolidarityandinterferewithmembers’abilitytofunctionfreelyinthecollectivity.Theidentificationofsocialtraumaoftenservesasapreludetodevelopmentofpoliciesofhealing,forgiveness,orreconciliation(p.425).

FassinandRechtman(2009)alsopointtothesocialconsequencesoftrauma’snewbig

identity.Fromthisconceptualremodeling,‘victimhood’emergesasapervasivestatus

withinstitutionalimplications.Lawyersencouragevictimsoftraumatoseek

compensation,teamsofmentalhealthprofessionalsremainreadytooffer‘trauma

counselling’,andthedisciplineof‘traumatology’hasbeennewlyminted.Apossible

casualtyistheuniqueexperienceoftheindividual,threateningtobesweptasidebythe

‘masterstatus’oftraumavictim(Becker1963).Thisprocesshasbeenatworkinthe

FEPOWcommunity:asnumbershavedwindled,thestatusof‘FEPOW’hasincreasedin

value,castingtheseelderlymenintotheroleofminorcelebrities.Variousvested

interestshaveencouragedthisshift,includingFEPOWorganisationsthemselves,and

stateagenciesthatwishtoexploittheex-FEPOWsatremembranceevents.7

7Zwigenberg(2014)discussestheriseofthe‘hero-victim’inrelationtoHiroshima.Hepointstothecomplexityinvolvedinthis‘rise’,arguingthatit‘isnotoneofthelinearriseofthe“victim-hero,”butofmultiplecoalitionsthatroseandfell.Itisastoryofcontradictionsandambiguities...messy,multi-directionalandopentomanyinterpretations(p.7).Isuspectmanyex-FEPOWsfoundtheirelevationtomoreparochialherostatusequallyambiguous,aswellasunpredictableandquitedisorientating.

53

Psychoanalyst,RenosPapadopoulos(2015)picksuponthedilemma

engenderedbythewidespreadusageofthetermtrauma.

Butwhatdowemeanby“trauma”?Thequestionisimportantbecausetodaytheword“trauma”isusedindiversecontextsthatcoverthewidestpossiblespectrum,fromthemostdebilitatingpsychiatricconditionstothemostinnocuousandtrivialformsofdiscomfort.Acursorylookatthedailynewspapersineverycountrytestifiestothisastonishingarrayofmeanings.Yettheideapersiststhatallofusunderstandpreciselywhatonemeansby“trauma.”Itiscommonlyknownthattrauma,aGreekword,meanswoundorinjuryandthatitcomesfromtheGreekverb,titrosko,meaning“topierce.”Hencethemarkofbeingpiercedorwoundedistheinjury,thetrauma.

Papadopoulosthenredirectshisdiscussionintomoreesotericterritory,andoffersan

intriguingandevocativepsychictwist.

Myownetymologicalresearchshowsthattheoriginoftheverb“topierce”(titrosko)inGreekistheverbteiro,“torub,”andinancientGreekithadtwomeanings—torubinandtoruboff,torubaway.Whenonerubsinsomethingonone’sskin,inevitablythatwillproducesomepiercingoftheskinand,consequently,awound.However,rubbingofforrubbingawayhasacompletelydifferentoutcome.Itwouldbetoerasesomething,asonerubsoffpencilwritingonpaperusingarubberoraneraser.Accordingly,adevastatingexperiencemayindeedbreaktheskin,theprotectivemembraneofourpsychologicalsystemandcauseapsychologicalinjury(a“trauma”).Butatthesametime,italsohasthepowertoerasepreviouslyheldandmaybeoutdatedorill-adaptedviewsandvalues.Peoplewhohavesufferedcalamitouseventswillexperienceinadditiontopsychologicalinjuryapowerfulsenseofreviewingtheirentirelives....“BecauseIcamesoclosetodeath,nowIseemyself,mylife,andlifeingeneraldifferently…”Andtheywilladdtheirownexperienceofthiskindofchange,forinstancetheyvaluelifemore,theydonotwanttowastetheirlifewithinconsequentialpursuits,etc.(p.44)

Papadopolous’setymologicalexplorationtriggersinterestingassociations.Ata

theoreticallevelitresonateswithAnzieu’sideasonthe‘skin-ego’(Anzieu2016,

Baraitser2014).Anzieucontendsthat‘everypsychicalfunctiondevelopsbysupporting

itselfuponabodilyfunctionwhoseworkingsittransposesontothementalplane’

(Anzieu2010p.478).Thisclose‘correspondence’betweenthe‘organicandthe

psychical’isbasedontheskinandbrain’scommonembryologicalorigins8andgoes

somewaytoexplainingthecomplex,andunderappreciated,roleoftheskininFEPOW

8Embryologically,boththebrainandskinderivefromtheectoderm.

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trauma(atopicthatItreatfurtherinChapters3and4).Papadopoulos’ssuggestionthat

traumamayencouragevictimstoreviewandre-evaluatetheirliveswasexemplifiedby

thealtruismoftheex-FEPOWswhoadvocatedforthewarwidowsintheirdisputes

withthegovernmentoverentitlementtopensions.9

Thepsychicimpactoftrauma

Traumadoesnotimposeitselfinneatorpredictablepatterns.Longtermtraumaisnot

completelydistinguishablefromthedisruptiveimpactof‘acute’trauma;thelattercan

punctuatetheformer,whichitselfwillwaxandwane.Traumamayberevivedmany

yearsaftertheinitialtraumatisingevent(orseriesofevents)(e.g.Renn2012).Painful

experiencesmayhavebeenrepressed,yetremainreadyandactivewithinthe

unconscious,causingmemoriesofthepasttobreakthroughintothepresent.These

phenomenacometotheforeinChapter4.Traumacanbesoappalling,soremovedfrom

therealmsofnormalhumanbehaviour,thatitseemstolaycompletelyoutsidethe

reachofhumancomprehensionorsymbolization(e.g.HutchisonandBleiker2008).

‘Whateverlivedinsidemewassopotentthatwordscrumbledbeforetheycoulddescribe’(Epstein1979,p.9).

AswesawfromLaCapra(2001),traumasandsocialconvulsionsonagrandscalecreate

conditionsthatindividualsmayfinditimpossibletoadequatelysymbolize(Davoineand

Gaudillière2004,p.25;Laub2005).Theimpactofacutetraumaisoftendescribedin

languagethatalludestoa‘break’ofsomekind.Levine(2014)summarisessuccinctly

theimpactofseveretraumaonthepsyche:

Thatwhichearnsthedesignationtraumaisthatwhichoutstripsanddisruptsthepsyche’scapacityforrepresentationormentalization.Thatwhichcannotberepresentedormentalized—thoughtaboutorcontainedwithinthemind—cannotenterintoone’ssubjectivityorthereflectiveviewofone’spersonalhistory....theyremainlockedwithinanahistorical,repetitiveprocessas

9Wemightseesuchaltruisticbehaviourasapositiveconsequenceof‘survivorguilt’(O’Connoretal2000).

55

potentialsforaction,somatization,andprojection(p.219).10

A‘shutdownofnarrativeandsymbolisation’ishowDoriLaubchoosestoframetrauma

(Laub2012,p.31).AsGrahamputitfromason’sperspective,

Ican’tcopewithit.Ican’tcopewithanythingtodowithwhathe…whatheexperienced…Ican’tcopewithanythinglikethat.Idon’tlikewatchingitonatelevisioneven.AndIwouldn’tsee…Iwouldn’tgoandseeanyfilmsthatweresupposedtotakeplaceinanysituationlikehewasin.

Laub(2012)goesontoaskwhethermassivetraumamightalsoattackanddestroythe

individual’s‘internalizedsenseofgoodness’(Kirshner1994,p.238).11Heconjectures

that,undisturbed,thislossofthe‘goodobject’mayexposetheindividual’s‘death

instinct-relatedvoids’(p.51).Putanotherway,‘thepsycheisoverwhelmedbyexternal

horrorsthatfindtheirequivalentsintheunconscious...meaningsaretoothreateningto

entertain’(Boulanger2005,p.21).Givingempiricalcredencetotheseideas,Inoticed

thatthetestimoniesofthemostseverelytraumatisedparticipantsoftenrevealed

broaderthemescentredondeath,despairandmelancholia.Throughouthistestimony,

Jameswasdrawnbacktothemesofdeathandloss:hisfather’sseverePOWtraumaand

hisdomineeringandcontrollingbehaviour,culminatinginhissuicidein1969.James

hadsufferedwithfeelingsofguiltandambivalencethroughouthislife.Thesuicide

‘kindajustblewthefamilyapart,completely.Shatteredeverything.Ithoughtitwasmy

fault.AndI’vediscoveredsincethatev-everyoneofus12thoughtitwastheirfault...the

immediatereaction[tothesuicide]wasrelief’.James’ssisterAngiegaveherresponseto

thesuicideevenmorestarkly:‘AfterhissuicideIwasgladthathehaddoneit....it

straightawaysolvedalotofproblemsformymotherandforeverremovedhis

10TherelationshipbetweentraumaandrecallremainscontentiousasBohleber(2007)pointsout.Someempiricalresearchchallengesthe‘disruption’modeloftraumaasfarasmemoryisconcerned,suggestingthat‘memoriesofacutelystressfulandtraumaticeventsarepredominantlyhighlydetailed,extremelyconstantand,asfarascanbejudged,alsorelativelyreliable’(p.337).11SeealsoShay(2014)on‘moralinjury’.12Therewerefivesiblings.

56

unfortunatebehaviourfromourlives.ItwasyearsbeforeIbegantogrieve’.13Whether

itisnecessarytohaverecoursetoa‘deathinstinct’toexplainwhatishappening

psychicallyinthesesituationsisamootpoint(DeMasi2015)buttherewasnodenying

thethematicpresenceofdeathinseveraltestimonies.

Inthecourseofeverydaylife,wefeelourexperiencesandsenseofselftobe

integrated,somuchsothattheysimplyhumalonginthebackground,inthewayour

autonomicnervoussystemquietlytakescareofourbreathingandheartcontractions.

Butunderthestrainofseveretrauma,disruptioncanoccur,atwhichpointwebecome

consciousthatsomethingiswrong,althoughwemayhavetroublearticulatingitclearly.

Thisdifficultyistheresultofdissociation(Bradfield2011,Chu2011),theprocessby

whichweunconsciously‘splitoffanddissociatetheaffectinitiallyassociatedwiththe

traumaticeventorsituation’(Teicholz2014,(p.365).

Forex-FEPOWsandtheirfamilies,thelongertermimpactoftraumapresented

fundamentalchallengestofamilyfunctioning.

Traumaisthedestructionofattachment.Chronictraumaischaracterizedbythesuddenandcontinuedlossofattachment:notjusttopeopleandplaces,buttoeverythingonethoughtwassacrosanctanduntouchable(Alford2015,p.270).

Alford’squotationprovidesahelpfulseguebetweentraumaandattachment.Manyof

theaccountsgivenbyparticipantssharedacommonquality:asenseofdisturbancein

theirearlyrelationshipswiththeirfathersthatthreatenedtheestablishmentofasecure

‘attachment’.Thisdisturbancecouldbetriggeredbyeitherthefather’straumatic

impositionofrawaffectonthechild,orbytheenforced‘absence’ofemotion.

Attachmenthasshownitselftobeavaluableconstructforaddressingthese

dynamics(e.g.Alford2015,Bar-Onetal1998,Bradfield2011,deZulueta2009,Liotti

13MyinterviewwithAngiewasbyemail,anditwashardevenconfusingtoreadheremotionsexpressedsobluntly.WithJames,the‘relief’athisfather’sdeathwaseasiertoaccommodateandcontextualizebecauseitemergedinthecourseofaface-to-faceinterview.

57

2004,Fonagy1999a,FonagyandCampbell2015).Steinetal(2015),intheirrecent

paperonattachmentandwarcaptivity,introducetheconceptof‘attachmentinjuries’

(p.128),saidtoresultfromthelossofinterpersonaltrustcreatedbycaptivity.Theex-

FEPOWsrepatriatedthe‘injuries’sustainedinthecampsintotheirhomesandintothe

livesoftheirchildren.

AsPalm(2014)explains‘thestoryofattachmenttheorybeginswithJohn

Bowlby(1982),14whodescribesattachmentasanintenseandenduringemotionalbond

thatisrootedinthefunctionofprotectionofinfantsfromdanger’(p.283).

Allofus,fromthecradletothegrave,arehappiestwhenlifeisorganizedasaseriesofexcursions,longorshort,fromthesecurebaseprovidedbyourattachmentfigure(s).(Bowlby1998,p.61)

Attachmenttheoryhasgeneratedanumberofinfluentialexplanatoryconceptsthat

illuminatetheearlylivesandrelationshipsoftheparticipantsinthisresearch.

‘Attachmenttheoryisinessenceaspatialtheory:whenIamclosetomylovedoneIfeel

good,whenIamfarawayIamanxious,sadorlonely’(Holmes1993,p.67).Itisa

psychoanalytictheorythatvaluesbiologyandscientificempiricism,whichcontrasts

withtheretrospectionoftraditionalpsychoanalyticthought.Bowlby’s(1982)own

wordsexplainhisposition:

IncreatingthisbodyoftheorynotonlyFreudbutvirtuallyallsubsequentanalystshaveworkedfromanend-productbackwards.Primarydataarederivedfromstudying,intheanalyticsetting,apersonalitymoreorlessdevelopedandalreadyfunctioningmoreorlesswell;fromthosedatatheattemptismadetoreconstructthephasesofpersonalitythathaveprecededwhatisnowseen.Inmanyrespectswhatisattemptedhereistheopposite.Usingasprimarydataobservationsofhowveryyoungchildrenbehaveindefinedsituations,anattemptismadetodescribecertainearlyphasesofpersonalityfunctioningand,fromthem,toextrapolateforwards.Inparticular,theaimistodescribecertainpatternsofresponsethatoccurregularlyinearlychildhoodand,thence,totraceouthowsimilarpatternsofresponsearetobediscernedinthefunctioningoflaterpersonality.Thechangeinperspectiveisradical(p.28).

14Bowlbywasapsychoanalystmuchinfluencedbytheworkoftheearlyethologists-anawkwardcohabitationintheeyesofmanyofhiscolleagues(FonagyandCampbell2015,Holmes1993,Mitchell1998).

58

Bowlbysuggestedthatattachmentisanautonomousdriveforprotectionandsafety

evidencedintheyoungofbothhumansandanimals(Davis2007).Thechildseeksa

‘securebase’fromwhichtoexploretheworld,intheknowledgethat,shoulddanger

arise,theattachmentfigureisstilltheretoofferprotection(Bowlby1998).Asaresult

ofitsattachmentexperiences,thechildcreatesan‘internalworkingmodel’ofitselfand

othersand,ifallgoeswell,developsasecuresenseofself.Ifalldoesnotgowell,anda

securebaseisnotestablished,theinternalworkingmodelwillbebasedoninsecureand

traumaticexperiences,and‘aninternalizedsenseofdanger/inabilitytocopebecomes

partofthedefiningfeatureofthepersonality’(Davis2007,p.181).Thewayinwhich

attachmentpatternsunfoldduringchildhoodiscriticalbecause,onceestablished,they

remainbroadlystablebetweeninfancyandadulthood(Fonagy1999a,Howe2011).

Attachmentpatternsmayalsobepassedbetweengenerations(Brethertonand

Munholland2008,Fonagy1999a,vanIJzendoorn1995)andthuscontributetotheways

inwhichtraumaistransmittedinthefamily.AsFonagy(1999b)argues‘caregiverswith

unresolvedexperiencesofmourningandtraumaappeartocausedisorganizationin

theirinfants'attachmentrelationships’(p.95).Butthevariablesinvolvedare

considerable.Forinstance,Bar-Onetal(1998)usesattachmenttheorytoexplore

confoundingfactorssuchaswhetherornotthechildrenweredirectlyexposedtothe

‘symptomsofparents’trauma-nightmares,psychoticbreakdowns,cryingdepression,

preoccupation’;andthepresenceorotherwiseofanattachmentfigure(e.g.themother)

to‘buffer’theexperienceofthechild(‘protectiverelationships’)(p.335).c

FollowingBowlby’slead,15moststudieshavefocusedonthemother-child

attachmentrelationship,butrecognitionofthefather’srolehasgrownmoreinrecent

decades(Fearon2010).Palm(2014)investigatedhowthefather’scharacteristicsmight15Roper(2016)speculatesonhowBowlby’sfocusonthemothermayhavebeenconnectedwithhisownchildhoodexperiences:‘TheemphasisthatJohnBowlby(b.1907)placedonmaternalattachmentsandtheemotionaldamagecausedbyseparationmaynothavebeenunrelatedtohisfather’sfouryearabsenceasasurgeon-generalduringtheFirstWorldWar,overseeingthetreatmentofsometimeshorrificwoundsontheWesternFront,ortotheyoungBowlby’sexperienceofbeingamongmourningadults’(p.64).

59

influenceattachment.Thosefactorsassociatedwithsecureattachmentincludedthe

father’ssensitivityinplay(Grossmannetal2002),hisabilitytounderstandhowhis

childisthinking(‘mind-mindedness’)whichenables‘synchronousinteraction’,his

beliefsabouthisrole(Wongetal2009),and‘paternalstateofmind’(Madiganetal

2011).Apatchworkquiltofresearchfindingstobesure.But,takentogether,they

highlightthesignificanceofthefather’srole,andmayactassensitizingconceptsinthe

analysisofparticipants’testimonies.

AroundonethirdofFEPOWsarethoughttohavesufferedfromPost-TraumaticStress

Disorder(PTSD)(Robsonetal2009).Since1980,PTSDhashadthestarringroleinthe

storyoftraumaandintergenerationaltransmission.Bydrawingtogether‘thesymptoms

ofwhathadpreviouslybeencalledshellshock,combatstress,delayedstresssyndrome,

andtraumaticneurosis’,theAmericanPsychiatricAssociation(APA)‘finallyofficially

acknowledgedthelong-recognizedbutfrequentlyignoredphenomenonunderthetitle

of“Post-TraumaticStressDisorder”(PTSD)’(Caruth1995),andplaceditfirmlywithin

theprovinceofmedicalnosology.However,reframingpersonaldistresssofirmly

withinamedicalcontextisnotwithoutcontroversy.

ContemporarytraumapsychiatryisdominatedbythenotionofPTSD,themostclinicallysignificantdiagnosticandcausativechangeinthespecialtyduringthelate20thcentury.However,assuccessfulasthisdiagnosishasbeenindelineatingpsychologicalresponsestolifethreateningevents,itmayhaveledtothelossofanolderandmoreinclusiveinterpretationofdistress(JonesandWessely2014,p.1713).

JonesandWesselysuggestthatthefocusonPTSDhasnarrowedourinterpretiveframe

tothepointwhereweareblinkeredtoanyinsightsfromearlierconceptualizations,

suchasshellshockandpsychosomaticillnessmoregenerally.Initslatestdefinitionof

PTSD,ICD-1016placesgreateremphasisontheseverityofthetraumaticeventrather

16Thementalhealthfieldworkswithtwoclassificationsystems:theInternationalClassificationofDiseases(ICD)(managedbyWHOwithaglobalremit,andfreelydistributed),andtheDiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders(DSM)(producedbytheAPAforuse

60

thanthepersonalityofthetraumatizedperson(thoughitdoesrecognizetheir

interaction).PTSDarises:

...asadelayedorprotractedresponsetoastressfuleventorsituation(ofeitherbrieforlongduration)ofanexceptionallythreateningorcatastrophicnature,whichislikelytocausepervasivedistressinalmostanyone.Predisposingfactors,suchaspersonalitytraits(e.g.compulsive,asthenic)orprevioushistoryofneuroticillness,maylowerthethresholdforthedevelopmentofthesyndromeoraggravateitscourse,buttheyareneithernecessarynorsufficienttoexplainitsoccurrence.17

DSM-5hastightenedthecriteriafordiagnosisandtheemphasisisnowfirmlyon

behaviouralindicators:18

• Re-experiencingcoversspontaneousmemoriesofthetraumaticevent,recurrentdreamsrelatedtoit,flashbacksorotherintenseorprolongedpsychologicaldistress.

• Avoidancereferstothe‘persistent,effortfulavoidance’19ofdistressingmemories,thoughts,feelingsorexternalremindersoftheevent.

• Negativecognitionsandmoodrepresentsmyriadfeelings,fromapersistentanddistortedsenseofblameofselforothers,toestrangementfromothersormarkedlydiminishedinterestinactivities,toaninabilitytorememberkeyaspectsoftheevent.

• Finally,arousalismarkedbyaggressive,recklessorself-destructivebehavior,sleepdisturbances,hypervigilanceorrelatedproblems.

Asweshallseefromlaterchapters,participantsreferredtosimilarindicatorswhen

recallingtheirfathers’behaviour,orwhendescribingtheirownexperiences.The

experientialdimensionofPTSDisdifficulttocaptureinmedicallanguage,especiallythe

awarenessofachangeintheself(the‘existentialtransformation’)thatcanoccurpost-

trauma(YehudaandBierer2009,p.427).

WhatisespeciallypertinenttofamiliesofFEPOWsisthattodatethe

formulationofthePTSDdiagnosishaspaidtoolittleattentiontohowindividuals

respondandadapttotraumaoverthelongterm.Recognisingthisdeficiency,

mainlybyUSpsychiatristsandtheUShealthcaresystem,ataprice.However,theDSMprovidespracticalguidanceondiagnosis,inadditiontosettingoutasystemofclassification.17https://www.estss.org/learn-about-trauma/icd10/18http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/PTSD%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf19http://www.brainlinemilitary.org/content/2014/06/dsm-v-tr-criteria-for-ptsd.html

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researchersandclinicianshaveproposedanewdiagnosis,viz.‘complexPTSD’(Courtois

2004,Sar2011)andthismaywellappearinthenexteditionoftheICD.20

ComplexPTSDistypicallytheresultofexposuretorepeatedorprolongedinstancesormultipleformsofinterpersonaltrauma,oftenoccurringundercircumstanceswhereescapeisnotpossibleduetophysical,psychological,maturational,family/environmentalorsocialconstraints(Greenbergetal2015,p.6).

TheclinicalpictureofcomplexPTSDhighlightschangesinself-perceptionand

relationshipstootherscreatingdifficultieswithtrustandintimacy(Courtois2004,

p.414).Usingthisyardstick,complexPTSDwasacommonconsequenceofcaptivityin

theFarEast,andoftendiscernibleinparticipants’testimonies.

Intergenerationaltransmissionoftrauma

Thesecondgenerationisthehingegenerationinwhichreceived,transferredknowledgeofeventsisbeingtransmutedintohistory,orintomyth.ItisalsothegenerationinwhichwecanthinkaboutcertainquestionsarisingfromtheShoahwithasenseoflivingconnection(Hoffman2004,p.xv).

Transmissionbetweengenerations,beitthroughbehaviours,affects,rituals,

predispositions,beliefs,fearsorvulnerabilities,isatthecoreofthisthesis,andinthis

sectionIreviewtherangeoftheoreticalapproachestothetopic.Earlypsychoanalysts

AnnaFreudandDorothyBurlinghamhadobservedduringWorldWarTwothatanxiety

couldpassfrommothertochild(VolkanandGreer2007);andinthepsychiatricfield,

thephenomenonof‘folieàdeux’,althoughrare,iswellrecognized(e.g.Newmanand

Harbit2010,Jolfaeietal2011).Butitisonlyinrecentdecadesthatintergenerational

transmissionoftraumahascometotheforeasasignificantsubjectofresearch.

Althoughmuchresearchintothetransmissionoftraumahashadaquantitativeor

20ItshouldbenotedthatKhan(1963)putforwardaprecursorversioninthenotionof‘cumulativetrauma’.

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medicalbias,qualitativeresearchersarebeginningtocorrectthisimbalance,e.g.Bar-on

(1995),Hirsch(2012b),andScatesetal(2014).21

DekelandGoldblatt(2008)posethefundamentalquestion,‘Isthere

intergenerationaltransmissionoftrauma?’,andansweritintheaffirmative,withthe

broadassertionthat‘clinicalobservationsandempiricalresearchhaveshownthatthe

consequencesoftraumaticeventsarenotlimitedtothepersonsimmediatelyexposed

totheevent’(p.281).However,theyalsoacknowledgetheresultsofaseriesofmeta-

analyseswhichfailedtofindanyevidence,innon-clinical22Holocauststudies,of

parents’traumaaffectingtheirchildren.Theirreviewfocusesontheintergenerational

transmissionofPTSDbetweenfathersandsons‘infamiliesofwarveterans’,but

excludesprisonersofwar.Theyproposethatwhatistransmittedfallsintothree

categories:‘mentaldistress,familyfunctioning,andself-esteem’(p.283).Theyconclude

thattheimpactofPTSDonparenting(‘familyfunctioning’)suggeststhat‘emotional

numbing,detachment,andavoidance’wereparticularlyinfluentialin‘diminishingthe

capabilitytointeractwiththechildanddevelopameaningfulrelationship’(p.284).

TogetclosertowhatmighthaveoccurredinFEPOWfamilies,weneedtostep

awayfromabstractcategories.Ancharoffetal(citedinGalovskiandLyons2004)

suggestfourrelevantmechanismsoftransmission.

First,theysuggestedthatsilencecanpromotetheprocessoftransmission.Thechildsensestheparents’fragilityandkeepssilentsoastoavoidprovidinganystimulithattheparentmayfindupsetting.Thesilencebecomesabarrierbetweentheparentandthechildandthechildfeelsunabletoseekouthelporcomfortfromtheparent.

Itwasthisreciprocal‘silence’betweenfatherandchildthatmostparticipants

commentedupon.Inmanyfewercases-myownincluded-excessivedisclosurebecame

21OtherprominentresearchersincludeincludeColes(2011),Downesetal(2012),Fromm(2012)andRosenthal(1998).22Manystudiesofintergenerationaltransmissionoftraumadifferentiatebetween‘clinical’and‘nonclinical’samples.It’sabroaddistinction,however,andincorporatesdifferentpermutationsintheattempttoisolatecriticalvariablesorassociations.Atitsmostbasic,‘clinical’referstopeoplewhohaveestablishedtraumasymptomsandwhoare,orhavebeen,inreceiptoftherapy.

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theproblem.

Second,theyidentifiedoverdisclosureasamechanismoftransmissionoftrauma.Thisprocessoccursprimarilywhenaparentattemptstoexplainthetraumatothechildinrawdetail.Often,thedetailisoverwhelmingandthechildbecomesterrifiedratherthanknowledgeable.23

Paradoxically,survivorswhotalkedtoofreelyabouttheirtraumaticexperiencescould

propagatea‘conspiracyofsilence’:theirchildrenweretooyoungtoabsorborto

processwhattheywerebeingtold,andwereobligedtotakeontheburdenof

transmission.Silenceandoverdisclosuremayinteractor,asWisemanetal(2006)put

it,thereisatensionbetween‘silenceandnoiseinthelivesofsonsanddaughters’

(p.183).Thechildmayrepressmemoriesofthefather’straumaticoverdisclosure,so

thatonlythe‘silence’isremembered,memoriesthatscreendistressingraw

experiences.The‘silences’duringchildhoodalsointerferedwiththenormalprocesses

ofattachment.

Thethirdmechanismoftransmissionistermedidentificationandoccurswhenthechildisconstantlyexposedtotheparents’posttraumaticsymptoms.Processesofmodelingandidentificationmaycausethechildtoadoptormimictheparent’ssymptoms.

Charlescameclosetotearsatseveralpointsduringourinterview,andindeedtearsdid

breakthroughwhenspeakingofhislatewife.Then,afterashortpause,andinavoice

fraughtwithemotion,hesaid‘Ihavespentmostofmylifetryingnottobelikemy

father’.Thisstatementfeltalittleoutofcontextatthetimebut,onreflection,its

appearancecrystallizedtheemotionsunderlyingmuchofhisothertestimony.24

Finally,itwassuggestedthatre-enactmentisamechanismoftransmission.Thisprocessinvolvestheengagementorinducementofthechildtoparticipateintraumare-enactment.Thechildmaythenfeeltraumatizedorfeelasifhe/she

23Myownexperiencesuggeststhatthedisclosureof‘rawdetail’isonlyonefactorinthetransmissionoftrauma;perhapsassignificantisthesheeraccumulatedvolumeandregularityofdisclosurethatcancausethechildto‘splitoff’thesedistressingaspectsofeverydaylife.24CharlesisthebrotherofJamesandAngiewhosefathercommittedsuicide,andwhosetestimoniesarereferredtoelsewhereinthethesis.WhenCharlesmadethiscommenthiswordsmadeanimmediateimpactonme,andImadeamentalnotetoreturntothetopiclater.AfterawhileIdidsobutIhadlostthemoment,andhisresponsesweremuchmoreguarded,more‘defended’.

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wastheperpetrator(GalovskiandLyons2004,p.489).

Thechild’sbehaviours-hypothesizedhereasbeingduetothepsychoanalyticprocesses

of‘identification’and‘re-enactment’-mayalsobesusceptibletosociallearning

mechanismssuchasobservationandmodeling(Bandura1969).Thismaybe

particularlyrelevantwhenthefatherhimselfhasahistoryof‘family-of-origin’violence

(Warehametal2009).25

Kogan(2012)suggeststhattwopsychodynamicmechanismsliebehindthe

‘transgenerational’transmissionoftrauma.‘Primitiveidentification’occurswhen

interactionwiththeparentresultsin‘introjectionandassimilationofthedamaged

parent’sselfimages...inanattempttohealtheparentandhelphimrecover’(p.6-7).

Theidentificationinhibitsthehealthydevelopmentofthechild’ssenseofself,andblurs

theboundarybetweenthechildandparent.Thesecondmechanismis‘deposited

representation’(VolkanandGreer2007)whichisavariantofidentification.Inthiscase,

theparent‘activelypusheshisorherspecificself-andinternalizedobjectimagesinto

thedevelopingself-representationofthechild,‘...[using]thechild,mostly

unconsciously,asareservoirforcertainself-andobjectimagesthatbelongtothat

adult’(VolkanandGreer2007,unpaginated).Theseimagessparkunconsciousfantasies

thatrequirethechildrentodealwithemotionsthefatherhadbeenunabletoreconcile,

suchasshame,rage,helplessnessorguilt.Whentheylaterencounterfreshexternal

traumasintheirownlives(‘life-threateningreality’,Kogan2012,p.7),this‘present-day

trauma’cantriggerresponsesrelatedtotheearliertraumas(whethertransmittedby

thefatherorthechildren’sowntraumasfromchildhood).26

DekelandGoldblatt(2008)alsoaskhowprevailingsocialandcultural

conditionsmightimpactonthefather’ssufferingandonintergenerationaltransmission,

25‘Familyoforigin’violenceiswhenthefather’sownchildhoodhasbeenscarredbyviolence.26KoganillustratesthisthroughcasestudiesinwhichHolocausttraumawasreactivatedbytheIntifadainIsrael.

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forexamplesocietalattitudestothewarinquestion,ortheavailabilityofsocialsupport

forveterans.27Theyalsoproposethatresearchshouldbeexpandedusingqualitative

methods(alsotheviewofSteinetal2015).Thisisawelcomeinvitationgiventhatmuch

quantitativeresearchintotransmissioncomesacrossasthepursuitofever-receding,

elaboratelyinterconnectedcorrelationsthatrisksrepresentingtraumavictimsand

theirchildrenastabulatedpsychopathology.

Inhisliteraturereview,Kellermann(2001)analysedthefindingsof35

Holocaust-basedstudiespublishedbetween1973and1999.28Thereviewcompared

bothnon-clinicalandclinicalsamples.Moststudieswereofnon-clinicalpopulations,

andfailedtofindhigherratesofpsychopathologyinthechildren.However,Kellermann

standsthisresultalongsidethedominantHolocaustdiscoursewhichassertsthatthe

childrenofHolocaustsurvivorscannotescapepsychologicaldamage(associationsthat

continuetobeconfirmedempirically,e.g.Danielietal2016).29Fourstudiesfound

‘evidenceofmoredistress’innon-clinicalgroupsascomparedwithcontrols,but

Kellermanndismissestheseparticularfindingsinthecontextofhisover-riding

purpose,whichisthesearchfor‘psychopathology’.Nevertheless,Icontendthatthese

discountedfindingsservetohighlighttherichspectrumof‘sub-clinical’responses

whichdeserverecognitionandinvestigation,andcanbetooeasilyoverlooked.Clinical

populationsdidshow‘signsofpsychologicaldistress’inthechildrenofHolocaust

survivors.Specifically,theydisplayed‘difficultiesincopingwithstressandahigher

vulnerabilitytoPTSD’,aconclusionthatalignswiththedescriptivereportsofclinicians.

Inhisconcludingparagraphshemaintainsthattheoffspringmostatriskoftrauma

27Verypertinenttothepostwarcircumstancesofex-FEPOWsandthelowuptakeofplacesintheCivilResettlementUnits.28Allthereviewedstudiesincorporatedtheuseofcontrolstoagreaterorlesserextent.TheaggregatenumberofHolocaustoffspringfeaturinginthestudieswas3,300.29Danieliandcolleagues(2016)areadamantonthetopic:‘Thisstudydemonstratedempiricallythatsurvivors’experiencesduringandlifecircumstancesaftertheHolocaustdoindeedaffecttheirchildren—acrucialquestionthathasplaguedthefieldforfivedecades...‘(p.8).

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transmissionshare‘anyorall’ofthefollowingfeatures,whichhedeemstobe

‘universal’(p.43):

1. Offspringbornearlyaftertheparents’trauma.

2. Onlychildrenorfirst-born.

3. Bothparentsweresurvivors.

4. Offspringwere‘replacement’childrenforchildrenwhohaddied.

5. Parentshadenduredextraordinarymentalsufferingandsignificantlossand

werehighlydisturbed.

6. Symbioticrelationsweredominantbetweenparentsandchildren,andfamily

relationswerecharacterizedbyenmeshment.30

7. Thetraumawastalkedabouttoolittleortoomuch.

Ofthesefeatures,numbers1,2,5,6and7arepotentiallyrelevanttothechildrenof

FEPOWs,andreappearinthetestimoniesanalysedinlaterchapters.

DanielBar-OnisakeyfigureinHolocaust-relatedtraumatransmission,andhis

workhighlightsimportantconceptualareasthatfigureregularlyinthethesis.In‘Fear

andHope’(1995),heexaminesthestoriesoffiveJewishfamilies,employingtheconcept

of‘workingthrough’todescribethelengthyprocessthroughwhichsurvivorsdealtwith

thememoriesoftheHolocaust(p.16).Hetracksandcontextualizestheuseofthe

conceptsinceFreud’stime,concludingwiththeobservationthatitsusagehasshifted

steadilytowardanarrowerdefinitioninwhichtheaimisto‘livewith’,not‘letgo’,the

traumaticcontent.Hegoesontodescribehowthesameconcepthasbeenappliedtothe

childrenandgrandchildrenofsurvivorswithout,however,offeringaconvincing

explanationoftheprocessesinvolved:

Althoughthesechildrendidnotexperiencethehorrorsdirectly,theyneverthelessabsorbedthem,especiallyiftheirparentsdidnottalkaboutthesemattersinanattempt‘toprotect’them(p.17).

30 “Familypatternsthatfacilitatepsychologicalandemotionalfusionamongfamilymembers,potentiallyinhibitingtheindividuationprocessandthedevelopmentandmaintenanceofpsychosocialmaturity”(BarberandBuehler1996).Theconnectionsbetween‘enmeshment’,‘primitiveidentification’(Kogan2012)and‘depositedrepresentation’(VolkanandGreer2007)seemclear.

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ThetendencyofHolocaustsurvivorsnottospeakofthetraumatheyenduredhasbeen

widelynotedanddiscussedintheliterature.Bar-On(1995)locatesthis‘conspiracyof

silence’inthefirstfourdecadesafterWorldWarTwo,arguingthatitresultedfrom

pressureswithinIsraelisociety‘whichblamedthesurvivors,whowent,ithasbeensaid,

“likesheeptotheslaughter”’(p.19).ParallelswiththeFEPOWsituationspringtomind:

theconvoysoftroopssenttotheFarEastintheautumnof1941wereobligedto

surrenderinlargenumbers,oftenafteronlyafewdaysorweeksofcombat:hardlythe

materialfromwhichheroesaremadeinthepublicmind,andnotaneventdesignedto

encouragedisclosure.Bar-Onmakesatellingpointwhenheconcludesthattheadult

childrenare‘thefirstgenerationtolearnabouttheextentofthesetraumatic

aftereffects’(p.333).Andthislearningisincreasingapacewiththeexponentialgrowth

ofonlinehistoricalandcommemorativematerial,adevelopmentthathasalsofedthe

determinationofmanychildrenofFEPOWstodiscovermoreabouttheirfather’s

captivity(ChristensenandGotved2015).

Bar-On(1995)contendsthatthechildrenofHolocaustsurvivorshave

difficultieswith‘individuation(emotionalindependencefromtheirparents)’,andwith

expressinganger;healsoidentifiesa‘strongerneedforachievement’(p.25).Hetoo

remarksontheissueofclinicalreportsvs.controlledresearchstudies,andtheir

seeminglyirreconcilablecontradictions.Therapistsandresearchersworkwithin

sharplydifferingtraditionsandhavequitedifferentaimsinmind;thesedifferences

needtobeunderstoodbeforethecontrastingproductsoftheirworkcanbeproperly

judged.Forexample,therapistslikeBar-Onmoreeasilyrecognizethevalueof

metaphors,becausetheyoftenusethemintheireverydayclinicalpractice.So,when

Bar-OncitesWardi(1990)31referringtoonechildinthefamilyfulfilling‘theroleofa

“memorialcandle”’(pp.25-26),weshouldnotexpectthistofitneatlywiththewell-31Bar-oncitesthisasfollows:“Vardi,D.1990.TheMemorialCandles:DialogueswithChildrenofHolocaustSurvivors.Jerusalem:Keter.InHebrew.”TheEnglishversionuses‘Wardi’.Ihaveincludedthe1992editioninthereferencelist.

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operationalisedconceptsandtightmethodologiesseenincontrolledstudiesontrauma

transmission(suchasthosereviewedbyKellermann2001,orBareletal2010).

Theideaof‘normalization’figuresstronglyinBar-On’swriting.Hearguesthat

survivorswishedtoreturntonormalityasquicklyaspossibleafterthewar(also

characteristicofrepatriatedFEPOWs).Butthatmighthavebeenamixedblessing.It

couldimply‘hopeforabetterfuture’(Bar-On1995,p.27),butmightequallybeseenas

suppressingthenormal,andnecessary,processesofmourning(p.26),perhaps

triggeringapremature‘foreclosure’(LaCapra,2001,p.93).Inresponse,Bar-On

proposesthatresearchersneedtopaycloserattentiontothenarrativesofsurvivors

andtheirchildren,toadopt‘”softer”conceptualizations’.‘Canwerecognizetracesof

fearandhopeintheinterviewees’biographicalreconstructions?’heasks.‘Havetheir

childreninternalizedtheparents’normalizationstrategies?’(p.27).Bar-Ongoesonto

suggestthatpsychologicalpredispositionscanbetransmitted,forexamplesuspicion,

pain,anger,andfear,togetherwithdisruptionofthe‘continuityofthefamily

framework’and‘feelingsofdisjunction’(p.332).Thiskindoffamily‘disjunction’was

reflectedinanumberofparticipantswhotookmanyyearstoformsettledrelationships

withpartners.Jacquidescribedthebackgroundtoherteenagemarriage:

Growingupwitha…inafamilyofaJapaneseprisonerofwaris…wasdifficult...Idon’twanttohearallthisallthetime.Iwantalife,andafamilylife.IthinkIwasabitrebelliousandthought,soddad,IamgoingtodowhatIlike....Promptlywentandmarriedaveryunsuitableman,aged18...themostunsuitablehippyIcouldfind.Withpaintedtoe-nailsand a cowboy hat. Which then prompted my dad to turn my photograph to the wall, which he had had on a shelf. But he turned that to the wall and … disowned me. ... I-I have had three marriages - this is the third one. It’s okay!. 25 years of it. Still alright! But the other two were a bit of a disaster, but erm … so yeah … It’s had a big impact.

Bar-On(1995)identifiesfourspecificprocessesthataffectedmostHolocaustsurvivors

which,heargues,researchersneedtoaddresssimultaneously:emigration,immigration,

‘specificfamilystructuresandprocess’and‘personalprocesses’(p.27).WhileIdonot

suggestequivalenceorstrongparallels,Idorecognize-perhapscontentiously-thatwe

canidentifysomeresonancebetweentheseprocessesandthecircumstancesofthe

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FEPOWs,certainlyattheexperientiallevelofyoungmenintheirtwenties.‘Emigration’

isreflectedinthemassoftroopsthatdepartedBritainin1941-a‘rapidseverance’from

theirfamilies(p.27).Wemayrecognise‘immigration’inthestrainofadaptingtoan

alienAsiancultureunderhostilecircumstances;then,later,inthemen’sreturntoa

‘new’post-warBritainandthechallengesofresettlement.Changesto‘familystructures

andprocesses’wereclearlyrecognisableinthedismantlingofthehopesand

expectationsoffamilies,theirowninternal‘timetables’foreverdisrupted.Finally,

‘personalprocesses’wereevidentinhowthemenwerechangedinpersonality,andin

theirabilitytoformnewrelationships.

BydrawingtentativecomparisonswithBar-On’sframework,Iaimtocarveout

greaterconceptualspaceforamorenuancedappreciationofwhatindividualBritish

servicemenwentthroughintheFarEast,andtheconsequencesfortheirfamilies,and

minimizetheriskofseeingthemsimplyasahomogenizedgroupofmilitarypersonnel.

This‘historicalevent’,asBar-OndescribestheHolocaust,‘floodedtheframeofthe

personallifestoryfarbeyonditsregularfamily-boundedcontext’(p.31),andhas

becomeanunconsciousorganizingprincipleformanyfamilymembers.Inthecaseof

theHolocaustthishashadglobalreach;forFEPOWfamilies,therangewasmore

restricted,butarguablynolessprofound.

Evidenceoftransmissionmaybesubtlyembodiedratherthanexplicit,ashighlightedby

thequotationfromSalmanAkhtaratthestartofthischapter.Thepaperthatbrought

thistomyattentionmostincisivelywaswrittenbyCarolKidron(2009),andentitled

‘Towardanethnographyofsilence:thelivedpresenceofthepastintheeverydaylifeof

HolocausttraumasurvivorsandtheirdescendantsinIsrael’.Init,sheaddresses

intergenerationaltransmissionthroughtheimplicitevidencethatemergedduring

interviews.Sheconcentrateson‘theeverydayexperienceoftraumasurvivorsandtheir

descendants’(p.5),anddemonstratesthevalueofasensitive,qualitativeandembodied

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approachtothesubject.Thestrengthofherapproachliesinitschallengetothe

prevailingdiscoursethatendorsesthenotionof‘survivorsilence’asundesirable,

indeedas‘signalingpsychopathologizedprocessesofavoidanceandrepression,socially

suspectprocessesofpersonalsecrecy,orcollectiveprocessesofpoliticalsubjugation...

well-beingisthoughttobecontingentontheliberationofvoice’(pp.6-7).

Kidron’spivotalinsightcamewhileinterviewing‘Eve’,thedaughterof

Holocaustsurvivors.Afteraseriesof‘failed’interviewsinwhichintervieweesclaimed

littleknowledgeoftheHolocaust,becausetheirparentsdidnotspeakaboutit,Kidron

begantodespairofherresearch.However,afteranextendedsilence,Evesaid‘Butyou

knowtheHolocaustwaspresentinmyhome’(p.5).Evenallowingforsomenarrative

licence,thisisapowerfulmomentatthestartofherpaper.WhatinterestedKidronin

particularwastheunemotional,down-to-earthmannerofthetelling.Thepaper

proceedstocritiquethecentraltenetsofHolocauststudiestowardssilencewhich,she

claims,‘maybeseenasacompositeofthefoundationalassumptionsofpsychological

traumatheoryandthoseofthe“philosophersofgenocide”’(p.7)whoareembroiledin

theproblemsofHolocaustrepresentation(e.g.Adorno1983,LaCapra2001).Muchof

herpaperistakenupexplicatingtheideaoftacitHolocaustknowledgewhichshe

crystallizesinthenotionofthefamily’s‘experientialmatrixofHolocaustpresence’

(p.9).Kidronhassincebroadenedtheculturalcontextofherwork(Kidron2011,2012a,

2012b),mostrecentlyexaminingtheimplicationsoffamilymemberssharingmemories

atsitesofHolocaustremembrance(Kidron2013,2015).

Alford(2015)alsochallengesinconsistenciesintheexistingliterature.Inhis

analysisof250recordingsofinterviewswithHolocaustsurvivors,hewassurprisedto

discoverjusthow‘narrativelycompetent’manywere,despiteclearevidenceoftrauma.

Butthislevelofcompetencewasinsufficientto‘protecttheirchildrenfrombeing

overwhelmedbytheirparents’communications’.Alfordconcludedthat‘whatmattersis

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thecommunicationoffeelingstates’(p.262):narrativecompetencealonedoesnot

mitigatetraumatransmission.

InherpaperentitledHistoryWalksintheDoor,Walkerdineetal(2013)drawon

theworkofpsychoanalystsDavoineandGaudillière(2004)toconstructaversionof

intergenerationaltransmissionthatisnotconfinedtofamilydynamics,butrelates

‘micro-orfamily-leveltransmissiontolargerhistoricalevents’(Alford2015,p.266).

Theyacknowledgethecompromisesentailedinusingthismodelinaresearchrather

thanaclinicalcontextbuttheirintentistoproposeamethodologyinwhichhistoryis

integraland‘doesnotsimplyserveasabackdroptothefamilialrelationsrendered

separately’(Walkerdineetal2013,p.294).

DavoineandGaudillière(2004)claimthatworkingwithpsychoticpatients

taughtthemwhat‘madness’cancommunicateabouthistoryandtrauma.32They

contendthatwhattheirpatientsareunconsciouslycommunicatingthroughtheir

symptomsarethe‘buriedalive’33consequencesofpastwartraumasandconflicts,

experiencesthatwereneversymbolized,processedintomemoryornarrativized:

personalandsocialhistoriesthathavebecome‘stuck’,andthusvictimsofabreakagein

the‘sociallinks’betweengenerations.

Whatisparticularlyrelevanttothisthesisishowtransferencerelationships

enabletheseconsequencestobeheardinwaysthatconnectthepersonalhistoriesof

DavoineandGaudillièrewiththoseoftheirpatients.Theirpatientswereunableto

‘inscribethepastinartorinpoetry....Thesepeoplearethememory’(Caruth2014,

p.83)(italicsinoriginal);thepastis‘actualizedhereandnow,intheworkofthe

transference...warintheanalysis,withoutmetaphor’(DavoineandGaudillière,p.xxiii).

OneofDavoine’spatientsinventedtheword‘anti-past’-aneologisminterpretedas

meaning‘Thepastthatdoesnotpass’.Throughthecountertransference,Francoise32Theirworkliesontheborderlineofpsychoanalysisandhistoryandillustratesyetanotherelaborationofthe‘psychosocial’.33IhaveborrowedthiscolloquialexpressionfromAdamPhillips’biographyofFreud(2014,p.147).Althoughheusesitinadifferentcontext,itseemedveryappropriatehere.

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Davoinerecalledhergrandfather:‘mygrandfatherhastransmittedtomeanarrested

time,whichpermitsmetobeinarelationshipwithpeoplewhoare,themselves,inan

arrestedtime’(quotedinCaruth2014,p.85).Fromthisfinalrecollection,andfrom

theiruseofcountertransferenceingeneral,itisclearthattheprocessesdescribedby

DavoineandGaudillièrearepartofthehumancondition,andnotrestrictedtopsychotic

patients.

Toagreateroralesserextent,myresearchparticipantsfeltthatWorldWar

Twowaswovenintotheirchildhoodsandearlyrelationships,itsthreadsreachinginto

theirpresentlives.Forafewthiswasarelativelybenignphenomenon,merelypartof

thehistoricalcontextoftheirupbringing,seeminglydevoidofunwelcomepsychosocial

implications.However,forothers,thetraumaofthewarnaggedatthemrelentlessly.So,

forDerek,thewholeofhischildhoodwasshapedbyhisfather’sPOW-relatedill-health;

andinlateryearstheenduringinfluenceofpostmemorywasexpressedbythefrequent

sharingofoldphotographsandotherFEPOWinformationthroughanonline

community.Thistypeof‘reactivation’isclosertoVolkan’s(2012)ideason‘chosen

traumas’(p.83)thanitistoDavoineandGaudillière’stheoreticalposition,thoughboth

processesmightintertwine.Volkan’sstartingpointisthememoriesthathavebeen

sharedacrosslargegroups,thendrawnonunconsciously(‘chosen’)tomeetneedsin

thepresent:‘reactivatedsharedmentalrepresentationsofhistoryduringwhichthe

ancestorsfeltvictimized’(p.83).ThisprocessisrecognizableintheFEPOWcommunity,

andIwouldarguethatthesameprocessoperatesattheindividualancestor-related

level,curatedintoalibraryofdistinctivefamilystories.34

34Toillustratethisfrommyownfamilyhistory,theimpactofmygreatuncleHerbert’sexperienceofbeinggassedinWorldWarOnestayedwithmelongafterhisdeath,amplifiedbythesoundofhisdistressedbreathingandthesightoftheubiquitousoxygencylinder.Goingbacktothegenerationbefore,amoredistantrelativebledtodeathatworkwhenheslippedcarryingasheetofplateglass:theglassseveredthemajorarteryunderhisarm.Ihavebeenhauntedbythisimagerythroughoutmylife,andremainveryvigilantwhenhandlingglass.

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Despitethebesteffortsofresearcherspursuingpositivistapproachestothe

intergenerationaltransmissionoftrauma,thetopicretainsapowerfulsenseofmystery.

WehaveseenthisintheworkofscholarslikeBar-On(1995),Caruth(2014),and

DavoineandGaudillière(2004)whoemployevocativemetaphorsthatresonatewith

theeverydaylanguageoftheenigmatic.Manyauthorshavefelttheneedtodrawon

alternative,moretangentialconceptswhenacademiclanguagefails-aninevitability

perhapswhenwearefacedwithexperienceslike‘limitevents’thatresist

representation.‘Haunting’and‘ghosts’(Caruth1995,Frosh2013,Gordon2008)and

‘possession’(Caruth1995)‘crypt‘,‘shell’and‘kernel’(AbrahamandTorok1994),

‘memorialcandles’(Wardi1992),‘psychicholes’(Kogan2015),andthe‘uncanny’

(Trigg2012):eachinitsownwayisredolentofpsychicstatesorprocessesbeyond,or

onthecuspof,rationalunderstanding.Withinthephenomenologicalandpsychic

domains,statisticaltablesandcorrelationcoefficientscountforlittle,andtherecanbe

fewscholarlytopicsinwhichthereconciliationofdifferentlevelsandmodesofanalysis

hasprovedmoredemanding.AsCathyCaruth(2014)maintains,thereasonsforthisare

partlyduetothefactthattrauma‘isnotasingleorsystematizableconceptbutratheran

ongoingsetofclinicalandconceptualdiscoveries’(p.xiv).Becausetraumacontinually

escapesdefinitionalconsensus,intergenerationaltransmissionoftraumaisdestinedto

sufferthesamefate.

However,theambiguitiesthatenmeshtheseconceptsoftenprovokecreative

responsesinbothpublishedauthorsandamongstparticipantsastheystruggleto

conveytheinteriorityoftraumatransmission.In‘Andtheratlaughed’,NavaSemel

(2008)createsanindirectroutetorepresentation,mixingstories,poemsanddiary

entriesinaflexibletemporalframeworktoaddressmemoryoftheHolocaust.Similarly

motivated,intheseriesoftersechaptersthatconstitute‘Nightfather’,CarlFriedman

(1994)narratesachild’sviewoftheHolocaustassheinterpretsherfather’saccountof

thewarandtheconcentrationcamps.Sometimeswordsarenotenough.In‘Maus’,Art

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Spiegelman(2003)employsthetechniquesofthegraphicnoveltoconveythestarkyet

insidiousimpactoftheHolocaustonhisownfamily.Throughwordsandpicturesthe

reader/vieweristakenthroughacompellingpsychicjourney,onewhichalsohasthe

effectofproblematizingthenarrativeitself.Forinstance,shouldweseewordsand

picturesasaunifiednarrative,orasformingtwodiscretenarrativestrandsoperating

ondifferentpsychiclevelsandtimescales?(ChuteandDeKoven2006,p.769,Kolar

2013).Aggravatingthepsychicdistresstransmittedbyhisparents’Holocaust

memories,Artsuffersa‘double’traumawhenhismothercommitssuicide.Theimpact

ofrepeatedtraumasisathreadthatrunsthroughSpiegelman’slife;healsowitnessed

andhaswrittenabout9/11(Versluys2006).Asbecomesapparentthroughthethesis,

James,Joanna,andDeidreintheirdifferentwaysexperiencedtrailsoftraumathat

shapedtheirlifestoriesandsetintrainpatternsofmemorypracticestoaddressvarious

feelingsofguilt,confusionandloss.

Louiseisapainterwhorespondedtothepostmemoriesofherfather’scaptivity

throughworkthatcombinedimagesandtext(somewordstakenfromherfather’s

diaries).Shespokeof‘rediscovering’herfather-andherself-aftershelearnedabout

hisPOWexperiences.InaseriesofpaintingsmadeafterhervisittotheThai-Burma

railwaysites,35sheusedasher‘signature’asymbolthathadbeen‘stampedonapieceof

fabric’shefoundamongstherfather’spossessions.36Simon,ascriptwriter,wrotea

shortstory(andperformancepiece)thatintegratedpastandpresent,autobiography

andimagination,wordsandimages.ItaddressedthetraumasofFEPOWlifeby

manipulatingtime,sothatheandhisfatherbecame‘contemporaries’inthePOWcamp.

ThisnarrativedeviceevokesFaimberg’s(1988)conceptofthe‘telescopingof

generations’thatheconstruedasaformofidentificationinwhichhistoryis‘condensed’

(p.105).Thesemi-fictionalformgaveSimonthechancetoexploreemotionalaspectsof

35Thesepaintingswerefirstexhibitedon11May2006,thecentenaryofhisbirth.36ShehasbeentoldthesymbolistheJapanesefor‘prisoner’.

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hisrelationshipwithhisfatherwithinapotentfictionallocationwherehewasableto

acknowledgehissufferingandto‘say’thingstohisfatherthathadpreviouslybeenleft

unsaid.Bytheend,oneisawarethatbothfatherandsonwereprisonersintheirown

ways.Thestoryalsointerweavedaseriesofmeetingsbetweenthenarratorandhis

relationshipcounsellor-areminderofRonaldFraser’s(1984)‘InSearchofaPast’in

whichheblendsanaccountofhisownpsychoanalysiswithoralhistoryandreverie.

Throughtheirdistinctivecreativework,bothLouiseandSimondemonstratedhow

personalresponsestotraumacouldbecommunicatedinindividualizedandrichly

aestheticformsofmemorypractice.

Musttraumaalwaysleadtonegativeoutcomes?

Soonafterthewar,EricTrist,oneofthefoundingpsychiatristsoftheCivilResettlement

Programme,referredtotheEuropeanPOWcampas‘asocietyof“creativecasualties”’

(Wilsonetal1953,p.92):

...peoplewhohadcopedwithpain,confusionandseparationfromtheirlovedoneswithoutlosinghopeortheabilitytohelpandencouragetheircompanionsincaptivity...menwho...had,bysurvivingthreatandhurt,gainedanexceptionalnewawarenessandpower.ObviouslythisdevelopmentdoesnotdependonhavingbeenaPOW,althoughthismaysometimeshavehelped(Curle2001,p.5).

EuropewasnottheFarEast,ofcourse,butweneednotconcludethatPOWtraumaled

toexclusivelynegativeoutcomes.Findingsof‘posttraumaticgrowth’havenowbeen

widelyconfirmedandelaboratedinarangeofsettings.37Incarcerationwassuchanall-

encompassingandoverwhelmingexperiencethatitpersuadedmanyPOWstore-

appraisetheirlivesandvalues,to

‘rethinktheirphilosophiesandtodevelopafinersenseofselfworthandoflife’svalues,thusturningamalignantandcataclysmicexperienceintoaninstrumentforgrowthandemotionalmaturation’(Segaletal1976,p.605)

37Forexample,BoalsandSchuettler(2011),Downesetal(2012),Frankl(2006),Sheikh(2008),TedeschiandCalhoun(2004),Zerach(2014),andZerachetal(2013b).

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Segaletalalsoarguethattheabilitytoriseabovetheimmediatehardshipandpain

increasedtheverychancesofsurvival.However,conflatingafinersenseof‘selfworth’

andof‘life’svalues’maynotbesufficientlydiscriminating.Conceivably,survivorscould

stillemergefromcaptivitywithafinersenseoflife’svaluesbutalsosufferafractured

senseofselfworth.

Inalifecoursecontext,itisnotdifficulttofindexamplesofFEPOWtrauma

actingascatalystsforproductiveandaltruisticactivity.Somefathers,orchildrenof

FEPOWs,channelled,orsublimated,theirexperiencesintocharitableactivities,perhaps

assistingfellowFEPOWsandwidowsbyestablishingorsupportingFEPOW

organisations.IndeedmanyFEPOWswentontoreceivenationalhonoursfortheir

workinthisfield.Wecanspeculatethat,asaresult,somechildrenmighthaveavoided

thenegativeconsequencesengenderedbytroublesomeunsublimatedorundisplaced

emotions.Overandabovethat,thechildrenwerepresentedwiththeopportunityto

identifywiththeirfathers’post-warconstructiveresponses,andsointernalizepositive,

altruisticcharacteristics.Ofcourse,thisisonlyoneplausibleinterpretation.Inthecase

ofthoseparticipantswhosechildhoodswererepletewithabsenceandloss,later

involvementwithcharitableactivitiesmaybebetterunderstoodasanattempttosatisfy

theirindividualpsychicneedsthroughhelpingex-FEPOWsandtheirfamilies.

Thenegativeoutcomesoftraumashouldnotbeseeninstarkoppositionto

posttraumaticgrowth,asbinariescondemnedtofollowtwodistinctempirical

pathways.Toillustratetheambiguities,Dekeletal(2016,p.1)emphasisehowtrauma-

relatedguilt(a‘negativetraumaoutcome’)canalsofacilitateposttraumaticgrowth,

promoting‘other-orientedempathy’,copingandredemptivebehaviour(Tangneyetal

2007,p.363).Aswithsomanyofthecomplexpsychicphenomenaexploredinthis

research,conflictingelementsfrequentlyco-existandinteract:

weshouldnottrytoforgetthepast,ortoridourselvesofit,onceandforall,butthatweshouldlookfornewwaystolivewithit–waysthatweremoreconscious,lessthreateningandself-destructivethanourpreviousattempts(Bar-OnandKessem2004,p.293).

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Earlierinthischapter,wesawhowtraumamightdamagetheformationofsecure

attachmentrelationships.Followingthethemeofposttraumaticgrowth,Ein-Dor(2015)

askswhy,intheliterature,insecureattachmentsseemtoresultonlyinnegative

outcomes.Hearguesthat,becausemoststudiesfocuson‘thedomainofsocial

adjustmentandsubjectivewell-being’,thepossiblebenefitsofinsecureattachments

mighthavebeenoverlooked,thusneglecting‘thestrengthsofindividualswhohavelong

beenviewedasdeficientandpoorlyadapted’(p.115).Ein-Dornotesthatattachment

securitytendstoproduceindividualswhogenerallyhave‘highself-esteem,trustother

people,andperceivetheworldasarelativelysafeplace’(p.113),outcomesbasedon

whatMikulinceretal(2009)refertoasa‘broaden-and-buildcycleofattachment

security’(p.616).Counter-intuitively,Ein-dor(2015)invitesustoconsidertheadaptive

benefitspossiblefromaninsecurebase,andhesuggeststhatpeoplewhoscorehighon

‘attachmentanxiety’aremore‘vigilantinmonitoringtheenvironmentforthreats’

(p.113)andare‘morelikelytobreakoffanon-goingtaskandtakeeffectiveactionwhen

facingathreat’(p.114).Thosescoringhighlyon‘attachment-relatedavoidance’are

morelikelyto‘takecareofthemselves,evenifthissometimesoccursatotherpeoples’

expense’,andstopataskandtakeaction(p.114).Theadaptivebenefitsofthese

differentbehavioursareeasytoenvisage.38

Conclusion

Theintergenerationaltransmissionoftraumahasbeenaninexhaustiblesourceof

intellectualandemotionalfascinationforscholarsofdifferentpersuasions.Inthis

chapter,Ihaveendeavouredtoconveyasenseofthiswidespectrumofacademic

interestswhileensuringthatthematerialhasstayedrelevanttotheexperiencesand38Iamremindedhereofthedistinctionbetween‘managers’(whoseforteistomaintainthesmoothrunningofanorganization)and‘leaders’(whosepredilectionistoactandbringaboutchange).IntheparticularcircumstancesofaPOWcamp,peoplewhohavehighlevelsof‘vigilance’couldbeavaluableasset.

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circumstancesofparticipants.Threespecificthemesemergefromthischapterwhich

areparticularlypertinenttothethesisasawhole.

Firstly,constructsfromattachmenttheoryhavehelpedtoelucidatehow

relationshipscouldbedestabilizedinthepostwarfamiliesofFEPOWs.Inparticular,

howafailuretoestablisha‘securebase’inthoseearlyyearscouldtrigger’internal

workingmodels’thathadalastingimpactinparticipants’lives.Thesenseof‘distance’

createdbetweenchildrenandfathers-bothcorporealandpsychic-providedthe

psychosocialcontextforlaterengagementwithparticularmemorypractices‘designed’

(consciouslyorunconsciously)toreducethatdistance.

Secondly,Kidron’s(2009)ethnographicworkontacitcommunicationprocesses

problematizes‘silence’andisimportantinrefocusingattentionontotheroleofthe

‘everyday’andwhatshetermsthefamily’s‘experientialmatrix’throughwhichtrauma

canbetransmittedbetweengenerations.

Finally,thepsychosocialmethodologyIemployedinthisresearchisconsistent

withtheapproachofBar-Onetal(1998)tothefieldofintergenerationaltransmission,

andalsorespondstoDekelandGoldblatt’s(2008)appealforgreateruseofqualitative

methods.In-depthinterviewsallowedparticipants‘toexplorefreelyandreflectonthe

impactofthetraumaticexperiencesonhis/herlife,andtoassisttheresearcherin

makingsenseofthiscomplexissue’(Bar-Onetal1998,p.333).

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CHAPTERTHREE

LIFEINTHECAMPSANDREPATRIATIONTOBRITAIN

Asthebodiesburnttheycrackledandpopped.Oneraisedanarmasthenervestautenedintheheat.Oneofthepyremakerswavedback.Haveagoodone,Jackie.You’reoutofherenow,mate.1

‘ItwasnotJUSTthathewastortured,...itwasthenotknowing,thecasualdehumanizationandlackofanykindofselfdetermination.’(Sonofaparticipant,afterwatchingTheRailwayMan).2

Introduction

InChapterTwo,Idiscussedthenatureoftraumaandhowitcouldbetransmitted

betweengenerations.Myaimsinthischapteraremoretailored:toexaminethepsychic

andphysicalconsequencesofbeingheldcaptiveintheFarEast,toconsidertheprocess

ofrepatriation,andtogetasenseofthephysicalandpsychologicalconditionofthe

FEPOWsontheirreturntofamilyandcivilianlife.Idrawthechaptertoaclosewithmy

claimthattheFEPOWsandtheirchildrenhaveevolvedintoadistinctsocialgroup.

Understandinghowandwhatmightbetransmittedbetweengenerations

dependsinlargepartonourknowledgeandunderstandingofthestateofmind,and

stateofbody,ofthereturningFEPOWs.Incarcerationforthreetofouryearsaffectedthe

psychologicalselfandthe‘body-self’(Sparkes1996)towhichwecanaddalossof

ontologicalsecurity-athreattotheman’ssenseofselfandidentitythatmighttopple

himbackintoanearlierstageofpsychicdevelopment.Notwithstandingpre-captivity

factors(suchasvariationsinpersonalityorsocialclass)andthedifferencesbetween

1FromRichardFlanagan’s2013novel‘Thenarrowroadtothedeepnorth’,p.250,basedonhisfather’swarexperiences.Myfathertoldmesimilarstoriesofcorpses‘sittingup’intheflames.2http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2058107/

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conditionsinthecamps,3Iarguethatthesemensharedcertaincoreexperiencesand

responses,andthattheramificationswouldgoontocreateatraumaticlegacyfortheir

families.Themenwereslaves,withnoknownendtotheirincarceration,andno

realisticprospectsofescape.Theyhadtolearnthehardwaythatsurvivalmeant

controllingtheiremotionsandbehaviour,conformingtotheritualsofcamplife,and

adaptingtohungerandthesightsandsoundsofphysicalandmentalsuffering.Inshort,

survivaldependedonwillpowerandgoodluck.

Theimpactofcaptivity

Levinasremindsuswithbrutaleloquencejusthowwarinvadesourverysenseofbeing

andnormality:4

Theontologicaleventthattakesforminthisblacklightisacastingintomovementofbeingshithertoanchoredintheiridentity,amobilizationofabsolutes,byanobjectiveorderfromwhichthereisnoescape.Thetrialbyforceisthetestofthereal.Butviolencedoesnotconsistsomuchininjuringandannihilatingpersonsasininterruptingtheircontinuity,makingthemplayrolesinwhichtheynolongerrecognizethemselves,makingthembetraynotonlycommitmentsbuttheirownsubstance,makingthemcarryoutactionsthatwilldestroyeverypossibilityforaction(Levinas1969,p.21).

Thecriticalpointisthatwar,inadditionto‘injuringandannihilatingpersons’,brings

aboutacompleteexistentialdislocationandseparationfromwhatwentbefore.Oras

BarkawiandBrighton(2011)putit,war‘disrupt(s)widercertitudesandcoordinatesof

humanlife’(p.136).Brighton’scommentary(2011)onLevinasconsolidatesthe

argumentbyconnectingpersonalalienationwithwidermeanings:‘warforcesthe

unmakingandremakingofsocialandpoliticalmeaninginwayswhichdefyprediction.

Inthisregard,thenecessityofdescriptive,reflectiveengagementwithexperience

becomesmoreevidentyet.’(Brighton2011,p.103).3SeeHavers2003,NorwoodandSheck(1946)andYap(2012)forasenseofthevariationbetweenPOWcamplocations.ThePOWResearchNetworkJapanwebsitegivesasenseofthespreadofcampsinJapanesewartimeterritory-http://www.powresearch.jp/en/archive/index.html4EmmanuelLevinashadbeenpersonally,andseverely,affectedbytheHolocaust.http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/levinas/#LifCar

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FortheFEPOWs,thephenomenologicalshiftssuggestedbyLevinasandothers

werenotsudden,shortlivedaffairs,buthadtobeborneandlivedoutoverseveral

years.Theywereunavoidableanduncontrollable:‘[war]establishesanorderfrom

whichnoonecankeephisdistance;nothinghenceforthisexterior’(Levinas1969,p.

21).Inthefaceofsuchintrusivetraumatotheself,itislittlewonderthattheFEPOW

experiencewroughtdeepseatedpersonalitychangesinsomanyofthemen.

BetweenDecember1941andMarch1942,around50,000BritishtroopsintheFarEast

surrenderedtotheImperialJapaneseArmyandbecameprisonersofwar.5Formany,

theexperiencewasextremelydisorienting:

‘IfyouseeanyJaps…don’tshoot,theDutchhavecapitulated!’Withthesewords,W/CmdrGregsondestroyedanyillusionsofsalvationwemightstillhavemaintained.MycompanionsandIlookedateachotherindismayanddisbelief.6

TensofthousandsofyoungBritishmen-manyquite‘green’fromamilitarypointof

view-suddenlyfoundthemselvesinthehandsofahardenedarmy.Littleimaginationis

neededtosummonuphowtheymusthavefeltatthatmoment-disoriented,scared,

andconfused.ManyhadleftBritainincrowdedtroopshipsinthewinterof1941,landed

intheFarEastearlyin1942,andinMarchfoundthemselvesprisonersoftheJapanese,

inwhosehandstheywouldremainforthenextthreetofouryears.Somehadbarely

engagedwiththeenemy.WithtensofthousandsofPOWsontheirhands,theJapanese

militaryleaderssoondiscoveredthatruthlessefficiencyinmilitarycombatwasno

5HongKonghadfallenon25December1941,Singaporeon15February1942.Then,on9March1942,theDutchEastIndiessurrendered,leadingrapidlytothecaptureofalltheremainingBritishservicemen.InMarchandApril1942,theJapaneseoverranthePhilippinesresultinginthecaptureofmanythousandsofAmericantroops.Inall,some190,000AlliedtroopswereheldasPOWs.Seehttp://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/ThewebsitecreatedbythelateRogerMansellistheunchallengedsourceofinformationaboutindividualFEPOWcamps.NowrunbyWesInjerd,thecontentisregularlyupdated:http://www.mansell.com/pow-index.html6JoeFitzgerald–inMartin(2007).

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preparationforthesenewlogisticalchallenges.7

ComparedwithPOWcampsinGermanyandItaly,conditionsintheFarEast

wereveryharsh(Curtin1946,Hastings2008).Thedietwaspoor,clothinginadequate,

andtropicaldiseasesprevalent.ThePOWswereoverworked,subjectedtoharshand

oppressivediscipline,8andtheJapaneseprovidedlittleinthewayofeffectivemedical

treatments,althoughPOWmedicsperformedheroicallyandwithgreatingenuity

(Dunlop1990,ParkesandGill2015).Robsonetal(2009)9describethemainphysical

healthproblemsseeninthecampsasdysentery,malaria,tropicalulcers,choleraand

nutritionaldeficiencies,including‘wetberiberi’,dysaestheticneuropathy(‘electric

feet’),andvariousghastlyskindiseases(forexample,thevividlynamed‘strawberry

balls’)(Chalker2007,Curtin1946,Dunlop1990,Gill1996,Rawlings2015).

Strongyloidesstercoralisinfection10wascommonamongstPOWsontheThai-Burma

railway,andremainsatopicofcontemporaryinterestbecauseofitsabilitytopersistin

thebodyovermanydecadeswithpossiblyfatalconsequences(Gilletal2004,and

ParkesandGill2015).RedCrosssupport(forexamplefoodparcels,andinspectionsof

thecamps)wasmuchmoresporadicthaninEuropeanPOWcamps(Bosch2012).

Around27%ofFEPOWsdiedasaresultofcaptivity,comparedwithapproximately4%

inEurope.11DeathrateswerehighestamongstthemenbuildingtheThai-Burma

railway(Daws1995).

7UtsumiexploresJapan’sbureaucraticweaknessesinPOWmanagement.Utsumi,A.(1999)TheJapanesearmyanditsprisoners:relevantdocumentsandbureaucraticinstitutions,Seminarpaper,presentedFebruary1999attheAustralianWarMemorial. Onlinehttp://ajrp.awm.gov.au/ajrp/ajrp2.nsf/aa9b3f3247a3c8ae4a25676300078dee/d2e5732b8749d2e04a2567a8007b490c?OpenDocumentAccessed16-10-20168JapanhadsignedbutnotratifiedtheGenevaConvention,butinanycasethestanceoftheJapanesegovernmenttowardsinternationalagreementswasdeterminedbynationalself-interest(UrsanoandRundell1995).9TheseauthorswereworkingoutoftheLiverpoolSchoolofTropicalMedicinewhichhasbeenassociatedwithtreatingandresearchingex-FarEastprisonersofwarsince1946.http://www.captivememories.org.uk/10CurrenthealthadvicetoFEPOWscontinuestohighlightthisparticularproblem.Leaflet-7,NotesforEx-FarEastandKoreanPrisonersofWar,http://www.veterans-uk.info/pdfs/publications/va_leaflets/valeaflet7.pdf(accessed24-11-2013).11 http://www.forces-war-records.co.uk/information/prisoners-of-war-of-the-japanese-1939-1945

83

WhencontemplatingtheFEPOWexperiencethereaderhastoreconcileimages

ofbrutalitywithknowledgeofthegrindingmonotonyinvolvedincamplife:a‘sentence’

withnoknownend,andlittlerealisticprospectofescape.Thesemenwerehalfway

acrosstheworld,immersedinanalienculturewhosemilitaryethicderivedfromthe

Bushidotraditionthatdemandedabsolutecompliancefromallitssoldiers,andthat

viewedwithcontemptanyformofsurrender(Nitobe1969,Scheipers2010pp.145-8,

Senatore2009).However,incarcerationforthreeandahalfyearsinhostileconditions

didnotmeananautomaticslideintoemotionalormoralsubmission.Inmanycamps,

theFEPOWssummonedtheenergy,fortitudeandingenuitynecessarytoorganise

artistic,12sporting,andeducationalactivitieswhichcouldraisethespiritsabovethe

hungerandillnessthatencasedthem(Eldredge2014,Gillies2011).

‘Traumaalwaysimplicatesthecommunity,languageandsymbolicorderin

whichitisset’(Edkins2010,citedbyKalinowska2012,p.427).ButfortheFEPOWs-a

strangediasporaofdislocatedandalienatedmen-therewasnostablebackdropagainst

whichtoweighuptheirtraumaticexperiences.Formany,lifehaddissolvedintoaseries

ofdisorientatingtransitionsoverwhichtheyhadlittleornocontrol:from‘civvystreet’

tomilitarylifeasaresultofvolunteeringorconscription,trainedasmilitarypersonnel

whileunderattackbytheGermans,thencastontotheoceanheadedfortheMiddleEast

onlytoberedirectedtotheFarEasttofighttheJapanese.

Intheearlydaysofcaptivity,someyoungPOWsjustgaveup,especiallythose

fromdeprivedworkingclassbackgroundswhosephysicalreserveshadbeendepleted

duringtheDepression(Hastings2008,p.351).Addedtothepersonalill-treatment,

POWswereforcedtowitnessbodiesbloatedbyberiberi,thesmelloffuneralpyres,and

thesightsandsoundsinthe‘hellships’13(Lamont-Brown2002,Michno2001).The

JapaneseregularlyshippedPOWsbetweentheJapanesemainlandanditsoccupied

12Seehttp://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/thdabooks/24/ 13LizzieOliverexplainshowanumberweresunkbytheAllies-http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/the-sinking-of-prisoner-of-war-transport-ships-in-the-far-east

84

territoriestosuittheirlabourneeds.Duetotheappallingconditionsonboard,many

liveswerelostonthesejourneys.AlongwiththeThai-Burmarailway,thehellships

haveemergedaspreeminentsymbolsofextremeJapanesewartimebrutality.14

Shipsfigurestronglyinthecolonialimaginary(Gilroy1993)andinthehistories

oftheAlliedpowers.Inbothcases,slaveryhasinscribedjourneysbyshipwithimages

ofoppressionandunspeakablecruelty.TheFEPOWsfoundthemselvesentangledwith

thesesymbolsofrepressionandracistsuperiority,andsubjugatedbyimperialistforces

thatcontrolledtheirdailyexistenceandsurvivalprospects,constrictingtheirfreedoms

andagencytolevelsbeyondtheirpreviousimaginings.AlthoughtheFEPOWexperience

isculturallyandhistoricallydistantfromGilroy’sanalysis,hismetaphoricaluseofthe

ship,whichhedescribesas‘aliving,micro-cultural,micro-politicalsysteminmotion’

(p.4),lendsapowerfulsynchronicitytotheimageryadoptedwithinmuchFEPOW

discourse.

Iwantnowtoconsideroneparticularandlessdiscussedaspectofcaptivity,but

onewithmanypsychicresonances.Theskin:theorganwhosemeaningderivesfrom

‘theenfoldingofculture,psychicallifeandembodiment’(Cavanaghetal2013,p.2).

...ratherthantalkofbodies,wemightinsteadtalkofbrain–body–worldentanglements(Blackman2012,p.1).

Thefathers’appearancefiguresinmanytestimonies,buttheimplicationsofthisare

rarelyexplored.Isuspectonereasonforthisneglectisthatappearancehasbeenso

closelywovenintopopularandmedicalFEPOWnarrative(‘helookedlikeaskeleton’)

thatitissimplytaken-for-granted.Butthesehomogenizingrepresentationsofferlittle

inthewayofinsightintothepsychicorphenomenologicalchangesimplicatedinthe

transformationofyoungmeningoodhealthintoprisonersofwarsufferingfrom

chronicsicknessanddebilitation.Ifwedonottacklethisexperientiallevelofcamplife,

wewillnotadequatelyunderstandthesensitivitiesandsensibilitiesthemenbrought14ProductioncompanyHLAreflectedthisbychoosing‘therailway’https://wdrv.it/1wVdn8land‘hellships’http://hellships.hla.net/forrecentdocumentarywork.

85

backintofamilylifeandthatsubsequentlyhadanimpactontheirchildren.

Lifeinthecampswasetchedonthemen’sskinsbut,likeapalimpsest,deeper

psychiclayerswoulddemandexpressioninlateryears.JayProsser(2001)drawsour

attentiontothis.

…thelookofourskin–bothtoothersandtoourselves–bringstoitssurfacearememberedpast.Itisaphenomenologicalfunctionofskintorecord....Skin’smemoryisburdenedwiththeunconscious.(p.52).

VeryfewFEPOWsreturnedhomewithskinintactorappearanceunaffectedby

incarceration.

Whenshefirstsawmedad,sheburstoutcrying.Coshewasyellowand…hisuniformwhichwashangingoffhim.Imeaneventhoughtheytriedtobuildthemup,hesaid,hewassounderweight...hewasjuststandingtherewithhishugeuniformandhehadn’treallyfilledout.(Derek)

Shesaysshewenttomeethimoffthetrain.Andshewalkedpasthimtwice.Didn’trecognisehim.Becausehewassothin.(Jacqui)

Jacquidescribedthelaterconsequencesforherfather:

Dadhadbeendiagnosedwithsomekindofskincancer,frombeingstakedoutinthesun,mumsaid.Torturedorwhatever.Youcouldn’tseethecancer,buthisnosewasreallybadlydamagedbythesun.Lotsoflittleveins.Itwasalmostraw.

Theskinistheplace‘fromwhichbothexternalandinternalperceptionsmayspring’

(FreudandFreud2005,p.450).Wecanlocatethecloseconnectionsbetweentheskin

andthedevelopmentoftheegoinearlychildhooddevelopment,duringwhich‘thebaby

acquirestheperceptionofabodilysurfacethroughthecontactwiththeskinofthe

motherwhenheisbeingcaredforbyher(e.g.duringbreast-feeding)’(Lemma2009,

p.756).Anzieu(2016)takesFreud’snotionofthe‘bodilyego’andusesitasthebasisfor

his‘ideaoftheSkin-ego’(p.6),whichispresentedas‘bothanorganicandimaginary

reality’(Benthien2002,p.8).Althoughtentativeandoccasionallyopaque,Anzieu’s

notionofthe‘Skin-ego’managestobebothprovocativeandthought-provoking.As

Prosser(2001)says,itisthe‘interfacebetweenpsycheandbody,selfandothers’(p.53)

andassuchplaysadynamicroleinthedevelopmentofsubjectivity(Handcock2012).

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Anzieu(2016)alsorecognisestheskinasintegraltoattachmenttheory(pp.24-28),an

approachthatIarguedinChapterTwoisvaluableinunderstandingtherelationship

betweentheex-FEPOWandhischildren.Inashortpaper,Bick(1968)alsoemphasizes

‘theprimalfunctionoftheskinofthebabyandofitsprimalobjectsinrelationtothe

mostprimitivebindingtogetherofpartsofthepersonalitynotasyetdifferentiated

frompartsofthebody’(p.484).

InthePOWcamps,theskinwasthefirstorgantobesubjectedtopunishment

(slappingandhittingwerecommonplacepunishments).Later,itbecamethecanvason

whichweredisplayedthefirstsignsofmalnutritionanddisease.Theappearanceofthe

FEPOWs15-liketheappallingimagesofNaziconcentrationcampvictims-iswhat

lingersinthepersonalandculturalimaginariesevenastheeventsthemselvesshift

fromtherealmsofmemorytothoseofhistory.Bick(1968)contendsthattheskin

servesasthebaby’smostconcreteofboundaries,priortothedifferentiationand

emergenceofthepersonality,andasenseofself.Onthisbasis,theskinholdsaspecial

placeinoursenseofself.Letusimaginethemen,atfirstdespairingandselfconscious

astheybegintoloseweightandshowthefirstsignsoftropicaldiseaseandtheeffectsof

malnutrition.Itiseasytoseewhy,whentheintegrity(indeedthelife)oftheindividual

wasbeingseverelythreatened,damagetotheskinwouldfeatureprominentlyinthe

mindsandbodiesoftheFEPOWs.Asweightfallsaway,theskinbeginstorevealthe

skeletonbeneath;tropicalulcersappearandsuppurate.Sensorychanges-ulceration,

injury,inflictedpain-quicklycometothefore:theskin,sensedfromwithin,plusthe

sightofone’sown,andothers’skins,re-sculptedbymalnutritionanddisease,skins

changingdaily,transformingidentities,viewsofthesickbodynotnormallyseen.The

skincouldnolongerbereliedupon,andwastobeaddedtothegrowinglistofthings

thathadletthemdown.

15Illustrationsbywarartists,suchasChalker(2007),Rawlings(2015)andSearle(1986)depictmuchofthisinpainfullygraphicdetail.

87

Regularcommunicationwithhomewascriticalforthementalwellbeingofboththe

POWsandtheirfamilies,butlettersandparcelsbetweenBritainandtheFarEastwere

rare.Understandably,familiestendedtoassumethatFEPOWs,ifstillalive,were

probablyreasonablysafeinthecamps(JonesandWessely2010,pp.10-11).This

impressionwasnotcontradictedbyarticlesinThePrisonerofWar,themagazine

producedbytheRedCrossandSt.JohnWarOrganisation,andgivenfreetonext-of-kin.

ThefrontcoveroftheJune1943editionshowsagroupofPOWsposingforagroup

photographoverthecaption‘ThissummerscenewastakenatCampoP.G.73’.Although

thisisanItalianPOWcamp,theimagecreatesageneralimpressionofwell-beingwhich

manywivesandfamilieswerelikelytohavelatchedonto.Later,intheDecember

edition,anunnamedPOWinOsakaPOWCamp,AmagasakiSubCampwrote(hisletter

dated10thApril1943):

Myhealthisexcellent,andIamworkingeachday,exceptTuesday,forpayment.Theworkisverysuitable,andIhavereceivedexcellentco-operationfromallthefactorystaff,thegroupforemanespecially.16

InAugust1943,mymotherwrotethefollowingtomyfather(whowasasign-writerby

trade).HehadbeenaPOWforeighteenmonthsatthisstage.‘Idohopeyouwillsoonbe

abletowritemealetterandtellmewhatsortofworkyouaredoing.Ihopeitis

somethingyoucangetonwith,andbeinterestedwith.Haveyoutriedlearningthe

languageyet?Ishouldthinkthesignswouldbeinterestingtoyou,ifyougettimeto

copythem.’Inthecircumstancesofthetime,andsettingasidethepoignancythatcomes

fromknowingthelikelytruecircumstances,itiseasytounderstandinretrospectwhy

wivesandfamilieswouldwishtobelievethatallwaswell.

Paucityofinformationledtomisunderstandingsaboutthenatureofcaptivityin

theFarEast,andwasacriticalfactorinthefailureoftheBritishgovernmentand

militarytoproperlyprepareforthereturnoftheFEPOWs(seeShephard1996fora

succinctaccount).Between1942and1944,theBritishgovernmentsecuredverylittle

16EditionsofThePrisonerofWarcanbeviewedonhttp://www.forces-war-records.co.uk/

88

reliableinformationaboutthefateofBritishFEPOWs,ortheconditionsinthecamps.17

Whattheydidhavewasoftendifficulttointerpret.Afewanecdotalanddisturbing

accountshadfoundtheirwayintogovernmenthandsbutthesetendedtobeconflicting,

andtheBritishGovernmentfoundithardtopaintaclearandcomprehensivepictureof

whatwashappeningontheground.

Byearly1944,becauserelativeshadbeguntoreceive‘reassuring’(buthighly

censoredandmisleading)officialpostcardsfromtheFEPOWsthemselves,the

Governmentfeltithadnooptionbuttobemoretransparentwithitscitizens(Hately-

Broad2002).18Eventuallyon28thJanuary1944intheHouseofCommons,theSecretary

ofStateforForeignAffairs,Mr.AnthonyEden,madethefollowingstatement:

IfearIhavegravenewstogivetotheHouse.MemberswillbeawarethatalargenumberofpostcardsandlettershaverecentlybeenreceivedinthiscountryfromprisonersintheFarEast:andthatthesealmostuniformlysuggestthatthewritersarebeingtreatedwellandareingoodhealth.Thereisnodoubtfromwhatweknowaboutparticularareasthatsomeofthesecommunications,atanyrate,areintermsdictatedbytheJapaneseauthorities.IregrettohavetotelltheHousethatinformationwhichhasbeenreachingHisMajesty'sGovernmentnolongerleavesroomforanydoubtthatthetruestateofaffairsisaverydifferentonesofarasthegreatmajorityofprisonersinJapanesehandsisconcerned.19

WiththeGovernment’spositionpubliclyaired,thequestioninthemindsofwivesand

familieswaswhethertheyshouldtheyprepareforahomecomingorabereavement

(MooreandHately-Broad2005,p.148).

Theprocessofrepatriation

Withafewexceptions,theyoungmenwhowerecapturedintheFarEasthadmoretroublereadjustingtocivilianlifethananyothers(Summers2009).

17Incontrast,muchmoreinformationwasavailableconcerningconditionsinthePOWcampsinGermanyandItaly,notleastbecauseseveralthousandPOWshadbeenrepatriatedfromEuropeatvariousstagesbeforetheendofthewar.18E.g.(1)WarCabinet21stOctober1943MemorandumbytheSecretaryofState.ConditionsofBritishPrisonersofWarinSiam.(2)WarCabinet27thOctober1943MemorandumbytheSecretaryofState.PublicityconcerningJapaneseTreatmentofBritishPrisonersofWarandCivilianInternees.(3)WarCabinet15thNovember1944.ConclusionsofaMeetingoftheWarCabinet.19Hansard,HCDeb28January1944vol.396cc1029-35(http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1944/jan/28/japanese-treatment#S5CV0396P0_19440128_HOC_9)

89

Estimatessuggestthatintheregionof180,000EuropeanandNorthAmericanswerein

Japanesehandsattheendofthewar(Overmans2005),witharound63,000Allied

POWsinJapanitself(McKernan2001).Contemporaryestimatesofthetotalnumber

wereevenhigher,withtheManchesterGuardianof23August1945reportingafigure

of250,000POWsandinternees.TheGuardianpiecealsoemphasizedthatthe

GovernmenthadaccordedthereturningPOWsastatus‘secondtoVIPs’.20

PlanningfortheaftermathofvictoryagainstJapanhadbeenunderwayforsome

time.Initially,theexpectationwasthattheywouldbereleasedprogressivelyas

JapaneseterritorywasoccupiedbytheAllies.However,withthedroppingoftheatomic

bombsonHiroshimaandNagasaki,thewarintheEastcametoanunexpectedlyabrupt

end,andrecoveryplanninghadtobespeededup(Kirby1969).Evenaftertheformal

surrenderon2ndSeptember1945,21thePOWsremainedatriskofmalnutrition,

tropicaldiseases,evenmaverickJapanesetroops,andtheAllieswereawarethatsome

coulddiebeforeliberation.Giventhefragilesituation,onthe16thAugust,MacArthur

issuedGeneralOrderNo.1,instructingtheJapanesetogivethelocationsofPOWcamps

andtoensurethewell-beingofthePOWsuntiltheycouldbehandedovertotheAllies

(Willoughby1994).

ForBritishPOWs,thejourneyhomewasoftenlongandconvoluted,particularly

iftheyneededmedicalattention(Willoughby1994).Whilenodoubtfrustrating,many

BritishPOWsbenefitedfromtheextratimeittooktoreachhome.Duringthelengthy

journeytheybegantoputonmuchneededweight,andcontinuedtoreceivetreatment

fortropicalillnessessuchasmalnutrition,beri-beri,degenerationoftheopticnerve,

ulcersandrespiratoryinfections.22Officialaccountstelluslittleoftheimpactthese

repatriationjourneyshadontheliberatedFEPOWs.Someideathoughcanbeobtained

20PriorityTravelforFarEastPrisonersofWar:SpecialCareonvoyageHome,widelyseparatedcampsmayslowdownevacuation,TheManchesterGuardian,Aug.231945.21EmperorHirohitohadmadearadiobroadcaston15August1945announcingthesurrender.22Themedicaldetailsweretakenfromthe‘HistoryoftheUSSConsolation(AH15)’-availableathttp://www.navsource.org/archives/09/12/pdf/1215a.pdf.Accessed10-1-2017.

90

fromthewordsofNorman,whofirstworkedontheThai-Burmarailwayandtheninthe

IrukacopperminesinJapan:

ArrivingatTokyoweweretakentoYokohamabay.Hereweweresortedintogroupsbyourapparentstateofhealth.Onthedockswewereonceagainsprayedwithdisinfectant....Wewerelikealoadofcattle.IwastakentoalargeAmericanhospitalshipandgivenabed.WhenIgotontothisbedwithbrilliantwhitesheetsandpillow,IfeltasifIwassinkingawayintothenextworld.Icouldn'tsleepitwastoosoft....Weleftthehospitalshipandwerebackonthequaysideagainandhereweweremadetostripandonceagainsprayed!Allourbelongings,ifwehadanyweretobesterilised.MyNewTestamentcamebacklookingasifithadbeeninanoven,itprobablyhad.23

Withcharacteristicirony,NormananticipatedsomeofthedifficultiestheFEPOWswere

tofacelater:

...sevendayslaterwewereinSouthampton,hereitwasthickfog.Wehadtowaitontheshipallnightforthefogtoclear.Inthemorningtheboatedgedintothedocks.NowtheBritisharmyreallytookoverandtheorderswerethatnofriendswereallowedtogreetusonthedock.Evidentlywewerewildmenandneededtaming.….Thenthewordwentaroundthatwehadtobesearched-customs!Therewerechantsof"Ohyeawe’rehomeallright."FinallywepulledintowhatweweretoldwasClaphamJunction.Therewerenonameplatesupasyet.Wewerenotactuallyinthestationanditwaspitchdark.Thenmenwithoillampsswingingcamealongthetrainandtheywerelockingallthedoors.Wespentallnightlockedinthattrain,therewerenearlyriots.ThenfinallywemovedoffandarrivedatAmersham.Fromthestationweweretakeninlorriestoournewconcentrationcamp.Wewerelockedbehindawirefence.WeneverevenhadawirefencearoundusinThailand.

Norman’sexperiencesalsohighlightedoneoftheprincipalgrievancesfeltbymany

FEPOWsandtheirchildren:warpensions.

...atonemedicalwhereImetupwithsomeofmyoldPOWmates,wewereinawaitingroomandthemedicalofficerwalkedinandsaidwithaloudvoice-"Allmenthathavenotlostanarmoralegoraneyecanfallout."Weallguessedthatthiswasgoingtobetheendofourpensions.

Contemporaryaccountsshowthatmedicalopinionwasdividedfromthestartover

whattoexpectfromtheex-FEPOWs.Fromearly1944throughto1945,theBritish

MedicalJournal(BMJ)sawaspateoflettersrespondingtoanarticlebyMajorP.H.

Newman(1944)onthe‘prisonerofwarmentality’.DrawingonlessonsfromtheFirst

WorldWar,togetherwithevidencefromPOWsreturningfromEurope,Newman23Fromtheprivate,unpublishedpapersofNormanBurrows(died23July2016aged98).

91

recommendedestablishinganorganizationcapableof‘dealingwith“release”

phenomena’,including‘aprisoner-of-warclubinalllargetowns’(p.10)whereadvice

couldbeofferedtoex-prisonersandrelativesalike.ResponsestoNewman’sarticle

varied.Billings(1944)andEley(1944)bothdrewattentiontothespecificsituationin

theFarEast(agapinNewman’spiece).EleywarnedagainsttheformationofPOW

organisationsbecausethePOW‘wantstoforget’andwouldpreferhelptobeprovided

‘withintheconfinesof,orcentredfrom,hisownhome,whereareconcentratedallhis

longings,thoughts,anddesires’(p.404).Aftersummarizingtheconditionsheassumed

hadprevailedintheFarEastcamps,Billings(1944)concludedwithsomeprescience:

Thesearevery,veryslowwearing-downcruelties,thereliefofwhichcanresultinno"acuteemotionalreaction"butachronicpsychologicalstigma....Thereisonlyoneclassofmanorwomanwhocanexperienceallthis(andmuchmore)andwhocanberehabilitatedtofitintonormalreconstructedsocietyagain-andthatisthe"superman."Theremainderwillbeaproblemfortheirlifetime(p.90).

Harkness(1944)wasofsimilarmind,andremarkedonthepublicreactiontheymight

receive:‘...theverylargemajorityofourreturnedprisonersofwarwillbeproblemsfor

theirlifetime.Themenonreturnwillfindthewaroverandbebewilderedandhurtby

publicreactionandindifference’(p.568).24

ThedisparitiesbetweencampsintheFarEastandinEuropewereclearly

recognised,asexplainedinTheWarOfficeHandbook25publishedin1944forthe

relativesofPOWsunderthecontroloftheJapanese.

ThepositionofprisonersofwarandcivilianinterneesinJapanesehandsdiffersmateriallyfromthatofthoseinGermanhands,foranumberofreasons,suchas:

a) thewidedifferenceintheJapaneseoutlookandgeneralconditionsofliving;

b) thegreatandfarspreadareaoverwhichcampsarescatteredinwhichtheprisonersandinterneesaredetained,andthestronglycontrasting

24Horner(2000)describesanarrativeinmid-1940sAmericathatpicturedthereturningsoldieras‘contaminatedanddangerous’(p.335),andhisreintegrationasaserioussocialthreat.Allport(2009)alsosuggeststhatfearoftheex-servicemenwasatplayinthemindsoftheBritishcivilianpopulation(p.185).25WarOffice(1944)HandbookfortheinformationofrelativesandfriendsofprisonersofwarandciviliansinJapaneseorJapaneseOccupiedTerritories.Relativeswerecharged2dpercopy(Hately-Broad2002).

92

differencesofclimatetowhichtheyaresubjected,varyingfromthetropicalheatoftheEquatortotheseasonalcoldofKoreaandManchuria;

c) thedistances,rangingtothousandsofmiles,betweenJapanandtheoutlyingareasofdetention,suchasBurma,SiamandtheNetherlandsEastIndies,combinedwiththeabsenceofadequatemeansofcommunicationorofcarriageforsupplies,suchasexistinEurope,betweentheseatofcentralgovernmentandthelocationofthecamps;

d) theabsolutecontrolexercisedbytheJapaneseauthoritiesovermeansofcommunicationtoandfromtheareasintheiroccupation;

e) thefactthatthereisnocountryintheFarEastfromwhichtheI.R.C.C.canfunctioninrelationtoJapanastheydofromSwitzerlandforprisonersinEurope.

(WarOffice1944,pp.2-3)Thoughamodernreadermayfindthetoneratherdetachedandunemotional-thecamp

deficitsbeingexpressedlargelyintermsofcommunicationsandlogistics-weshould

rememberthatthiswaswrittenforanaudienceofhighlyanxiousrelativeswhohad

receivedpreciouslittleinformationintheprevioustwoyears.Readingbetweenthe

lines,itisnothardtopiecetogetherthemessage.AlongwithMr.Eden’sstatement,26

andthemedicalviewsexpressedthroughtheBritishMedicalJournal,theWarOffice

shouldhavebeenleftinlittledoubtthatmanyPOWswouldbereturninghomewith

psychologicaldamageaswellaspoorphysicalhealth.

During1944,agroundswellofopinionbegantoappearthatsomethingmore

neededtobedonetosupportthereturningPOWs(atthisstageofcourseonlyfrom

Europe),andtoprovide-asNewmanhadsuggested-somethingakintoa

decompressionchambertoeasetransitiontocivilianlife.Complicatingmattersfurther,

‘civvystreet’itselfhadchanged.Between1939and1945,thearmedserviceshad

expandedfrom2millionto5millionpersonnel,thatisapproximately22.5%ofadult

menunder50,andby1945,63%of20-29yearoldswereinthearmedforces(Sokoloff

1999).From1941,womenhadbeenexpected,indeedconscripted,toacceptpaidwork

‘onfarms,intransportservices,incivildefenceor,moreoften,inmunitions,tankand

aircraftfactories’(Dawson2010,p.30).Sokoloff(1999)pointsoutthatthisfellmost

26Hansard,HCDeb28January1944vol.396cc1029-35(http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1944/jan/28/japanese-treatment#S5CV0396P0_19440128_HOC_9)

93

heavilyonsingleworkingclasswomen,with80%beinginvolved.

PsychiatristTommyWilsonpushedtheWarOfficeintoestablishingtwentyCivil

ResettlementUnits(CRUs)(Shephard2000,White2016),offeringpractical

programmesthatincludedcommunalactivitiesandvocationalguidance,aswellas

psychiatrichelpifneeded(Curle2001,SutherlandandFitzpatrick1945).Some60%of

POWsfromGermanyattendedaCRU(Shephard1996).Bythetimethatthebulkofthe

38,000FEPOWsbegantoarrivehome(September-December1945),CRU’shadbeen

deemedasuccess,andweremadeavailabletotheFEPOWs.However,only12%oftheir

numberattended.27Toaggravatematters,theofficiallinewasthattheFEPOWsshould

nottalkabouttheirexperiences,andthiswasextendedtotheirfamilieswhowere

instructednottoaskquestions(Shephard1996).28Arguably,themilitaryinjunctionto

staysilentcombinedwithlimitedaccesstotheCRUsensuredthatmanyreturning

FEPOWsdidnotsharetheirmemoriesoftraumaorreceivesystematicpsychological

supportatthetime.

Summers(2009)proposedthatamongstthereasonsforthedifficulties

encounteredbythereturningFEPOWswerethehumiliationofdefeatheightenedby

angerthattheBritishmilitarycommandhadletthemdown,theisolationduetovery

poorcommunications,andthepunitiveregimesanddeprivationsofthecamps.

However,explanationsforwhyreadjustmentwassodifficultfortheFEPOWsare

contentious.Swallowe(2007)reportednoguiltamongsthissampleofeleven

Cambridgeshireex-FEPOWs.Rather,andwithoutexception,theyfelt‘letdownby

governmentandthenthrownintoahopelessmilitarysituationwhichwasnotoftheir

27FEPOWswereofteninpoorphysicalconditionandCRUswerenotequippedtomeettheseneeds(Curle2001,p.3).28Seealsowww.captivememories.org.uk/education

94

making’.29Anotherexplanationfortheirdifficultieswastheinabilitytocopewiththe

changesthathadtakenplaceinBritainwhiletheywereaway(JonesandWessely2010).

WomenhadtakenongreaterresponsibilitiesinwartimeBritain,whichsome

returneesfeltasathreattotheirselfesteem.Manycoupleshaddecidedtomarryinthe

earlyyearsofthewar,andworriesoverinfidelitywerecommon,intensifiedby

anxietiesoverimpotenceduetothedebilitatingeffectsofincarcerationandthelackof

heterosexualopportunitieswithinthecamps.Theyearsspentincaptivityencouraged

thedevelopmentof‘highlycolouredfantasiesofhisreturnhomeandofhisreception’

(Torries1945).30Singlyortogether,thesefactorscouldprovokeparanoidfeelings,

resultinginseriousmaritaldisharmony,andsocialdislocation.

WithmostFEPOWsnotattendingthecivilresettlementprogrammes,thewives

andfamilieswereleftwiththetaskofmanagingtheirhusbandorsons’reintegration

intoasocietymuchchangedbythewar,31ataskaggravatedbyseriousshortagesof

clothes,food,consumeritems,eventeachers(TurnerandRennell1995).Themenhad

lostthreeandahalfcriticalyearsoftheirlives,andtheprocessofrestartingworkwas

oftenfarfromstraightforward.Thewomenwereexpectedtoabandontheirnewfound

freedomsandsettlefortheirformerrolesasfulltimewivesandmothers.Copingcould

bedifficult,asTurnerandRennell(1995)havehighlighted.Insomecases,the

responsescouldbeextreme,asAvrilMiddleton’saccountshows:

29http://www.webring.org/l/rd?ring=fareastpows;id=5;url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww%2Efepow-community%2Eorg%2Euk%2Ffepow_rehabilitation%2Fhtml%2Fformal_rehabilitation%2Ehtm30ThisisconsistentwithEley’s(1944)viewsontheaspirationsofthereturningFEPOWs.31TheAugust1945editionof‘FarEast’editionofthePrisonerofWarmagazineincludedafullpagearticleon‘Planningtheirfood–someusefulhintsondietforrepatriates’(page6,19.22.04)accompaniedbyaphotographof‘nativesworkinginpaddyfields’;soundnutritionaladvicecouchedinhomespunphilosophy–‘alittleofwhatyoufancy…’,‘natureitselfisthegreatrestorer’.Thefinalparagraphshowsclearlyhowtheemphasisatthetimewasongettingthingsbacktonormalasquicklyaspossible:‘MenandwomenwhohaveunfortunatelybeeninJapanesehandswill,wemaywellhope,quicklyreturntotheirnormalwaysofliving;andtheperiodofimprisonmentrecedeasanightmarethathaspassed.’SeeLanghamer(2017)forananalysisofhowwomenwereexpectedtotakeresponsibilityforthe‘managementofotherpeople’semotions’,mostcriticallythe‘feelingsofreturningservicemen’(p.78).

95

Havingbeenbroughtupbyher[thatis,hermother,whohadbeenworkingasateacher]forsixyearsIfounditimpossibletoacceptthis‘interloper’asboss.…Mymotherjustsaidquitelightly,‘You’relate,Ted’;myfatherwithoutawordkickedoverthetable,breakingallthecrockerywhichwasdifficulttoget,andIwentovertohimandkickedhimonthelegandtoldhimhowmuchIhatedhim.Mymotherwaskneelingonthefloorpickingupthebrokencrockeryandcrying.Thispatternofeventswentonformanyyears(TurnerandRennell1995,p.136).

Inherstudyofthefactorsinfluencingreintegration,Hately-Broad(2005)pullstogether

thefindingsfromearlierstudies,mostofwhichrelatedtotheVietnamWar,and

consideredtheirapplicabilitytotheWorldWarTwoexperiencesinBritainandFrance.

ShesupportstheconclusionsofMcCubbinetal(1976)whoidentifiedsixstrategiesfor

successfulreintegration:‘seekingresolutionandexpressingfeelings;maintainingfamily

integrity;establishingautonomywhilstmaintainingfamilyties;reducinganxiety;

establishingindependencethroughself-development;andmaintainingthepastand

dependenceonreligion’(p.466).Shearguesthatalthoughthesestrategieswere

identifieddecadesaftertheendofWorldWarTwo,‘itisstillpossibletousethemasa

broadframeworkwithinwhichtoconsiderthewartimeexperiencesofwives’(Hately-

Broad2005,p.141).Shenotesthatthegovernmentsinbothcountriesquicklywithdrew

dedicatedsupportservicesoncetheFEPOWshadreturned.Bysodoingtheysignally

failedtorecognizethecomplexityofwhattheywerenowofficiallyabandoning,thus

reducingthechancesofthefamiliesbenefitingfromthetypeoftailoredcoping

strategiessetoutbyMcCubbinetal(1976).Hately-Broad(2005)concludesbyquoting

Hill(1949):

‘thewiveswhoadjustedwelltowartimeseparationweretheoneswhosefamilieshadthegreatestdifficultiesadjustingtotheirrenewedstatusasanintactfamily.’(p.150)

Longertermconsequencesofcaptivity

Participantsinthisresearchdidnotsimplyrecalltheirchildhoodmemories,but

narratedtheirlifestoriesuptothetimeofinterview.Formanyoftheintervening

96

decades,theirfatherswerestillalive,hencetheneedtoconsiderthelongerterm

consequencesofcaptivity.Evenseventyyearsaftertheevent,theBritishGovernment

stillacknowledgesthebroadcausalrelationshipbetweenthePOWexperienceandlong

termnegativehealtheffects:

Manyex-FarEastprisonersofwarsufferfromthingslikebadnervesandstressproblems.Thisisbecauseofthewaytheyweretreatedwhiletheywereprisoners.32

MostBritishresearchontheex-FEPOWshasfocusedontheirphysicalhealth,relatedto

theconsequenceofspecifictropicaldiseasesandchronicmalnutrition(e.g.Gilletal

2004,Robsonetal2009,andParkesandGill2015).However,intheirseminalreview,

JonesandWessely(2010)confirmthatmanyFEPOWsalsoexperiencedpsychological

changes,suchasposttraumaticstressdisorder,asaresultoftheiryearsincaptivity,and

theycontrastthiswiththesituationfollowingWorldWarOnewhenpsychiatristswere

oftheviewthatincarcerationmightactuallyprotectPOWsfromseriouspsychological

damage(p.164).

InthefirstfewdecadesfollowingWorldWarTwo,longtermnegativeeffectsof

captivitywerethoughttobeunlikely(JonesandWessely2010).However,experience

withVietnamWarveteransshowedplainlythatthedamagingpsychologicaleffectsof

captivitycouldindeedinfiltratedeeplyintocivilianlife(UrsanoandBenedek2003).

Subsequentretrospectiveresearchshowsbroadsupportforthisfindingalthough,as

wouldbeexpected,studiesvaryintheirapproachandintheirresults(e.g.Portetal

2001,Robsonetal2009).IntheUSA,theMedicalFollow-upAgencybeganstudyingthe

healthofPOWssoonafterthewar,publishingtheirfirstreportin1955(Berkowitzand

Santangelo1999),andtheVietnamwarledtotheestablishmentoftheRobertE.

32ServicePersonnelandVeteransAgencyLeaflet-7,NotesforEx-FarEastandKoreanPrisonersofWar,https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/504504/VeteransUK_Leaflet7.pdf(accessed11-07-2016).

97

MitchellCentreforPOWStudies,33whichhasofferedAnnualMedicalEvaluationstoall

AmericanPOWssincethattime,andpublishesthefindingsoftheir-mainlyquantitative

-research(e.g.Parketal2012,Segoviaetal2012,andSegoviaetal2013).Parketal

(2012)showthatageatcapture,posttraumaticsymptomsatrepatriation,andphysical

torturearesignificantvariablesinpredictinglongertermmentalhealth.Kaiseretal

(2011)refinethisfurther,concludingthat‘avoidance-basedcopingstrategies’ledto

betterlongtermphysicalhealthoutcomeswhenthePOWhadbeensubjectedto

torture.34Theimplicationofthesefindingsisthatwaysofcopingfoundtobehelpfulin

captivitymaywellbecontinuedintocivilianlifeandimpactonhealththroughthelife

course.

Afollow-upstudyofUSPOWsfromWorldWarTwoheldbytheJapanese

showedhighermortalityrates(comparedwithcontrols)inthefirstfewyearsafterthe

war,butthisexcessreducedandhaddisappearedbythemid1950s(Nefzger1970).35

Nevertheless,Segal’s(1974)over-ridingconclusionisthat‘theextraordinarystressesof

incarcerationarerelatedtoaheightenedvulnerabilitytophysicalandpsychological

healthproblemsoverthelongterm’(1974,p.24).Thesefindingshavebeensupported

bysubsequentstudiesthathavefurtherelaboratedthevariablesinvolved.36

OnthissideoftheAtlantic,theBritishgovernmentdidnotinstituteanynational

schemeofmedicalfollow-upforFEPOWs.So,whilethemenweretreatedfortheirwar-

relatedillnesses,andfollowed-upindividuallyinvariousmilitaryhospitalsandspecial

units,anyopportunitiesforsystematiclongitudinalresearchwerelost.37AsRobsonet

33http://www.remcf.org/;http://www.med.navy.mil/sites/nmotc/rpow/Pages/default.aspx34Avoidance-basedcopingstrategiesreflectdisengagementfromastressor,orattemptstoevadedifficultcircumstancesandassociatedemotions.Approach-basedcopingstrategiesreflectengagementwithstressfulcircumstances,orattemptstoproblemsolvewhenpresentedwithadifficultsituation(Kaiseretal2011,p.681).35Mostoftheexcessdeathswereduetoaccidents,tuberculosisandcirrhosisoftheliver.36E.g.Dikeletal(2005),Engdahletal(1997),Parketal(2012),Port,etal(2001),Sutkeratal(1993),Sutkeretal(1995),UrsanoandBenedek(2003),Walser,etal(2012),Zerachetal(2012and2013a).37Suchasthe‘FEPOWUnit’establishedinQueenMary’sHospital,Roehamptonwhichsaw4686formerFEPOWsbetween1946and1968whenitclosed.Thisspecialistrolewastakenoverby

98

al(2009)reiterate,therelianceonUSmortalitydataisduetotheBritishgovernment’s

failuretoinstituteproperfollow-upproceduresfortheirex-FEPOWs:

...goodmortalitystudiesareavailableonlyforcertainnationalitiesofFEPOW—mostlyUSveterans.Thisisbecauseofenumerationdifficultiesinmanycountries,notablyintheUKwhereFEPOWswerereturnedhomeafterreleasewithlittleornodebriefingortracking(p.90).

Beebe(1975)showedthatsomaticconsequenceswere‘essentiallyshort-term,and

causedbymalnutrition,infection,andphysicalinjury’,whilethe‘psychologicinjury’

was‘characterizedbyavariablelossofegostrength’and‘essentiallypermanent’

(p.418).OfparticularinteresttomyresearchisBeebe’sspeculationonhowfuture

episodesofillhealthmightberetrospectivelyinterpreted:

ThePOWexperienceis,moreover,ofsuchmomentformanythatitisonlyreasonabletoexpectanysubsequentillhealth,fromwhatevercause,tobeattributedtoit(Beebe1975,p.418).

Frommydata,IwouldsuggestthatBeebedismissesthe‘somaticconsequences’rather

lightly;ChapterFourwillillustratetheexistenceofpersistentphysicalproblems.Ona

moregenerallevelofargument,thetidyseparationofthe‘somatic’and‘psychologic’

rarelyreflectsempiricalorpsychicreality:itistheinterplaybetweenthetwothat

constitutesanindividual’swellbeingandsenseofself.However,Idoacknowledgethe

naturaltendencytoattributelaterhealthproblemstotheFEPOWexperience,which

madewarpensionssomethingofathornyissue.38AsDereksaid,

thetroublewithFarEastprisonersofwarlikemydad,suddenly,downthelinetheirhealthwouldstartbreakingdown...andcourseyouhadtoprovewhether

theLiverpoolSchoolofTropicalMedicinefrom1968-1999.Referralspeakedinthe1980sandothercentreshadtobeused,suchasmilitaryhospitalsinWoolwich,Plymouth,ElyandCatterick,andtheLondonSchoolofTropicalMedicine(seeParkesandGill2015,Chapter5).38Toillustrate:concernsexpressedbyF.E.P.O.W.(theFEPOWNationalAssociation)the‘oversevenyears’ruleledtoadebateintheHouseofCommonsin1972.Therulestatedthatforclaimsmadewithinsevenyearsafterserviceintheforces,thebenefitofthedoubtwouldbegiventotheclaimant.Aftersevenyears,claimantshadnosuchadvantage.InthecourseofthedebateMPsmadeseveralunfavourablecomparisonsbetweentheBritishandothergovernments,forexample‘theabsenceofpersonalrecordsandthelackofcheck-uponprisonerswhentheyreturntothiscountry,unlikethecaseinAustraliaandintheUnitedStates’and‘thelong-termeffectsofstressandstarvation,isnotofficiallyrecognisedinBritainasitisintheScandinaviancountries’.http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1972/mar/09/far-east-prisoners-of-war-pensions

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thatwasduetowarservice.Whichwasabigcontentionofmydadandmymum,youknow,andtheycouldn’tproveit,really.

BasedontheirworkwithformerVietnamPOWs,Federetal(2008)andSegoviaetal

(2012)concludethatoneoftheprotectivefactorsleadingtogreaterresiliencewas

optimism,andthatthisappliedeveninthemostharrowingcircumstances.39ButJones

andWessely(2010)makethetellingpointthatmuchoftheretrospectiveresearch

relieson‘subjectivememoryforsymptomsexperiencedonreleasefromcaptivity’

(p.19),thuscontestingitsreliabilityandvalidity.

Vermaetal(2001)carriedoutaratherunusualstudywithWorldWarTwoand

Koreanveteranswhohadaprimarydiagnosisofdementia.Theirhypothesis–thatthe

neurobiologicalchangesinPTSDwouldresultingreaterbehaviouralchanges,suchas

agitation,wanderingandaggression–wasnotsupported.However,subjectswhohad

beenPOWshad‘asignificantlyhighermeanscoreforparanoiaandsignificantlyless

verbalagitationthantheotherPTSDpatients’(p.359).Onthatbasis,theyfeltitwas

‘temptingtospeculatethatthecombinationofparanoidhypersensitivitytogetherwith

reducedverbalaggressivityhadsurvivalvalueinPOWcampsandmaycontinueto

manifestinaninstitutionalenvironmental’.IntheirstudyofformerPOWsfromWorld

WarTwoandtheKoreanwar,Engdahletal(1997)concludedthatoneofthe‘survival

skills’adoptedbythePOWswasthe‘suppressionoftheiremotions’,andtheir‘primary

sourcesofstress’atthetimeofthestudywere‘indelibleandintrusivememories,

anxiety,andhyperarousal’(p.1577-8).Bothstudiesindicatetheimportanceof

emotionalcontrolunderconditionsofcaptivity.

TheimpactofthePOWexperiencesonwivesandfamilieshasalsobeena

subjectofinteresttoafewscholars,mainlyintheUSAandIsrael.HunterandPlag

(1977),investigatedhowwellthefamiliesofVietnamPOWsfunctionedandadapted,

andfoundthatdivorcerateswithinthefirstthreeyearsafterreturnwerearound30%,39WehavealreadyseenfromtheworkofEldredge(2014)andGillies(2011)theimportanceplacedbytheFEPOWsondiversionaryandmorale-boostingactivities.

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higherthantheaveragerateforthemilitary.Somestudieshaveexaminedthespecific

impactonthewivesofPOWs(Dekeletal2005,DekelandSolomon2006,Solomonetal

2009a,Solomonetal2009b,andDentetal1998).Solomonetal(2009a)foundthat

husbandswhoweremoreabletoforgivewhathadhappenedtothem,andwhocould

sharetheirfeelingsandemployempathy,enjoyedbettermaritalrelationships.Usinga

phenomenologicalapproach,Dekeletal(2005)showedthatevenafterthirtyyearsthe

POWexperienceplayedamajorpartinthemarriedcouple’slife,becominga‘never-

endingmovie’(p.13).

ThedistinctivenessoftheFEPOWexperienceanditsramifications

WhileconcurringwithUrsanoandRundell(1995)that‘thereisnoonePOWexperience’

(p.433),IarguethattheBritishFEPOWsdoformarelativelydiscretegroupofprisoners

ofwar,andthatthissenseofdistinctivenesshasbeentransmittedtothechildren.In

thissection,Isetoutthekeycriteriatosupportmyposition.

Legally,prisonersofwarwereadistinctgroup,theirrightsprotectedbythe

1929InternationalConventionontheTreatmentofPrisonersofWar.AlthoughJapan

hadsignedtheconvention,theyhadnotratifiedit.DespiteJapaninformingtheAlliesof

its‘intentiontocorrespondinglyapply’theprinciplesoftheconvention,theMinisterfor

theArmy,GeneralTojo,explainedathiswartrialthat‘necessaryrevisionsofthe

principlesofinternationalconventionscouldbemadeinaccordancewiththedemands

oftheimmediatesituationandinaccordancewithJapan’sdomesticlaw’(Utsumi1999).

WithintheJapanesemilitary,thetaskoflookingaftertheFEPOWswasdeemedvery

lowstatus;indeeditwas‘despised’(Utsumi2005).Withsuchpooroversight,andwith

anunexpectedlylarge,dispersedandmobilecontingentofslavelabour,itwasperhaps

inevitablethatJapanesecampcommandersshouldbe‘indifferenttothehealthoftheir

workforce’(Hearder2004,p.77)andthatwidespreadmistreatmentshouldoccur.Asa

result,itwas‘...soonrecognizedthattheprivationssufferedbyFEPOWswereofa

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differentorderofmagnitudetothoseexperiencedinEurope’(JonesandWessely2010,

p.178).40TheseseeminglylegalandbureaucraticaspectsofFEPOWexistencemayseem

somewhatarcane,buttheirramificationsfiltereddownthedecadestobecomepartof

contemporaryFEPOWdiscourse,andwererepresentedinthelifestoriesof

participants.

ThecircumstancesofcaptureandrepatriationalsomarkedouttheFEPOWsasa

distinctgroup.ThemajorityofPOWsinJapanesehandswerevolunteersorconscripts,

takenprisonerwithinabriefperiodoftime(December1941–March1942),andalso

repatriatedwithinasimilarlyshortperiod(October-December1945),mainlybysea

intotheportsofLiverpoolandSouthampton.Althoughtheparticularfeaturesof

incarcerationdifferedbetweencamps,thecommoncharacteristicsofcaptureand

repatriationinthemselvescreatedfertileconditionsforgreaterpostwarcomradeship

andamorehomogenousgroupidentitythanwasthecasewithEuropeanPOWs,an

issuethatItouchonagaininChapter5whendiscussingthesuccessofex-FEPOWclubs

andassociations.

Captivityentailedhardphysicallabour(forall‘otherranks’butsometimesalso

officers),41unpredictableandbrutalpunishments(fromroutine‘slapping’to

beheading),exposuretotropicaldiseasesthatcouldincapacitateorkill(oftenwithlong

lastingeffects),andchronicmalnutritioncausingpathologicalweightloss(andvarious

criticalnutritionaldeficiencies).Thissufferinghadtobebornewhileimmersedinan

alienculturewith(largelymutual)racistovertones,andnochanceofescape.Under

suchsevereconditionsmenintheFarEastquicklyhadtoadapttotheprospectofdeath

incaptivityratherthancontemplatingwhentheymightbereleased.

40SeeMacKenzie(1994)foradiscussionofPOWsinWW2inthecontextsofdifferentgeographiesandhistories.41Exceptforworkpartiesinafewlocations,e.g.HForceontheThaiBurmarailway,officersmanagedtoavoidmosthardmanuallabourandoftensecuredbetterlivingconditionsandfood-circumstanceswhichaccountedforthelowerdeathrateamongsttheofficerclass(Beaumont1983).

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AuniquehardshipexperiencedbyFEPOWsbutrarelybyEuropeanPOWs,and

onethatwasespeciallypsychologicallydamaging,wastheseverelylimited

communicationwithhome.Manyfamilieshadtowaituptoeighteenmonthstoreceive

confirmationthattheirrelativeswerestillaliveandinthehandsoftheJapanese.

Incarcerationforthreeandahalfyearswithveryfewlettersfromhome,orRedCross

parcels,sappedmoraletoadegreewhichishardtocomprehend.

Intheyearsafterthewar,manyex-FEPOWssharedasenseofbitterness

towardstheBritishgovernmentandtheupperechelonsofthearmedforces.Manyfelt

theyhadbeenletdownbytheirleadersandthatthecampaignintheFarEastwas

doomedfromthebeginning.Gwen’sfatherwasparticularlyvirulentinhiscriticisms:

‘Onepersonwas…alwayshadhisloathing,wasSirWinstonChurchill.Becausehe

alwayssaid,youknow,I…sometimesIthinkhe’smoreresponsibleforitthanwhatthe

Japanesewere.Forputtingusinaposition....’Aggravatingthiswastheissueof

compensation,whichwasonlyfinallyresolvedin2000,42andwarpensionsforthemen

orwidows.Ex-FEPOWassociationsflourishedafterthewar,43andoneoftheirearliest

campaignswastheclaimforfinancialcompensationthathadbeen‘builtupona

narrativeofsuffering’(Makepeace2014b,p.259).

Captivitycreatedstrong‘fictivekinshipgroups’(Winter2014,p.48),asaresult

ofwhichtheex-FEPOWssucceededincreatingaspecialpostwaridentity,44thatthey

nurturedthroughtheirlocalandnationalassociations.Astheyearshavepassed,this

identityhasbeensharedwiththesecond(andthird)generationswhohavenowtaken

overresponsibilityforensuringthattheex-FEPOWsretainapermanentplaceinthe

culturalmemory.42Seehttp://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN03887foraHouseofCommons2009updateonthisissue.43InaBBCNewsonlinemagazinearticle(15August2015),MakepeaceandParkescommentedthat:‘Intotal,almosthalfofallBritishFarEastPoWsbecamepartofacluborassociationatsomepointintheirlifetime.’http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-3393166044Makepeace(2014a)arguesthatthePOWsheldinGermanyandItalyfailedtoformfictivekinshipgroupsinthecampsand,comparedtotheex-FEPOWassociations,hadnosingle,coherentorganizationbehindthem,orover-ridingnarrativetopursue.

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Conclusion

Myprincipalpurposeinthischapterhasbeentodelineatethecriticalfeaturesofthe

father’sexperiencesasaFEPOW,inordertobetterunderstandandcontextualizethe

behavioursthemenbroughtbackwiththemintopostwarBritishsocietyandthefamily

home.Drawingonawiderangeofliterature,Ihaveshownthatmanyfathersalso

sufferedlongertermpsychologicalandmedicalproblemsthatthefamilieshadto

accommodate,orsuffer.Theintimateconditionsofcamplife,addedtothewidersense

ofculturalandgeographicalisolationandalienation,wereinfluentialinmouldingand

sensitisingthefather’spsychosocialstate.

Thenotionofthe‘body-self’capturedtheimpactofthecampsatanintegrated,

experientiallevel,thuscontestingthesplitbetweenthepsychicandthecorporealthat

characterizesmuchwritingonthissubject.Asidefromdermatologicalresearch,most

scholarlyworkonFEPOWsunderplaysthecomplexroleofappearanceandtheskin.

Theappearanceofthefatherwaspointedoutbymanyofthechildren-eitherbywayof

directexperienceorviafamilystories.Byrecognizingthepsychosocialsignificanceof

theskin,webegintodeepenourinsightintothemorenuancedramificationsof

intergenerationalcommunication.

Finally,Iarguethatthissetofcircumstancesandconditionsissufficientto

warrantidentifyingtheFEPOWsasadiscretegroupofwar-traumatizedindividuals,and

thatthissenseofidentityhasbeentakenforwardandelaboratedbythesecond

generation.InChapterFour,Iexaminethemultifacetedwaysinwhichthewarwas

broughtintothehome,andexplorethedomesticconditionsunderwhichparticipants

begantoevolvememorypracticestomeettheirparticularpsychicneeds.

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CHAPTERFOUR

BRINGINGWARINTOTHEHOME

‘...takecarenottosufferinyourownhomeswhatisinflictedonushere.”(Levi2008,p.57)‘Achildisahollowvesselwithathunderingecho’(Friedman1994,p.135)‘Ididn’tknowitwasanydifferentinotherfamilies...’(Joanna)

Introduction

Myaiminthischapteristoexaminehowcaptivityinfluencedthefather’sbehaviour

towardshisfamily,andhowthechildrenexperiencedthis.Ipursuethisprimarily

throughfocusingontheparticipants’memoriesofchildhoodwhiletheywerelivingin

thefamilyhome.However,becausethewarcontinuedtomakeitspresencefeltlong

afterchildhood,Ihaveincludedinstancesoftransmissionthathadanimpactonthe

adultchildrenmanyyearslater.

Participantsspokeoftheirfather’sbehaviourduringtheseearlyyears,andhow

theywereabletorelatetohim.Theytalked,too,ofthemother’sroleinmediating

familylife,andthenatureoftherelationshipsbetweenmotherandfather,andbetween

siblings.Andtheyreflectedontheirunderstandingofhowthefather’sprisonerofwar

experienceshadshapedtheirlivesandsenseofpsychologicalandphysicalsecurity.

Theconsequencesofcaptivitywereexpressedverydifferently:fromthebarely

perceptibletothebrutallyexplicit.Thischapterincludesexamplesfromacrossthe

spectrum.Firstly,Ibrieflyconsidertheex-FEPOW’sreturntocivilianlifewithinpost-

warsociety,thenturntohowthefathers’healthandmedicalproblemsintertwined

withthedaytodaylivesoftheirchildren-acuriousomissioninresearchtodate.The

casestudyofDerekshowshowthefather’sstateofhealthcouldinfiltratefamilylife,

quietlyandundemonstratively.Ithenmoveontotheimplicationsofparticularhabits

andbehaviours,suchasattitudestofoodandeating,andthedistressingimpactof

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nightmares.Insomefamiliesthewarmerelyseepedintothehome,introducingsubtle

changesthathoveredaroundthefringesofconsciousnessyetbecameintegraltothe

family’s‘experientialmatrix’(Kidron2009,p.9).Inthefinalsection,Idescribehowthe

children’slivescouldbeblightedbythefathers’aggressionandoccasionallyovert

violence,highlightingtheexperiencesofJoannatorevealhowintergenerational

transmissionoftraumacanseemtoclosetheaffectivegapbetweenpastandpresent.

Returningtocivilianlife

Childrenborninthe1940sand1950swereraisedbyparentswhosememoriesofthe

warwerestillfresh,andtheeffectsofwarfarecrudelyvisibleinthebombedoutareas

oftownsandcities(Highmore2013).1Jamesdescribedhowtheaftermathofthewar

becamenormalized:‘Weusedtogoandplayinbombsites.Ididn’tassociatetheword

bombsitewithbombs.Itwasjustaflatplace.Whereabuildinghadbeen’.Warand

militarismwereinescapablepartsoffamilylifeinthe1950s,asQuinault(2001)points

out:‘MostgrandfathershadservedintheFirstWorldWar,mostfathersintheSecond,

andmostyoungmenwerecurrentlycalledupfortwoyearsofNationalService’(p.14).2

Thefathers’emotionswerebeingactivelysuppressedinthedrivetoestablish

newlivesandlivelihoods,3andhomewasoftentheplacewhereanypsychicconflicts

wereplayedout.Participantsinthisresearchweretheinvoluntarywitnessestothese

struggles.WhentheFEPOWsreturnedhome,thecountryhadalreadycelebratedVEday

(8thMay)andVJday(15thAugust),andduringthisperiodmostfamiliesstillhadnofirm

newsoftheirfate.Ontheirreturnthemenfacedcriticalchallenges:torestoreasenseof

normalitywithinasetofrelationshipsthathaditselfbeensubjectedtoprotracted

1Thomson(2013)arguesthattheperiodfromtheendofthewartothe1970speriodsawprogressivelossoffreedomforthechildduetogrowingworriesaboutchildsafety.Hewitt(2009)providesanintriguinganalysisofthemoralandmilitarydimensionsof‘urbicide’.2http://www.historytoday.com/roland-quinault/britain-19503This‘suppression’wasajointundertakingbetweenthestatediscourseof‘gettingthecountrybackonitsfeet’andtheindividualex-POWwhosuppressedhisfeelingstorestorenormalityinthefamily.Seethesisp.93regardingthe‘militaryinjunctiontostaysilent’.

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stresses,andtoregainthecomposurenecessarytore-embracetheebbandflowof

everydaylife(Allport2009,Summers2009,TurnerandRennell1995).Manyyoung

menwerereturningtoparents,wivesandgirlfriends(andsometimeschildrentoo)they

hadnotseenforthreeandahalfyearsormore,andbarelyheardfrom.Thatinitself

wasamajortask,letalonetryingtoreconnectwithwidersocietythataccordingto

Langhamer(2012)wasgoingthroughaperiodof‘significantdiscursivechangeand

emotionalinstability’(p.279).Writingaboutmilitarymasculinities,Atherton(2009)

sumsupthechallengefacingex-militarymen:

Whenleavingthemilitarymenundergoaprocessofredomestication,notonlybackintosociety,butonamuchmorepersonallevel.Theyarereturningtoaspacethat...hasbeenromanticisedasexisting‘outsideof’and‘apartfrom’theregimented,militarymodeoflife.Andyet,itisaspacethatmustnowcontainwithinitabodythathasbeendomesticatedbythemilitary.Itisaspacethathasbeenconceivedofasthenaturaldomainofthefamily.Andyet,itisaspacethatthesemenmustnegotiateeverydayiftheyaretomaintainthisfamilyideal(p.829).

Thedegreetowhichmenbecame‘domesticated’afterthewariscontentious,with

Francis(2007)suggestingapersistent‘restlessness’and‘flightfromcommitment’on

thebackofthe‘all-malecamaraderieofservicelife’,albeitachievingexpressionlargely

inthe‘maleimaginary’(p.164).FrankMort(1999)writesof‘agenerationofmenwho

wereformedbyanethicofmasculinitythatprovidedthem-ifnotthosearoundthem-

withastandardtoliveby’(p.355),andwhowere‘livingaccordingtotherule’(p.364).

Myinterviewsrevealedmanyexamplesoftraditionalbehaviourinhusbandsand

fathers:memoriesofsharply-demarcatedgendereddomesticroles(forexample,wives

mostlyresponsibleforpreparationofmealsanddirectchildcare),andcontrolover

resources(forexample,thehusbandgivinghiswife‘housekeepingmoney’eachweek).

Andthesepatternswerequiteresilient,onlynecessitatingchangewhenlifeevents,such

asthewife’sillness,intervened.Nevertheless,King(2010)contendsthatdespite

retainingagendereddivisionofdomestictasks,fatherswerebecominggraduallymore

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involvedwithfamilylife,astateofaffairsthatshedescribesas‘family-oriented

masculinity’(p.27).

Atherton’s(2009)interviewsrevealedthatsomemensawhome‘asaprisonand

...aconstantreminderofthephysicalandmentalscarsreceivedwhileinactionorin

service’(p.831).Perhapsasenseof‘homeasaprison’alsolaybehindthelivesofthose

ex-FEPOWswhoventedtheirproblemsthroughexcessivealcoholconsumption,

violenceor,inquietermode,throughbehaviourthatconveyedtotheirchildrenasense

ofemotionalabsenceorintersubjective‘distance’.Participantsreferredregularlyto

feelingasenseof‘absence’or‘emotionaldistance’inthepresenceoftheirfathers,but

theirobservationsneedtobeseeninthecontextoftheprevailingemotionalcodes,

establishedbetweenthewars,inwhichbothmenandwomenwereexpectedto

‘exerciserestraint,reasonandrationalityintheiremotionalandaffectiverelationships’

(Noakes2015b,p.77).

Wealsoneedtoconsiderhowparticipantsconstructedtheirmemoriesduring

interviews,especiallyinthelightofthe‘psychologizationofexperience’thatflowered

duringthetwentiethcentury(Rose1997,p.232).Thegrowthofpsychologyoffereda

newvocabularyandsetofconceptswithwhichtothinkaboutsociety‘andthekindsof

peoplewehavebecome’.4Whetherthesenseof‘absence’or‘distance’asremembered

byparticipantswasproducedbythetraumaofthefather’scaptivity,orwasinfluenced

predominantlyby‘theemotionalrestraintandresiliencethatwerejudgedtohave

underpinnedvictory’(Langhamer2017,p.78),canonlybejudgedthroughcareful

examinationofindividualcases.Participantscommonlyattributedmuchoftheir

fathers’psychologicalremotenesstotheircaptivityexperiences.Theirattributionswere

oftensophisticatedandreflective,andtookintoaccountcomplexconfigurationsof

traumainthefather’sindividualbiography,suchaseventsinhischildhood,his4FromthetextofaspokenlecturebyNikolasRosein2007:‘Psychologyasasocialscience.’Onlineathttp://www.psych.lse.ac.uk/socialpsychology/events/2006-07/other/documents/NikRose_05_02_07.pdfAccessed13-1-2017.

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idiosyncraticresponsetothecircumstancesofcaptivity,andthesenseofsecurityor

otherwisegeneratedwithinthehome.

Kennedy(2014)demarcatesthekeyparametersofthe‘securehome’around

whichthelivesofmanyparticipantsbecameproblematic.

Thecontentsofthepsychichome,itsmentalfurniture,consistessentiallyofidentificationswithfamilymembersmakingupthehome’sinterior.Inthesecurehome,theparentsprovidecontinuityovertimeintheirhomemaking,providingasupportivebaseforthechildrentoeventuallyleave,andultimatelytobuilduptheirownhome(p.26).

AsKennedysuggests,the‘processesofidentificationandidentityformationare

intimatelylinked’(Kennedy2014,p.52)andanyforcesthatundermineprocessesof

identification,continuityandsupportwillalsodisruptachild’scapacityto‘feelathome’

withthemselves.5Returningex-FEPOWsneededtorestoreorrelearnthepracticesof

bothsocialandphysicalintimacythatweresuitedtopeacetimeliving,andoftenhadto

dosoundercircumstancesofpsychologicalandphysicalimpairment.6Aswesawfrom

ChapterThree,littlepsychologicalsupportwasofferedaspartoftheresettlement

process(TurnerandRennell1995,p.50).ScholarssuchasBlunt(2005)andMoore

(2000)remindushowthehomecanbea‘potentialsiteofstruggleandconflict’

(Brickell2012,p.226).Forthechildrenofex-FEPOWs,tensionsbetweenintimacyand

‘apartness’couldleavethemwithafragileandunsettledsenseof‘home’.

AlthoughGwenhadawarmrelationshipwithherfather,hisbehaviourregularly

weakenedhischildren’ssenseofstability.Sherecalledhowhewouldgooutforlong

walksafterhis‘tempertantrums’.Sherememberedrepeatedlygazingoutofthe

window,standingnexttoheryoungestsister,‘thinkingwhatifweneverseehimagain’.

Selena’stestimonyillustratedhowtheeverydayexperienceofachildcouldblend

5SanjaBahun’sprofessoriallecturein2015opensuptheconceptofhometoexposecomplexambiguitiesandimaginativeshiftsofscale.https://vimeo.com/132920432Arguably,theex-FEPOWswouldhavehadtocontendwiththeseinstabilitiesand,Isuggest,mayhavetransmittedthemtothechildren.6DoucetandLee(2014)pointouthowlittleresearchhasbeenundertakenon‘fatheringanddisability’(p.365).

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imagesofbodilytraumawithresonancesofwar.Shebeganheremailedtestimonywith

averyvividmemorythatwasbothpoignantanduncanny.

MyearliestmemoriesofDadarecomingintothekitchenandfindinghimbleedingintothesink.HehadstrangelumpsonhiselbowthatwerecreepywhenIwaslittle.Justafewyearsagotheygotbiggerandburstandpussandshrapnelcameout!Thebleedingthingwasbecausesometimestheuseofhishandwouldjuststop-suddenly-andhewoulddropwhateverhewasholding.Allourcupshadthehandlesgluedbackonwitharaldite.Aralditeplayedamajorroleinmyearlylife.Heoftencuthishandsduringtheseepisodesandwouldstandatthesinktryingtostemtheflow.

Imagesdonotcomemorecommonplacethanthekitchensink.Selena’sexperience

madeaprofoundimpressiononherasayoungchild,andhermemoriesofthose

momentspursuedherintoadulthood.Astheexamplesuggests,everydaydomesticlife

isastrangelypowerfulsetting,capableof‘normalizing’behavioursthat,inanyother

context,wouldbedescribedasbizarreorevenpathological.Insomefamilies,such

behaviourswere‘takenforgranted’andonlyhindsight,stretchingbackovermany

decades,enabledthemtobeconstrueddifferently.AsSallyputit:‘they’rejustmumand

dad,aren’tthey?Justgetonwithit.‘Coswhenyou’reakid,itjustiswhatitis,isn’tit?...

Ifyou’rebroughtupinafamilythatdoesn’ttalkaboutanything,youdon’texpecttotalk

aboutanything’.7

Onefeaturethatsometimesconfoundsneutralobserversisthatafather’s

traumadidnotnecessarilyleadtochangesinhisbehaviourbeyondthehome.Tothe

outsideworld,thesemenwereunexceptional,hardworkingcitizenswhopaidtheirway.

Thefamily,however,witnessedthelegacyofthetrauma,asexpressedthrough

emotionaldisturbance,selfdestructivetendenciesor,lesscommonly,physicalviolence.

Wherethehomeatmospherewasparticularlytenseoroppressive,childrenmighttake

theriskofleavinghomeearlierthantheymightotherwisehavedone,perhapsusinga

7CarolynSteedman(2005)describesthissenseofchildhoodalienation,butallowsforthepossibilityofreinterpretationlaterinlife:‘Inchildhood,onlythesurroundingsshow,andnothingisexplained...thelandscapeandthepictureitpresentshavetoremainabackground,takingonmeaninglater,fromdifferentcircumstances(p.28).

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precipitousmarriageasthevehicle,onlytoregretitlater(aswesawfromJacqui’s

testimonyinChapterTwo).

Whenthefather’sbehaviourwasclearlygettingoutofcontrol,familiesclosed

ranksandkeptsecrettheproblemsinthehome.Oftenfamiliesadoptedthesestrategies

todefendthemselvesfromthescrutinyofoutsideagenciesthatmightbringshameon

thefamily,‘againstformsofgovernancefromoutside’(Smart2011,p.540).Deirdre’s

fatherwasaviolentman,whosebehaviourbecamenormalizedinthefamily.Her

testimonyrevealedthestrengthoftheurgetoconformwiththesocialcodesandmoral

orderofthefamily’slocalcommunityandclass.

Thenextdoorneighbouractuallycameroundandspoketomymotherandsaid,youknow,Ithinkyourhusbandneedstobereported,hesaid....Andshepleaded,beggedwithhimandsaid,itwasn’thisfault.He’dspentthreeandahalfyearsinaprisoncamp,andbla-bla-bla.Sherelatedthattomeafterwards,youknow,whenIwasolder.

Sayer(2005)addressesthepsychicimplicationsofshame:‘Whileitisdeeplysocialin

thatitisaresponsetotheimaginedoractualviewsofothers,itisalsoaparticularly

private,reflexiveemotion,inthatitprimarilyinvolvesanevaluationoftheselfbythe

self’(p.953).Thethreatofshamedrovethewifetoprotectherhusbandfromexternal

intervention,andperhapspunishment.Thussimultaneouslythemotherheldthecouple

together,andalsoreducedthechancesoflaterretributionathishands.8Byattributing

herhusband’sbehaviourtoFEPOWcaptivity,Deirdre’smotherrationalizedittoher

ownpsychicadvantageandalsostavedoffinterferencefromstrangers.Theirchildren,

however,wererarelyofanagetorationalizeeventsinthisway.

8Anotherparticipant,Lorna,saidthathermotherbelievedherhusband-alsoaviolentman-wouldbe‘repairedbyfamilylife,andcouldbelovedinto"mentalhealth."’

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Theimpactofthefather’sillhealth

Inthissection,Iturntothephysicalhealthofthefather,andanalysehowthisfacetof

traumatransmissioninfluencedtheeverydaylivesofthechildren,throughtheimpact

ofsymptoms,treatments,orbehaviourallimitations.

CertainFEPOW-derivedphysicalillnesses,suchasStrongyloidesstercoralis,9

couldgounrecognizedfordecades,duepartlytoignoranceoftropicaldiseasesamongst

non-specialistmedicalprofessionals.Theexpectationthatareturntoahealthydiet

wouldquicklyrectifypreviousnutritionaldeficienciesprovedover-optimistic.Gilland

Bell(1982)oftheLiverpoolSchoolofTropicalMedicine(LSTM)concludedthateven

thirtyyearsaftertheendofthewarsignificantnumbersofformerFEPOWsstill

sufferedfromneurologicalconditionsduetomalnutritionincaptivity.10Unfortunately,

scholarlyenquiryintopostwarhealthamongstex-FEPOWsissparseandlargely

confinedtomedicalresearch.11Derekdescribedhowhisfather’sillhealthaffectedthe

family’slifeinwaysthatwerelow-keyyetpervasive.

Derek

‘Itwasjustill-healthallthetime’

Derekwasaratherdiffidentman,withapronouncedstammer.Hewassixtyatthetime

ofinterview,andunmarried.Inmypostinterviewfieldnotes,Iwrote:

‘There’sastrongsenseofanonymitysurroundingDerekandhislife.Ifeelpartintruderandpartadvocate,andthatthere’ssomethingparticularlyimportantaboutbringinghisstorytothesurface.Somethingabouthisstorysuggestsasacrifice:hehassacrificedsomeofhislifetothefatherandthemother.Perhapshehassublimatedhishopesandwishesinthepursuitofhisfather’sstory.’

9IgivedetailslaterinthechapterwhenIdiscussDerek’stestimony.10‘Ofourlargeseriesof898men,5.5%wereaffectedupto36yearslater...afterreturntoanormaldiet,anditwouldseemlikelythatinmostofthesementheeffectswillbepermanent’(GillandBell1982,p.864).Thepersistentsymptomsincludedperipheralneuropathy(including‘burningfeet’),lossesinvision,hearingloss,andweaknessduetospinalcordsyndromes(ParkesandGill2015,pp.196-7).11Writingforanon-medicalaudience,ParkesandGill(2015)describearangeofpostwarhealthproblems,fromwhichthegeneralreadermightbeabletodeducesomethingoftheimpactoftheseillnessesonthefamilies.Insomeofherexamples,Summers(2009)makesbriefreferencestotheimpactonthefamilies.

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Sittingbythewindowinhislivingroom,wewereoverlookedbyabookcasethatheld

photosofhisfatherandmother,moredistantfamilymembers,andagreatmanyVHS

videosonwarhistory.

Derek:AsIsay,hedidn’tspeaka…likealotofprisonersofwar,he,heneverspokeabout,about…thec-c-c-conditionsoutthere....m-mefatherusedtogointoerm…tropicaldiseaseserm…wardeveryyearto…foracheck-up.Andthatused…Icanrememberasayoungchildm-m-m-mumandmeelderbrother,weusedtotroopdownthere,onaSunday.Andwewouldvisithimin…inerm…thishospitalthere.12

Derek’srapidswitchfromaFEPOWtrope(‘heneverspoke’)totheimpactofillnesson

familylifesuggestedaparticularneedtoconveythisaspectofhisexperience.Atthe

beginningoftheinterview,hehadsummarizedhisfather’swartimeactivitieswithlittle

signofanystammer,whichimpliedhehadpreparedformyvisit(orthathehadtoldthe

samestorymanytimes).Derek’sfather,Reg,hadbeenthroughagreatdealinhisearly

years.DuringtheDepression,whenhewasfive,Reg’sfatherhadputhimintoan

orphanageafterhiswifehaddied.RegjoinedtheTerritorialArmyatseventeen,andin

July1941foundhimselfinSingapore.HewasaPOWinChangithensenttoworkonthe

Thai-Burmarailway.Dereksaidhisdad’ssurvivalcouldbeputdowntothreethings:his

orphanageupbringing,havingnomum,andhisChristianbeliefs.Andhewas‘asmall

bloke.Heusedtosay,abowlofricewouldkeepmegoing,butitwouldn’tkeepabig

blokegoing’.

Despitethese‘advantages’,poorhealthsooninterruptedhisrepatriation.On

arrivingatWaterloorailwaystation,hesufferedabadattackofmalariaandwastaken

straighttohospitalbyambulance.LikemanyreturningFEPOWs,hecontinuedtosuffer

attacksofmalariaformanyyears:13

Hehadalotofbadmalariaattackswhenhecomebackespeciallywhenitwashotweather.Hewouldgetreallysevereheadaches,youknow,withmalaria…

12Thejourneywasaroundtripofseventymilesbypublictransport.13OmonuwaandOmonuwa(2002):‘Ifuntreatedtheinfectionwillrecurthroughouttheperson’slifetime’(p.159)

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Onememorystoodoutfromtheothers,andmusthavebeenastartlinganddisorienting

experienceforasmallboy.

Icanalwaysremember…w-w-w-whenIwasakid…hecomeoutthebathroom…welly’knowhe’dhaveawashandshave,andhehadthesemassiveredslashesonhisback,likeredwhealsallrightacrosshisshoulders.Isaidtomymum,whatarethesethingsondad’sback?Andshesaidoh,it’ssomethinghepickedupinthewar.And,itwasjustleftatthat.

Derek’sobservationwasadramaticyetpoignantjuxtapositionofdomesticroutine(a

‘washandshave’)withtropicalexotica(‘redwheals’).Hisfatherwasavictimofthe

parasiteStrongyloidesstercoralis14whichwasprevalentinThailand.Theredwheals

thatmadesuchanimpactonDerekwerethesignsof‘creepingeruption’15thatmany

sufferersexperienced(Gilletal2004).Thisillnesswascommonlymisdiagnosedin

Britain,anditwasonlyinthe1970sthattheextentoftheproblemwaswidely

appreciated.Indeed,somemensufferedforfiftyyearsbeforeadiagnosiswasmade.Ina

nearliteralsense,then,Derek’sfathercarriedthewarwithinhim,asalivingpresence,a

continuouslinkbetweenpastandpresent.Bywitnessinghisfather’ssymptomsona

dailybasis,Derekwaspartytoaveryparticularformofrecursive,pernicious,and

embodied,intergenerationaltransmission.

Tenyearsafterthewar,whenonlythirty-sevenyearsofage,hisfather’shealth

begantobreakdownfurther.HedevelopedTypeIdiabetesthatwaspoorlycontrolled

leadingtoregularinsulinreactionsandcrisesathome.Inthemid1960s,hewas

diagnosedwithtuberculosis(TB)inbothlungs,asaresultofwhichhespentovera

14Strongyloidesisasoil-basedorganismthatthrivesinahotandhumidclimate,asfoundinThailand.Larvaeenterthebodyby‘burrowingintotheskinofthefeet’(ParkesandGill2015,p.193).Theygraduallyworktheirwayupthebodytothelungsandthroat,fromwheretheygetswallowedintothegastro-intestinalsystem.Theretheybreed,beforepassingdownthebowelandgettingexcreted.Whenitreachesthelowerbowelandanus,itcanre-enterthebody(aprocessknownas‘auto-infection’)andstarttheprocessofinfectionalloveragain.Itisestimatedthattheprevalencewasaround20%ofthoseworkingontheThai-Burmarailway(ParkesandGill2015,p.194).15Alsoknownas‘larvacurrens’.

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yearinaTBsanatorium.16Oncemorethefamilyhadtoadapt:‘So,again,everySunday,

wehadtogetonthecoachandgodowntoseehim.’AlthoughthePostOfficewasagood

employer,eventuallyhewentonhalfpayandthefamilyhaddifficultiesmakingtheir

mortgagerepayments.Hisdeterioratinghealthandtripstohospitalwereincreasingly

dictatingthepatternoffamilylife.In1977,atfifty-eightyearsofage,Regretireddueto

ill-health.Thefollowingyearhehadaseriousheartattackthatfurthercontributedto

hisfailinghealth.Hediedin1986attheageofsixty-seven.Becauseofhisfather’s

chronicill-healthDerekwasneverabletoformthekindoffather-sonrelationship

enjoyedbymanyofhisschoolfriends.

Terry:Whatdidhedowithyou...?Derek:Asachild,Ican’treallysaythatheinteractedwithusmuch,really.Wedidn’tkindofgoout,playfootballoranythinglikethat.…Hemightbeoutinthegardenandthat…but,youknow,hewasjustaprettyquietsortofbloke.

Despitetheseconstraints,Derekmaintainedcloserelationshipswithbothparents

throughouttheirlives.Derekstronglyidentifiedwithhisfather’sresentmentoverthe

Britishgovernment’streatmentoftheex-FEPOWs,andwasparticularlyaggrieved

aboutthewarpensionhisfatherwasawarded:

…thetroublewithFarEastprisonersofwar…likemydad,suddenly,downthelinetheirhealthwouldstartbreakingdown,youknow,andofcourseyouhadtoprovewhetherthatwasduetowarservice.Whichwasabigcontentionofmydadandmymum,youknow,andtheycouldn’tproveit,really.

Towardstheendoftheinterview,Derekreflectedontheconnectionshefeltbetween

hisfather’sill-healthandthelimitationsofhischildhood:

... it was just me dad being sick all the time, you know. I just can’t really remember him being …relatively well. I mean at school … well I said, me dad’s in hospital. Oh, what’s a matter with him? Oh, he’s having tropical diseases. He’s there for a week, you know. And they’d go ... (laughs) … you know.

ThroughouttheinterviewIsensedthatDerekspoke‘onbehalfof’hisfather,thatthere

wasunfinishedbusiness.HelocatedhimselffirmlywithintheCOFEPOWcommunity,

butunlikehisfatherandmother,heonlyengagedthroughonlinemedia.Hehadnot16Regwasanoverseastelegraphist,andsowaseligibletobecaredforinasanatoriumownedbythePostOffice.Seethiswebsiteforahistory:https://benendenheritageproject.wordpress.com/2016/06/22/from-farm-to-sanatorium/

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attendedanyremembranceeventssincehismotherhaddiedin2007,neitherhadhe

visitedtheFEPOWBuildingattheNationalMemorialArboretum.17

Theimpactondomesticroutines

FromDerek’sstorywecanseehowthefather’sillhealthcouldmouldday-to-dayfamily

life.Thissectionexplorestheimpactofotheraspectsofthefather’slegacyondomestic

routine,inparticularattitudestodiscipline,foodandmealtimes,andthefather’s

nightmares.Participantsbornbeforeorduringthewarwerequicktonoticechangesin

disciplinaryregimes.Bornin1941,Angierememberslifeduringtheairraids,sleeping

inthekitchenundera‘TableMorrisonIndoorShelterthatdoubledasadiningtable’.18

Lifewasfunasasmallchild-‘ahousefullofjollyyoungpeople...Ibecameveryspoiled’.

Then,in1945,herfatherreturnedhome.

Ihaveamemoryofstandingattheedgeofthelivingroomintearsbecauseastrangemaninuniformhadjustspankedme.Ialsoremembermymother’sface,sortofremorsefulbutsidingwithhim.ItwasprobablythefirsttimeIhadeverbeendisciplined.

Establishinganewrelationshipwithafatherwhowasa‘stranger’wasnaturallygoing

tobedifficult(e.g.Allport2009,Summers2009).Thefather’sarrivalonthescene‘cut

rightacrossestablishedroutinesanddisruptedintimaterelationships’(Turnerand

Rennell1995,p.89).Thechangewasabrupt,despitetheattemptsofmostmothersto

keepalivethepresenceofthefatherinthehomeandinthemindsoftheirchildrenby

markingbirthdays,displayingphotographs,andwritingletters.19Underthese

conditions,anddespitethefamily’sbestefforts,establishingormaintainingany

semblanceofasecureattachmentwiththefatherwashighlyproblematic.

Graham,theoldestofmyparticipants,wasbornin1938andwasanonlychild.

‘Mymotherwasultra-protectiveofme.Andconsequenttothat,Iamrathersoft’.Inthe17http://www.thenma.org.uk/whats-here/more-about-the-memorials/18http://ww2today.com/27th-march-1941-the-morrison-shelter-is-introducedshowstheindoorshelterinuse,inamiddleclassdomesticenvironmentthatwouldhavebeenveryfamiliartoAngie.19Unbeknowntothefamiliesatthetime,mostdidn’treachtheFEPOWs.

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earlypartofthewar,hismotherstroveasbestshecouldtomaintainapsychological

connectionbetweenGrahamandhisfather,butthisgraduallysubsidedaftershe

discoveredhewasaPOW.Grahamsensedthatthingshadchanged.Inhisfather’s

absence,heidentifiedstronglywithhismaternalgrandfatherwhowasablacksmith.He

describedtheirrelationshipinrichlysensualterms:‘Iusedtospendalotoftime

apparentlystandingontheforgedoorwatchinghim.Icanrememberthesmellofhis

leatherapron...Ialwaysusedtolikesittingonhislapwhenhewasinthehouse...He

toldmehowtoplantradishes’.Henevermanagedtoestablishasimilarlyintimateora

secureattachmentrelationshipwithhisfather-‘Imeanthisissomebodycoming

completelyintoyourlifethatyou’veneverseenbefore.….Idon’tthinkIwasfrightened

ofhim,onlyinsofarasyou’realwaysfrightenedofyourdad,toacertainextent.’20

ThroughouthistestimonyGrahamemphasizedhowhisadultpersonalityhadbeen

forgedbyhismotherandgrandfather,nothisfather.

Thefather’sapproachtodisciplinefeaturedprominentlyininterviews,usually

intermsofaneedforunquestioningcompliance.However,thisshouldbeseenagainst

whatKynaston(2007)referstoasthe‘harshorauthoritarian’backgroundnatureof

familylifeinthosetimes(p.595).Untilhewastwelve,Robertwasexpectedtoaddress

hisfatheras‘sir’.Hisfatherlinkeddisciplinewithsurvival,anddescribedhowastrict

approachtohygienepracticeinthecampsreducedfoodcontaminationanddiseases

likecholeraanddysentery.

Hedidsayononeortwooccasionsthatthosewiththebestdisciplineandthespiritwouldgetthrough.Ifyoufollowedordersandyoukeptthatkindofmilitarythinggoingitwasbetterforyouthanifyousaid,fuck,itdoesn’tmatter.

Duringcaptivity,manypeacetimedesiresanddriveswerereplacedbyfantasiesoffood

(Shephard2000,p.315)whichmayexplainwhyitcontinuedtoholdaspecialplacein

themindsofallex-FEPOWs.Twotropesdominatethenarrative:anaversiontorice,and20MargaretBavin(1947)spentayearworkingasa‘civilliaisonofficer’inaC.R.U.wheresheinterviewedmorethan600POWsfromEurope.EvokingtheclassicOedipaltriangle,shedescribesthemen’sparticular‘resentmentandjealousy’where‘asmallsonhadoccupiedthefather’splaceinthemother’sbed(p.33-34).’

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intoleranceofwaste.BecausetheAsiandietdependedsoheavilyonrice,awidespread

beliefwasthatoncehomeFEPOWswouldbereluctanttoeatit.Regularservice

personnelstationedinAsiabeforethewarwereaccustomedtoeatingrice-basedmeals,

oftenadjustedbettertotheFEPOWdiet,andsohadfewproblemswithriceontheir

return.Responsescouldbemoreidiosyncratic,however.Stella’sfatherwouldn’thave

savouryriceinthehouse,butdideatricepudding.AndJoanna’sfatherwouldn’thave

whitericebutwouldeatbrown‘becauseithadgoodnessinit.Hewasobsessedwith

goodnessandvitamins’.Joannarecalledanotherfoodrestriction:

Wecouldn’teverhavepork.Hecouldn’thaveporkbeingcookedinthehousebecauseitwasthesmelloftheburningbodies.So,weneverhadroastpork.

Selenaexplainedhowherfatherusedstoriesaboutfoodtomakeamoralpointabout

notwasting,andhow‘afavouritemeal’cametobecloselylinkedwithacriticalepisode

fromhistimeasaFEPOW.

Whenwewerefussyoverfoodweheardabouthowtheguardsweresohungrytheyatethegoldfishandhowhehadbeengladtoeattheheadsthatwerediscarded.WhentheAmericansbombedthedocksandtheshipsburntandtheseaboiledandtheJapanesethrewthetinsawayasthemilkhadgonesolidandbrown.Caramelonricewasafavouritemealforus.

Jeffdescribedhowhisfather’sintoleranceofwastewastakentoextremes.

Hewasagreathoarderoffood.Usedtodrivemymothernuts.Leftoverfoodfromdinneretc.wasalwayssaved–downtoahalf-eatenpotatoononeoccasion.Theleftoverswouldoftenbesavedinanaluminummesstin–ofDutchoriginfromthecampIrecall.

Jeff’smentionofthe‘aluminummesstin’recallsKidron’s(2009)interviewswith

Holocaustsurvivorsandtheirfamilieswhichconnectedprivatememoryworkwith

materialtracesof‘death-worlds’.GivenmyknowledgeofJeff’soptimisticandpositive

temperament,Iaminclinedtoseethemesstinasa‘livingreminderoftheenigmatic

powerofsurvivalandhumanresilience’(p.18)butwithaddedpoignancybecauseofits

associationwithfood.Itisoftenthecasethat,asKidroncomments,‘onecannot

disentanglethemundanelife-worldasoneknowsitfromtheinterwovenco-presenceof

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theHolocaustpast’(p.16).

Forsomemen,chronicmalnutrition,combinedperhapswithmoresystemic

healthproblems,causedthemtoloseinterestinfoodaltogetherasapleasure.Gwen’s

fatherneveratelargemeals,‘hejustateenoughtosurvive.Hewasveryafussyeater,

andhecouldn’teatalot.Hisdigestivesystemhadobviouslybeenaffected.’Robert’s

fathertoo‘hadneverbeenagreateater.Ifyoutookhimouttoarestaurantforanice

meal,…notinterested.Notinterestedinthefood.Tohimitwasfuel.’Robertrecalleda

conversationtowardstheendofhisfather’slifewhenhewasbeingfedbytube

followingsurgery.

Whentheyputthisthinginhisstomach,thisismarvelous,hesaid.Theysaid,youcan’tstayonthatforever.You’vegottogetthisthinggoing[theswallowingreflex].Hesaid,no,don’tworryaboutthat.Justleaveitin,it'sfine.Youknow,Irememberthatconversation.Itwasoddbecausehecouldn’tstaylikethatandhewasgoingtodie.

Recurringnightmaresoccurredpredominantlyinthefirstfewyearsafterrepatriation,

andtheyfeaturedinthenarrativesofmanyparticipants.21Thefatherswould

sometimes‘actout’thenightmaretothegreatdistressofthefamily.22Gwendescribed

howherfatherwould‘wakeupandhishandswouldberoundmymother’sneck‘cos

he’dthinkshewasaJapaneseguard,sothatwasterrible’.Participantsoccasionally

describedthese‘memories’ofnightmaresasiftheythemselveshadwitnessedthem

when,instead,theywerestoriesrelatedbytheirmothers.

Terry:So,didyouhearthosenightmaresyourself…asachild?Gwen:No…Iremembermyfatherwithmalaria....

21In‘BeyondthePleasurePrinciple’,Freudcommentedontherepetitivequalityoftraumaticdreams:‘Nowdreamsoccurringintraumaticneuroseshavethecharacteristicofrepeatedlybringingthepatientbackintothesituationofhisaccident,asituationfromwhichhewakesupinanotherfright’(Freud2015,p.7).Althoughthereisnospacetoaddresstheissuehere,Freudhadproblemsfittingnightmares(certainlyofthewartraumavariety)intohistheoryofdreams;afterall,itwasdifficulttoseethemaspartofawish-fulfilmenthypothesis.Freudmayhavebeenconstrainedbyhis‘verylimitedunderstandingoftheoverwhelmingnatureofthetraumaofwar’andthereforeoftherolethatnightmaresmightplay(Truda2007p.11).22InPeter’s(1996)studyofelevenwivesofAustralianPOWsindicatedthatnightmarescouldbethe‘hardestpartofbeingthewifeofaPOW’(unpaginated).

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InSally’sreflectiveaccount,however,theroutethroughhermemorieswasmore

complex.

Terry:Thenightmaresyoumentionedthen,how…howdidthataffectthefamily?Sally:Idon’tthinktheyaffectedmeparticularly.Ithinkerm…itjustusedtofrightenmeabit,butI…Terry:Butwhathappened,whatdidyoudo…?Sally:B-buthe’djuststartshoutinginthenight.Anderm…erm…againIwasmoresortoftoldaboutthemthan…witnessedthemreally.Erm…so…Ierm…Idon’tknowtobehonest.Really.Don’tknowmuch.Terry:So,youdidn’thearyour-…youweren’tdisturbedparticularlyby...Sally:ItwaswhatIwastold.

Sallybeganwithanemotionalresponse(‘usedtofrightenmeabit’),followedbywhat

cameacrossasafirst-handaccount(‘he’djuststartshoutinginthenight’).Atthatpoint

shebegantoquestionherself(‘moresortoftoldaboutthem’),thenmovedtoaposition

ofgreatercertainty(‘ItwaswhatIwastold’).Helpedbymygentleprompting,she

finallymanagedtoestablishthedefinitivestatusofher‘memory’.Byinitiallyclaimingit

asherownsuggestsitwasalreadylocatedinanunconsciousnetworkofassociations.In

interpretingtheseshiftsinSally’saccount,wecanseehowfamilystoriescanbecreated,

drawnonandthenreproducedbysubsequentgenerations.

Thepresenceofabsence:thepastseepsintothepresent

Intheearlyyearsafterthewar,ex-FEPOWsoftenseemedtoneedperiods‘away’from

thefamily,separatingthemselvesphysically,emotionallyorboth.Bymaking

themselvesabsentinthisway,theyestablishedtheirpowerfulandparadoxical

‘presence’inthemindsoftheirchildren.Participantswhodescribedsituationssuchas

thesehadbeenunabletodiscussthemdirectlywiththeirfathers:ifanyone,itwaslikely

tobethemotherwhoprofferedanexplanation.Whilemanymenmanagedtocopewith

thelegacyofcaptivitywithoutincurringorinflictingnoticeablepsychologicaldamage,

otherswerelessfortunate.

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InBrenda’sfamily,certainareasofconversationwereofflimits.Myinterview

withherwasastumblingaffairduringwhichshewaspolitelyguarded,andclearly

anxious.Sherespondedtomyopenendedquestionswithbriefresponsesonly,andI

foundmyselfneedingtoshapetheinterviewmorethanIwouldhavewished.Gradually,

however,shebegantorevealmoreaboutherfather’sbehaviourpatterns.

Brenda:Hejustwentoffonsomedays,he’dgooffonhisowninthefrontroomandhe’dsitforhours,pondering.Idon’tknowwhatwaswrong…Terry:Tellmemoreaboutthat…Brenda:Well,ifhehadsomedaysoff,he’djustsitinthefrontroom.Andhewouldn’tcomeandjoinusoranything.AndIthinkhewasprobablyrelatingbacktowhathappenedinthewar.Imean,Ineverknewifhesuffered.Heobviouslydidsufferbecausemumsaidwhenhecamebackhewasn’tthesamepersonshemarried.But,ofcourse,inthosedayswhenyoumarrysomeone,youstaywiththem,don’tyou?...

Therewasnothingparticularlyunusualaboutherfather’sneedtospendsometimeon

hisown,butalittlewhilelaterthetopicreappearedandsheexplainedhisbehaviourin

moredetail.

I’dcomehomefromschoolandI’dsay,wellwhere'sdadthen?Mumsaidwell,he’sintheotherroom.AndIleftitatthat.Cos,youknow,youdon’targue.…Wehadthetworoomsdownstairs,andwealllivedinthediningroom.Andthen,thefrontroom,weneverusedtouseitwhenwewerelittle.Weneverusedtositinthere.…Andhe’djustgoandsitinthereforages.Andthen,thenallofasudden,he’dcomeoutandhe’dstarttalking.IwishI’dhaveaskedhimlotsofquestions,butthenhewouldn’thaveanswered,Idon’tthink.I’msurehewouldn’thavedone.Andwhenyouareyoung,youdon’tthinktoaskquestionslikewhattheydidintheirpast,doyou,really?Terry:So,whenhewasinthesequietmoods…howlongdidthatgoonfor?Brenda:Twoorthreedays,maybe.Shecookedhimhisdinners,shetookthemintohim,andhewouldn’teatthem.Andwhenshewenttobed,he’dcomeout.He’dcomeoutintothekitchenandmakehimselfajamsandwich.Sheknewthat‘coshedidn’tclearupafterhimself(laughs)…Iprobablyshouldn’tbetellingyouthis,butstill…butnevermind.Itwasoneofthosethings.…

AlthoughBrendaexpressedherselfinmutedandmundaneterms,shewasableto

clearlydepictthepervasiveimpactofherfather’sregularpsychologicalandphysical

absences.AthinstrandofguiltthreadedthroughBrenda’swords-‘hewouldn’thave

answered,Idon’tthink.I’msurehewouldn’thavedone’;followedbyaglimpseofthe

family‘shame’weconsideredearlier-‘Iprobablyshouldn’tbetellingyouthis,butstill

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…butnevermind.’Herfinalcomment‘Itwasoneofthosethings.…’seemedlikean

attempttoputthememories‘backintheirbox’.

Inreflectingonthisinterview,Iponderedonmyfeelingsofdiscomfort.Ihadfelt

frustratedfromtimetotimewhenshelapsedintosilenceorslippedintofamiliar

FEPOWscripts.Itwasasifbothofushad‘gonemissing’attimesduringtheinterview.

WhilsttranscribingBrenda’sinterview,Ibegantomakeassociativelinkswithhowmy

fatherusedour‘frontroom’.Hewasanamateurmusicianwithapassionforbrass

bandsandpopularclassicalmusic,whousedthefrontroomasaplaceofescape.He

spentwholeeveningsthereplayingrecords,awayfrommeandmymother.Themusic

thatshuddereddailythroughthewallbetweenhis‘front’andour‘living’roomwasnot

simplyhismethodofdealingwithalegacyoftrauma,buthismeansofcommunicating

withmeandmymother.Thedividingwallwasawayofcreatinganinterpersonal

barrierbuthemadesureitdidn’tblockallcommunication.Themusicemanatingfrom

thefrontroombecametheliteralsoundtracktomychildhood.Myfather’s‘escape’was

brashandloud;Brenda’sfatherpursuedaquieterformofdistancing,butboth

representedabsence,bothmaterialandpsychic.Howcouldtheseexperiencesnothave

affectedusbothinprofoundways?Eventually,Icametothetentativeconclusionthat

Brendawasconveyingtomehowshehadfeltwhenherfatherwithdrewto‘thefront

room’.Theprocessoftransference-countertransferenceappearedtohavereleasedan

interpretivelogjam.23

Jacquispokeofastrainedrelationshipbetweenhermumanddad,anairof

tensioninthehome,andafatherwhowasemotionallydistant-a‘coldfish’-witha

needtoregularly‘removehimself’.Jacquidescribedingraphictermsanincidentwhen

shewasaboutfive:

Iremembermymumsaying,takethisglassofsherrytodad.He’supinthestudy....Andyouwentupthestairsandthenyou’dcurtainsatthetop‘cositwas

23Thisawarenesscametomeverylate,infactnotuntilIwaswritingupthethesis.Forme,thisconfirmedthesignificanceofremainingreflexiveatallstagesoftheresearchrelationship.

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socold,andyoudidn’thavecentralheating....Andshesaid,holdittight,don’tdropit.So,Iheldthisglass,youknow,I’mgoingtohavetogetthrough…negotiatethiscurtain.AndIwasgoingupthesestairs,andIrememberclutchingthisglasssotightly,anditcompletelybrokeinmyhand.Bloodeverywhere.Sherryeverywhere,whichIwasmoreworriedabout.ButitwasthisnotionthatIwasso,somehowstressed,bylifeingeneralinthefamily.But,whenIthinkback,therewasalwaysthisunderlyingtension.

Withtwobrothersatboardingschool,Jacquiwasadefactoonlychildforlongperiods,

atthattimelivinginEdinburghinadour,traditionalsandstonehouse.She‘hadalotof

imagination’andoneEasterthoughtshehad‘seentheWhiteRabbit24…comingintothe

bedroomandgoingoutagain.Andseeingitinthesnowinthegarden.SoIthinkI[had

a]very,verylonely.Very,verylonelyexistence.’Wemightseethephysicaldescriptions

ofherhome,andherrealandimaginedexperiences,asreflectingherpsychicworldasa

child:hiddenplaces,tensions,curtainedoffareas.Infact,shekeptmuchofthis

experience‘curtainedoff’untilquiterecently.Jacquiisaprofessionalwriter,and

writingbecametheprincipalcreativemediumthroughwhichshehasaddressedher

childhoodandherfamily’sFEPOWlegacy.25

Thepastburstsintothepresent

Inafewfamilies,thetransmissionofafather’swartraumawasexpressedexplicitly,

throughbrutalandoppressivebehaviour,withrecurrentviolentabuseinflictingfresh

traumasonthechildren.Theimpactofrepeatedepisodesoftraumahasbeenwell

documentedusingavarietyofdescriptors,suchas‘sequential’,‘cumulative’and

‘additive’(e.g.Blum2003,Cloitreetal2009,Fenton2014,Herman1992,Kellerman

2009,Levine2014).Althoughviolentlyabusivechildhoodtraumasareoccasionally

revealedintheFEPOWliterature(forexample,Summers2009),forthemostpartthese

24ThecharacterinLewisCarroll’sbook‘Alice’sAdventuresinWonderland’.AccordingtoMcAra(2011),theWhiteRabbitsymbolizesthedesireforknowledge:itwasheafterallwhojoltedheroutofherdaydreaming.ButforJacqui,weareperhapsdealingwithadesireforescapefromanemotionallyconfusinghomelife.AsthefirstcharacterthatAlicemeets,wemightexpecttheWhiteRabbittohavemadeaparticularlyvividimpressiononJacqui,thenonlyfiveyearsofage.Andfollowinghimdowntherabbitholemusthaveseemedlikebothanexcitingadventureandanescaperoutetoahappierplace,oratleasttoaplacemoresettled.25TheanalysisofJacqui’sexperienceisdevelopedfurtherinChapter6.

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corrosivememoriesstaytrappedinthepsychesoftheaffectedindividualsandtheir

closerelatives.

Earlierwesawhowfoodwasoftensignificantinthepost-warlivesofthe

FEPOWs.Onoccasions,foodwasthetriggerforviolentoutbursts,orotherextreme

responses.Deirdre’sfatherwasanAbleSeamanwhohadbeenawardedthe

DistinguishedServiceMedal(DSM)for‘braveryandresourcefulnessonactiveserviceat

sea’.Hewasawarhero.Sherecalledanincidentwhenshewassix.

Deirdre:...wewereneverallowedtoleaveanything.Ifwehadamealdishedup,evenifyouhadalumpofgristleonyourplate,youateit.Oryouswallowedit.Youknow,youcouldn’tleaveanything.SotherearecertainthingsthatIwillnoteatbecauseofincidentsthathavehappened.Terry:Whataretheyforexample?Deirdre:Well,gooseberriesforastart.IremembertheQueen’scoronationandweweregoingtoapartyattheschool,hadfancydress.AndIwasthe‘QueenofTarts’…‘Hearts’.(laughs)Andmumhadmadesomejamtarts,andtheywereonalittleplate,andwehadgooseberriesasapudding.AndIwasjustpickingatthembecauseIcouldn’tstandthetexture,thetaste.SoIstoodupandIsaidIcan’teatthis.AndIcanrememberhimwhackingtheplateoutofmyhand,youknow,justlikeapaperplatewiththesejamtartson.Andrippingmycostumethatmymumhadmademe.AndbecauseitwastheCoronationDay,that’swhyI’llneverforgetit.

Lornawasalsotraumatizedatthehandsofherfather.Shegavehertestimonybyemail,

andIhaveresistedthetemptationtoeditorcorrectherextractsinanyway.The

uneditedtextsuggestshowtraumacancracknarrativecoherenceandruptureasense

ofself.26Herwritingcouldconveyasensibilitythathoveredontheborderbetweenthe

unconsciousandtheconscious,andbetweenpresentsubjectivityandthesocial

catastrophesthatscarredherfamilyhistory,viz.theDepressionandWorldWarTwo.

26Thefollowingextract-presentedasreceived-showsthisfracturingmoreexplicitly,seemingtodisintegratetowardstheend:‘ItalkbetterthanwritingIcannotspotmyerrorsWhenigettriggeredintothefearstateIcannotwriteanessayIcantseemtoholdastructurewellSorrythishasbeenarambleIwashavingadifficulttimewithsomeoftheseissuesatthetimeandcouldnotwriteaboutthisstuffasIamplifysthestatewhenIaminit.IunfortunatelyhavestartedsymptomsfrommychildhoodIhavebeendiagnosedwithPTSDAsIgetolderitseemstobeworseIveryquicklygetflipedintofearstatesButistillcanremainclaminanemergencymycapacitytoremainhypervigelenttokeepthingsafeandpeoplealiveisoverworked’

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Thewarflowedfreelythroughtheintersticesofheraccount.Lornaproposedclearlinks

betweenspecificchildhoodmemoriesandherfather’swarbackground.Inthefollowing

extractsheturnedherattentiontofood,butheraccountranged(andraged)across

multifacetedpsychosocialandhistoricallandscapes.

Myfathercouldnotstandfoodwastedinanyway.Mycousinsbeggednottocometoourhouseashewasknownasuncle.....withthestrapthatwentaroundcorners.TheywerefrightenofhimandhisgruffnesssarcasmandthreatsofviolenceHisinsistencetoeatallvegetables?preventing"vitaminosis"InstilledbyDrBruceHunteatinggreenswascriticaltofutureonesurvival.Oneofmycousinswasbeggingmymothertointervenesohedidnothavetoeatgreens...beans.ShewasnotgameenoughtochallengeDadeventhoughshefeltforthechild.Dadhadstarvedinthedepressionashisfatherstruggledtokeephisbusinessafloatandprovideforalargefamily.MealtimeswereneverenjoyableDadwouldforcefooddownmythroat.Ididnotlikefatinthemuttonstews.Iregurgitateditupandiwouldbemadetotore-eatitIwouldhavetostayatthetabletilleaten!!!!!Hetoohadbeenforcetoeatrottenmeattostayaliveafewtimes.

Inplaces,Lorna’sdistressfeltembodiedwithinthetextasshedescribedheryoungself

regularlyunderminedandpunishedbyherfather.Repeatedswitchesinfocusforced

thereaderintodisorientatingchangesoftemporalityandspatiality.Associationsin

Lorna’swriting(andthinking?)wereloosened,andpsychicboundariesmademore

porous,thusincreasingtheproximityandintensitybetweenherandherfather’s

experiences,andbetweenherandthereader.27

Joanna

‘Wesufferedtheconsequencesofit.Butweweren’ttosuffertheknowledgeofit.’

IhavetouchedonJoanna’sstoryelsewhereinthischapterandthisextendedanalysis

putstheseearlierreferencesintotheirpropercontext.Joannawasbornin1953and

27Onotheroccasionsheremailswerequitenormalingrammar,structureandspelling.ElsewhereshetoldmeshehadbeendiagnosedwithPTSDthatfromtimetotimethissuddenly‘flipped’herintoastateofrelativeincoherence.AlthoughshelivesinAustralia,IhadtheopportunitytomeetherintheUKduringafourdayconference.TheconclusionsIhavedrawnherearegroundedintheconversationsIwasabletohavewithher.

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David,herbrother,in1951.Shedescribedherfirstencounterwithherfather’swar

traumas:

ThefirsttimeIreallyknewanythingaboutit,waswhenIwasaboutseven…becausemyfatherhadbeentoAustraliaonabusinesstrip....HecamebackfromthisbusinesstripandIrememberwalkingintomyparents’bedroom.Myfatherwassobbing.Now,firstofall,itwasthefirsttimeI’dseenmyfathercry,soIjustdidn’tunderstandwhatwasgoingon…andactually,now,workingitout,that’swhatitwas.Andmymothersaid,youknow,Daddy’sbeentoseesomefriendswhodied-beentotheirgraves-andhe’sveryupset.

Whenhewasseventeenoreighteenherfather,Robert,hadjoinedtheTerritorialArmy.

So‘whenitallkickedoff’,hewasalreadytrained,readytobesenttoFranceand

Belgium.Hehadhada‘longwar’:firstlyembroiledintheretreatfromthebeachesof

Dunkirkin1940,thendespatchedtotheFarEastwherehewasaPOWontheThai-

Burmarailway.Duringthewar,herosetotherankofCaptainand,afterthewar,

becameaverysuccessfulbusinessman,receivinganhonourforhiscontributionto

Britishexports.Onrepatriation,hewassoontransferredtoaCivilResettlementUnit

wherehestayedforsixweeks.Fromtherehewenttouniversitywithaviewto

becomingateacher.Buthisambitionwasthwartedwhenhelosthistemperwitha

pupilonteachingplacement.RobertmarriedJoanna’smotherin1949:

Mummysaid,everythingwasfineforthefirsttenyears.Butthenthingsstartedcreepingin,histemperandstufflikethat.Andfromthenonhejustgotmoreandmore…volatile.Hewouldjustlosehistemperwithus....youjustsortofwaitedtobe,youknow,you’dbehit.Igothitm…more…morethanmybrother.MostlybecauseIwasdefendingmymother.Hedidn’thitmymotherbuthewouldbeviletoher,andupsether.IthinkthelasttimehehitmeIwas…s-s-seven…teen.…Yeah.…AndsobecauseIwasalwaystheonedefendingmymother,hewouldlashoutatme.

Isensedthatherslightstutterandhesitation(...s-s-seven...teen)revealedher

embarrassmentandshameaboutstillbeinghitbyherfatherattheageofseventeen.

Herbrotherwasatboardingschoolfromtheagesoftentoeighteen,soshewasmuch

moreexposedtoherfather’stemper.28

28BothJoannaandDeirdrepointedouttheharshtreatmentmetedouttothem,comparingitwiththemuchmorelenientapproachofthefatherstowardstheirsons.AsDeirdresaid:‘My

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WellIfoundthatverydifficultbecauseImissedmybrother,andIwouldoftenfindmymotherinmybrother’sbedroomcrying.BecauseshemissedhimandIthensortofthoughtwellI…I’mhere,youknow,I’m…I’mstillhere.Hi!…I’mstillhere!...Itwasn’teasy.

Joannanormalizedthedynamicsofherfamilylifeasbestshecouldand,ratherthan

blamingherfather,blamedherself.Byrationalizinghercircumstancesinthisway,she

maintainedasemblanceofcontroloverevents,andalsosustainedadegreeof

attachmenttoherfather.Butasshediscovered,thispsychicpositionwasuntenablein

thelongerterm.

Ithoughtitwasmyfault.Yes.IthoughtIhadprobablyansweredhimbackonetimetoomany....Ididn’tknow…itsoundsterriblyclichéddoesn’tit?…Ididn’tknowitwasanydifferentinotherfamilies.

Crucially,Joannablamedherselfintermsofherownbehaviour-‘Ihadprobably

answeredhimbackonetimetoomany’-ratherthanblamingaspectsofherown

personalityor‘character’.Janoff-Bulman(1979)describesthelatteras

‘characterologicalself-blame’.Joanna’s‘behaviouralself-blame’leftherwithgreater

controlandissaidtobelesslikelytoleadtodepression(e.g.Barr2015,Hansenand

Elklit1993,UllmanandNajdowski2011).

Formostparticipants,thetraumaticeffectsofintergenerationaltransmission

werefeltmostacutelyinchildhood.Butthiswasnotalwaysthecase.Joannadescribed

adefiningepisodewhenshewasthirty-eight,herfatherseventy,andhermothersixty-

six.Althoughthefollowingextractislengthy,hertestimonycarriesanemotional

intensity,immediacy,andnarrativepowerthatbenefitsfromminimalinterruption.29In

itshedescribesthedepthstowhichtherelationshipbetweenherparentshadsunkand

suggeststhatthiswasduetoherfather’sinabilitytocopewithhermother’scancer

diagnosis.Hervividdescriptionre-enactstheeventsthenighthermotherdied,andthe

fatherwasveryfondofmyson.Itwasasifhewasfondofthemalesinthefamily,butnotthefemales.’29AdoptingWertsch’sdistinction,IwoulddescribethequalityofJoanna’snarrativeascloserto‘re-experiencing’thanto‘remembering’(2002,pp.46-47).Terr(1991)describeshowchildhoodtraumacancauseindividualsto‘re-seeor,occasionallybutlessfrequently,tore-feelaterribleeventoraseriesofevents’(p.12).

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distressingconsequences.Ihave‘performed’thistestimonyatconferencesandto

students,andcanattesttoitsimpact.

Terry:Lookingback,atwhatpointinyourlifewouldyousayyourfather’sPOWexperiencesmadeanimpactonyou?Joanna:…Isupposewhenmymothergotcancer.Hewasabsolutelydreadfulwithher.Hetreatedherasifshewashavinganaffair,andwasgoingtoleavehim.Hecouldn’tacceptit.Hewasabsolutelyviletoher,reallyviletoher.[audibleintakeofbreath].Hewouldtellhertohurryupanddie,becausehehadbookedaworldcruise,whichhehad.And,Imean,itwasawful.Andwhenshewentinforanoperation,theconsultantcametospeaktomeafterheroperation.Andhesaid,Joanna,I’vegottospeaktoyoubecauseIneedtotellyoutheprognosis.Andhesaid,yourfatherjustcan’ttakeit.But,hesaid,I’vecomeacrossthisbefore,hesaid,yourfatherwasaJapaneseprisonerofwar,wasn’the?...AndtheonlywayIcouldinterpretthiswasthatallthepeoplethatweredyingwithhiminthejungle,theyhadnodrugs.Sotheywerescreaminginpain.AndI’mprettycertainmyfatherhelpedthemalongtheway.Terry:Whydoyouthinkthat?Joanna:Becausehedidittomymother…Terry:So…so…howdoyouknowhedidthat?Joanna:Iwasthere.Terry:Oh,youwereactuallyphysicallypresent?Joanna:Iwasphysicallypresent....Andthedoctorhadsaid,she’sextremelyclosetotheendnow.AndIsaid,right,thisweekend,then,Iwillstay…Iwillbewithherwhenshedies.So,Iwasintheroomwithher,justreadingabook.Ididn’tsleep.Andmyfatherhadgonetobed.Andhejustsaid,ifshebecomesdistressedatallandyouareworried,comeandgetme.Well,shedid,suddenly,ataboutthree-thirtyinthemorning.Shesatboltuprightinbed,eyesopen.Verydistressed.Iwasterrified.Neverseenanybodydyingbefore,letalonemyownmother.So,Isaidtomyfather,Ithinkmummyisindistress.Idon’tknowwhattodo.Eventually,hecameinandhejustsaidright,hesaid,I’mgoingtoendthisforhernowJoanna.Youwouldn’thaveananimaltreatedlikethis.Andsoheputhis…youknow…youjustholdthebuttondown…andmorphinejustgoesrushingin.30Andthenhewentout,andsaid,I’mgoingtomakeacupoftea.Hesaid,goandgetamirror,andholditinfrontofherfaceJoanna,you’llsoontellwhenshestopsbreathing.Iwasleftintherewithher.Iwasholdingherhandandcrying,andbesidemyself,but…Hedidthat,hewentandmadeacupoftea!Itwasextraordinary!Absolutelyextraordinary!Andthenshedied,andhetookallherringsoff,gavethemtome.Andthenhecalledtheundertakers.AndIjustrememberhearingthemzipthebodybag.Icouldn’thearazipforyearsafterthat…becausethatwasthezippingmymotherup.Andthen,atseveninthemorning,hergreatfriendarrived,Helen,andshesaid,I’vecomeroundtoseeRuth.Anddaddysaid,she’sgone,ataboutfouro’clockthismorning,shedied.Anyway,wethenweregivenourinstructions.Hewantedeverythingoutofthehouse.Everythingbelongingtomymother,outofthehouse.Helitabonfire.Heburntthemattress,heburntherwigs,heburntletters,lovelettersbetweenthem,whichshe’dkeptyearsandyearsfromwhenshewasinAfrica.Heburntphotos.Hejustwaschuckingeverythingonthebonfire.HelenandIhadtobagupallherclothesintoblackbinliners.Thewholelothadtogotocharity…he

30Joanna’smotherhadbeenfittedwitha‘syringedriver’toensureareliabledoseofmorphine.Itseemsasifin1990whenthisoccurreditwaspossibletooverridetheplanneddosage.Thatisnotthecasewithcurrentmodels.

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didn’twantanythinginthehouse.Everythingwasgone.Notimetosortthroughanything…youknow,no-…nothing.Hewouldn’thaveanything.…Helenthenwent.Iwasthenhavingtugs-of-waratthebonfirewithphotosandthingsandtryingtogetthingsoffhim,puttingtheminthebootofmycar.…Bonkers…absolutebonkers.…Andthen…thefuneralwasdreadful,thewholethingwasabsolutelydreadful.Andthreeweekslater,herangmeupandsaid,Joanna,I’vegotnophotosofyourmother.Haveyougotany?Idon’tknowwherethey’veallgone.ButIthoughtthat,again,wastodo…becausewhentheyhadcholera,theyhadtoburntheirbodies.So,thefirstthingtheywoulddowouldbelightabonfire.Sothatwashisfirst…instinct.…Terry:Did,didyouevertalktohimabout…that?Joanna:No…Ididn’ttalktohimaboutthat.Icouldn’ttalktohimproperlyfortwoyearsaftermymotherdied,Icouldn’tforgivehim…forthewayhetreatedher.

WhileontheThai-Burmarailway,Joanna’sfatherhadexperiencedthedevastating

emotionalandvisceralimpactofcholeraoutbreaks.TheJapanesewereterrifiedofthis

disease,afactthathasbeengraphicallydocumentedbyWearyDunlopinhisdiaries

(1990).31DavoineandGaudillière(2004)describesituationsofthekindJoanna

experiencedaseventsthatopen

‘abreachinthecontinuityoftheirdailylife,oneinwhichincongruousgeographiesbreakthrough.Thiseventshouldalwaysbeconsideredatraumaticrevival,thatis,anautonomousprocesswithoutmemory...’(p.124).

Joanna’sdescriptionofherfather’ssavagebehaviourafterhermother’sdeathsuggests

sucha‘breach’.Hispastburstintohispresent,andforaperiodhisdominantpsychic

‘geographies’werethoseofthePOWcampandthehorrorsoftheThai-Burmarailway.

Laub(2012)describeshowcurrenttraumacantriggerburiedmemoriesofbrutality,

andhoweffectiveinterpretationdependsonaknowledgeofthe‘personal-historical

context’(p.35).Hermother’sdeathandherfather’sbehaviourweresotraumaticthat

JoannawasonlypartlyabletoexploitwhatLaubreferstoasthe‘customarydefences

31‘ANipinLt-Col.Oakes’campapparentlytookthecholeratoheartwithsuchthoroughnessthatheendeavouredtoburyasoldieralivetheotherday.Hewasfirstfelledbyblowswithsticksandspadesbeforebeingpushedintothehole.TheNiptheninsistedontheholebeingfilledin,thusburyingtheladalivewiththispotentialinfection.Thesoldierswiththepartyrefusedtocomplywiththeburialorderandmanywerestruck.Eventuallythe‘corpse’wasrescued’(p.289).JackChalker(2007)describedwhythePOWswerealsopetrified:‘Cholerawasthemostfearedofallourtropicalenemies.Ithasaviolentandrapidonset,followedbyrapiddehydrationanddeathwithinafewdays’(p.79).Thecholeradeadwerenormallycremated,and‘theirbodieswouldoftentwistandwrithe,asthoughtheywerestillalive’(ParkesandGill2015,p.225).

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againsttraumaticexperiences...dissociation,derealization,depersonalization’(p.35).

Instead,herfather’sbehaviourdraggedherintohispsychicorbit:controllingher

actions,onceagaintreatingherasachild.Yearslater,shewasabletoreflecton,and

symbolize,whathadhappened;sheachievedthisbyusinghergrowingknowledgeof

thewar,andbydrawingstrengthfromthefirstnewshootsofempathywithherfather.

Joanna’sstoryillustratestheconsequencesofcumulativepainfulexperiences,

andtheimpossibilityofevercompletelydisentanglingtheirrelativeimpact.Inaddition

tohertraumatizedchildhood,thepainfulepisodejustdescribedwasitselfenfolded

withinatenyearspanofeventsthatincludedherbrother’scancerdiagnosisanddeath,

hermother’scancerdiagnosisanddeath,herownreturntowork,andherdivorce.The

struggletocope‘invadesanderodesthepersonality....thevictimofchronictrauma

mayfeelherselftobechangedirrevocably,orshemaylosethesensethatshehasany

selfatall’(Herman2015,p.86).ForJoanna,thereinlaythedanger,andhintedatthe

depthofworkrequiredinrevisitingherrelationshipwithherfather,asthebasisof

establishingastrongsenseofself.However,overmanydecadesandthroughaseriesof

eventsandmemorypractices,Joannawasgraduallyabletorecontextualisethisevent,

enablinghertolivewithhermemories.

Joanna’sstoryhadmanytwistsandturns.Inhislateeighties,herfather

developeddementiaandwentintoanursinghome.32Whilethere,hiswartimetraumas

stillmadetheirpresencefelt.OneincidentinparticularopenedJoanna’seyestothe

meaningofeventsinherchildhood.

Inthenursinghomethey[hada]fireworksparty.Hewouldn’thaveanythingtodowithit.Hesaid,IhadenoughofthatinSingapore.HesaidIwasbeingbombedthewholetime,andDunkirk.Hesaid,I’veenoughfireworkstolastmealifetime.Andthatexplainedwhyhenevercamehomeintimeforourfireworksparties.Whenwewerechildren,wewouldalwayshaveabigbonfireinthegarden.Andmyfatherwasalwayslate.Mymotherwouldbebesideherself‘cos

32Recentresearchhassuggestedex-POWsmayhavea50%increasedriskofdevelopingdementia‘afteradjustingforpotentialconfoundersandaccountingforthecompetingriskofdeath’andthattherebeanadditive‘associationbetweenPOWstatusandPTSD,suchthatveteranswithbothoftheseriskfactorshadmorethanatwofoldincreaseintheriskofdementia’(Meziabetal2014,p.S240).

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anotheroftheneighbour’shusbandswouldhavetolightthefireworksand‘cositwasaman’sjob.Shewouldalwayssay,youknow,yourfathernevercomeshomeintimeforthesethings.

Thedementia‘released’theseparticularmemoriesandothersassociatedwithhis

captivity.Asaresult,Joannasawherchildhoodinanewlightand,overtime,cameto

reappraiseaspectsofherchildhoodandreachedadeeperunderstandingofherfather.

Conclusion

InthischapterIhavediscussedhowtheemotional,behavioural,andcorporeallegacies

ofthefathers’warcaptivityemergedinthehome,andinterferedwiththeeveryday

livesofthechildrenandtheirabilitytoestablishsecureattachments.Byemphasizing

howthefather’sill-healthcouldimpactonthechildren,asexemplifiedinthecasestudy

ofDerek,Iarguethatweneedamoreholisticconceptualizationoftraumatransmission

thatavoidsanyundueseparationbetweenthephysicalandthepsychological(and

indeedthepsychologicalandthesocial/historical).

ThecomplextraumasexperiencedbyvulnerablechildrenlikeJoanna,Deirdre

andLornaledto‘complexreactions’(e.g.Courtois2004),includingalterationsinself

perceptionandadeleteriousimpactonrelationshipswithothers(p.414).Both

reactionswereprominentinarangeoftestimoniesfromparticipantswhohad

experiencedrepeatedtraumasatthehandsoftheirfathers.

Atanintersubjectivelevel,myinterviewswithJoannaandDeirdreattimes

blurredthe‘crucialdistinctionbetweenthenandnow’(LaCapra1999,p.699).Inmost

interviews,rememberingwas‘undisturbed’.Thatistestimonieswerecomposed

throughthe‘reflexiverationalisationsofexperience’(PickeringandKeightley2009,

p.10).However,theaccountbyJoannaresistedeasyrationalization,remained

emotionallytroublinginthepresent,intheimmediacyoftheinterview,andincluded

episodesofenactmentduringwhichIfeltmyselfhavingtoresistbeingdrawnintoher

psychicworld.

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Whilethisthesisdoesnotargueforsimplisticcausallinksbetweencaptivity

traumaandspecificchangesinthebehaviourofex-FEPOWs,participantsoftenmade

theseconnectionsthemselves,especiallyregardingdiscipline,foodandnightmares.But

thetestimoniesalsoshowedhowpostmemorywasabletoconfoundtheprocessof

recall.InChapterFive,Iturntothetopicsofmemory,postmemoryandremembrance.

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CHAPTERFIVE

MEMORY,POSTMEMORYANDREMEMBRANCE

‘...howlittlewecanholdinmind,howeverythingisconstantlylapsingintooblivionwitheveryextinguishedlife,howtheworldis,asitwere,drainingitself,inthatthehistoryofcountlessplacesandobjectswhichthemselveshavenopowerofmemoryisneverheard,neverdescribedorpassedon’(Sebald2002,pp.30-31).

IntroductionChapterFourexaminedtherangeofwaysinwhichthefathers’captivityexperiences

madeanimmediateorlongertermimpactontheirchildrenandfamilies,witheffects

thatcouldbedevastatinglyemotionalordisarminglysubtle.

Inthischapter,Iaddressthetopicofmemoryitself.Ibeginwithabriefcritique

ofselectedliteratureonmemoryandforgetting.Followingthis,Iexaminetheconcept

‘postmemory’,attimesasomewhatvaguenotionbutone,nonetheless,thathasstood

thetestoftimeacrossavarietyoffieldssuchasculturalstudies,literature,history,and

trauma,aswellasintergenerationaltransmission.Followingthis,Iconsiderthesurgeof

interestinthememoriesoftheFEPOWsseensincethe1980s,andponderthisinthe

contextof‘collectivememory’.Inthefinalsubstantivesection,Iselecttwotopicswhose

salienceiscloselyrelatedtoissuesthatarosefromtheresearchdataandreflectthe

powerofindividualagency:memorializationinthehome,andmemorialactivism.

Memoryandforgetting

Atapersonallevel,memoryliesatthecoreofouridentity,providesuswithasenseof

continuity,andformsthebasisofasocialexistence(Assmann2008,Misztal2004).

Memoryisthefacultythatenablesustoformanawarenessofselfhood(identity),bothonthepersonalandonthecollectivelevel.Identity,initsturn,isrelatedtotime(Assmann2008,p.109).

Stretchingoutbeyondthepersonal,wefindtheconceptofmemorybeingusedto

providecoherencebetweenpastexperiencesthataresharedandrecalledbygroupsof

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people.Thisistheideaof‘collectivememory’(Halbwachs1992,1GediandElam1996)

oroneofitsclosecousinsthatjostlealongside,suchassharedmemory,socialmemory,

‘collectedmemories’,2‘communitiesofmemory’(PickeringandKeightley2012)and

‘mnemoniccommunities’(Capelletto2005).Thusfar,memoryseemstobeausefulif

trickyabstraction.However,inpractice,itisrootedinthematerialworld-

‘rememberingthroughthematerial’asBecksteadetal(2011)describeit.Placeforms

theenduringframeworkwithinwhichmemoriescansurface(Halbwachs1950),andthe

testimoniesofparticipantsconfirmedthecloseinterrelationshipbetweenplaces,

objectsandmemories.Wideningthelensstillfurther,wediscoveramorerecent

conceptthatdrawstogetherseveralpotentandsynergisticconcepts,andthatblends

materialityandmetaphor.Thisisthenotionof‘memoryscape’:

Culture,emotion,memoryandlandscapeareallinterrelated.Thenotionofthememoryscapeisanexpressionoftheconvergencezonethathomogenisestheseconcepts’(Clack2011,p.119).

However,Ibaulkattheuseoftheterm‘homogenise’becauseitimpliesafixedand

irreversiblestate.Ifweallowculture,emotion,memory,andlandscapetolosetheir

distinctidentitiesinthisway,thentheoreticallyandempiricallywearethepoorerforit.

‘Memoryscape’isavaluableheuristic,thecomponentsofwhich,assuggestedbyClack,

aremoreproductiveifviewedasintegratednothomogenized.Thisthencreatesthe

analyticspacetoexploretheconceptualbordersandboundaries,theoreticallyand

empirically.Bydrawingattentionto‘spatialityofmemoryandthenotionoflandscape’

(Ullberg2013,p.14),memoryscapecanenhanceunderstandingoftheroleoftrauma

andwarcaptivityinthelivesoftheFEPOWsandtheirchildren.Memoryscapealso

encouragesthinkingaboutthemovementofmemories(spatiallyandtemporally)

(Ullberg2013),atopicIshallreturntolaterinthepresentchapter.

1InHalbwach’sterms,asharedmemorythatpromotesacollectiveidentity.2Young(1993)resiststhenotionof‘collectivememory’altogether,preferring‘collectedmemories’,andalsochoosestospeakofthe‘collectivemeaning’(notcollectivememory)thatispassedontosuccessivegenerations(p.xii).

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JanAssmann(2008)createsanelegantconceptualframeworkthroughwhichhealigns

memory,time,andidentitywithinathreelevelmodel:anelaborationofHalbwach’s

(1992)notionofcollectivememory.Thelevelsareasfollows:

• an‘inner(neuro-mental)’levelinwhich‘subjectivetime’,‘theinnerself’,and‘individualmemory’areheld;

• a‘social’levelembracing‘socialtime’,the‘socialself’,and‘communicativememory’,and

• a‘cultural’levelwhichcontains‘historical,mythical,culturaltime’,‘culturalidentity,and‘culturalmemory’(p.109).

Thesethreelevelsofmemorytieinwellwiththepsychosocialapproach:the‘inner’

levelmakesspaceforthepsychic,whilethe‘social’and‘cultural’levelsenablethe

introductionofsocialdiscourse,andhistoricalandgeopoliticaldimensionsof

experience.3Assmann(2008)makesaninterestingdistinctionbetween‘communicative

memory’4and‘culturalmemory’.Theformercanbetransmittedcontemporaneously

between‘threeinteractinggenerations’(p.111)andsohasalimited‘life’ofeightyorso

years.‘Culturalmemory’dealswiththe‘remotepast’(p.112),anddependsentirelyon

‘symbolicsystems’(Hirsch2012ap.33),requiring‘institutionsofpreservationandre-

embodiment’(Assmann2008,p.111),suchasmuseums,ritualsandmonuments.

Communicativememoryexistsinaninformalandunstableworldof‘everyday

interactionandcommunication’(p.111).5However,myresearchchallengesthe

undifferentiatedconceptualizationofcommunicativememory;itseemstomethat

Assmann’smodelneedsfurtherelaborationtofittheempiricalposition.ManyFEPOW’s

chosenottosharememoriesacrossgenerationsatall,buttorestrictreminiscencesof

thiskindtoanarrowbandoftheirpeers.Assmann’smodeldoesnotaddressthis

3Assmann(2008)brieflylocatespsychoanalysiswithinhis‘inner(neuro-mental)’levelarguingthatitlooksfor‘collectivememorynotinthedynamicsofsociallifebutintheunconsciousdepthsofthehumanpsyche’(p.109).Psychoanalysisisrootedinmemory,asintheconceptofrepression,aformofunconsciousandmotivated‘forgetting’.Andpsychoanalyticpracticeassumesthat‘recollectionshavetoberegardedascreativeconstructions’(Straub2008,p.215).4‘Communicativememory’isAssmann’srenamingofHalbwach’s‘collectivememory’.5Oralhistoryislocatedhere.

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possibility,andthereforeIwouldproposethatcommunicativememorycouldbe

usefullyrefinedtoaccommodatetwosubcategories:‘communicationbetween

generations’and‘communicationwithingenerations’.

Furthermore,inAssmann’sconceptualization,communicativememoryseems

somehowfreefloating,butIwouldarguethatitremainssubjecttotradition,group

relationships,andcertainorganizationalstructures,howeverembryonic,emergentor

transitional.Empirically,boundariesaremoreblurredthanAssmanncontends,andthe

evolutionofFEPOWcommunitiesprovidesevidenceofhowcommunicativememory

canbeshapedbypsychicandsocialneeds.Sincetheendofthewar,FEPOWgroups

haveformedandre-formedforthepurposeofprovidingvarioussettings(suchasre-

unions,weekendsaway,conferences,memorialservices)whereex-FEPOWs,their

wivesandfamilieshavebeenabletoreminiscetogether(Makepeace2014a).Itis

difficulttofindacomfortablehomeforthisformofmemorysharingineitherof

Assmann’scategories.

Assmann(2008)highlightsJanVansina’s(1985)notionofa‘floatinggap’which

liesbetweenthe‘eightyyears’ofcommunicativememoryandthestartofcultural

memory.The‘gap’istheperiodinwhichthetransitionbetweencommunicativeand

culturalmemorytakesplace,andinevitablyrecedesasthosememoriesthatcanbe

shared‘live’disappearandhavetobe‘fixed’insomewayinculturalproductsand

practices.6Iwouldarguethatthe‘gap’mightbebetterconceptualizedasa‘rolling’or

‘moving’gap’becauseitshiftsalongwiththemovementofsuccessivegenerations.

Digitaltechnologiesthatalloweasyaccesstofirsthandtestimoniesviavideoandaudio

recordingsmaycomplicatethepicturebymetaphorically‘keepingalive’communicative

memory,bothaffectivelyandcognitively.7

6Suchasinmuseums,historytextbooks,andmemorializationrituals.7Forinstance,theImperialWarMuseumholdsthousandsrecordedinterviews,includingthetestimoniesofex-FEPOWs,manyofwhichareavailableonlinehttp://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/sound.SocialmediasuchasFacebookarealsocontributingtothisblurring.Virtualrealitytechnologieswillnodoubtblurthisdistinctionfurther.

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Assmannmakesafurtherdiscriminationbetweencommunicativeandcultural

memoriesonthebasisofthe‘structureofparticipation’,arguingthat‘…thereareno

specialistsofinformal,communicativememory’.Bycontrast,‘...culturalmemoryalways

hasitsspecialists,bothinoralandinliteratesocieties’(Assmann2008,p.114).If

culturalmemoryisconceivedasemergingonlyaftercommunicativememoryhas

elapsed,thensomerolesdonotseemtofitcomfortablyintotheframework.For

instance,thechildofanex-FEPOW-bydefinitionamemberofagroupfunctioning

largelywithincommunicativememory-who,nonetheless,becomesanexpertinhis

field(andwhoisacknowledgedassuchbyothersinthegroup).Asweshallseein

ChapterSeven,thisroleoperatesinthe‘gap’asaculturalmemory‘specialist’(and

associatingwith‘institutional’structures)whilesimultaneouslyrooted,andactive,in

thecommunicativememorysphere.

Overall,Assmann(2008)seemsunclearaboutthecriteriaheisusingto

distinguishbetweenthetwoformsofmemory.Whatmattersmost,timesequence,or

formalityofparticipation?Inthefinalparagraphofthepaper,hedoeshintattheneed

forflexibilityinanalyzingthe‘dynamicsofculturalmemory’(p.117),referringto‘the

transitionfromautobiographicalandcommunicativememoryintoculturalmemory’,

butthisremainsundevelopedandisnotreflectedineitherofthefigureswithinthe

paper(pages109and117).

Forgettinghasbeenbesetbytheassumptionthat‘rememberingandcommemorationis

usuallyavirtueandthatforgettingisnecessarilyafailing’(Connerton2008,p.59).

AleidaAssmann(2014)goesfurtherstill,proposingthat

‘forgettingisthedefaultmodeofhumansandsocieties.Rememberingisnegationofandresistancetoforgetting,usuallyinvolvingawillandeffort...Forgettinghappenssilently,inconspicuouslyandubiquitously,whilerememberingistheunlikelyexceptionfromtherule,requiringconsciouseffortsandspecificframework.’8

8ThetextofAleidaAssmann’spubliclectureshouldbeavailablefromthiswebsitehttp://castrvm1.rssing.com/browser.php?indx=36566496&item=61.(Accessed24August

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However,selectiveforgettingisjustasimportantasselectiverecalland,withoutthese

faculties,wewouldbeunabletomakesenseofourmemoriesormakethemourown.

‘Justasmemoryservesanimportantethicalfunctionduringperiodsofforgetfulness,forgettingpermitslifetomoveforwardinerasthatcannotescapememory’sgrip.Both,moreover,arenecessaryfortruehistoricalunderstanding’(Rosenfeld2009,p.156).

Forgettingcanbeusedtointroduce‘anewbeginning’,aprocessthattakesoneoftwo

forms:aversioninwhich‘thepageissimplyturnedover’,orthealternativeinwhich

‘thepagemustbereadbeforeitisturned’(Assmann,2014).Thesemetaphorsarewell

attunedtothesituationoftheex-FEPOWs.Themajorityofparticipantswhocame

forwardforinterviewfellintothelattergroup:peoplewhoneededtorememberand

neededtounderstand.Assmannreferstothisas‘therapeuticforgetting’whichhasto

startwithremembering-‘amemorythathasbeenreworkedandprocessed’.

OnetypeofforgettingproposedbyConnerton(2008)isthatwhich‘is

constitutiveintheformationofanewidentity’(p.62).Hereoneisremindedof

Hoffman’stentativeconclusionabouttheresponsesofthesecondgenerationtothe

Holocaust:

Sixtyyearslater,Ifeel,thisistheonlythingthatcanbedone:toacknowledge,turn,bendtowardsthevictimsratherthanawayfromthem.Therecanbenootherrecompense,nootherclosure.Sixtyyearslater...andafterallthatcanbedonehasbeendone,itmayalsobetimetoturnaway,gently,toletthisgo(Hoffman2004,p.233).

AdominanttropeinmainstreamFEPOWdiscourseisthatof‘weshallneverforget’9

whichisalsoprominentintheHolocaustliterature(Assmann2010).Someparticipants

recalledhowtheirmothershad‘forced’forgettingonthefamily,fuellingtheirneedto

findoutmore.AsDougsaid‘...destroyingeverythingofdad’s.…justwipedhismemory.

Idon’tunderstandit.’AndinSally’scase,hermothererasedherfatherfromtheirlives

2016).Ifunavailableatthisaddress,itshouldappearinasearchfor‘castrumperegrini’and‘AlmeidaAssmann’.Iamnotawareofanyjournalpublicationbasedonthislecture.9ThemottooftheFEPOWFamilyFacebookpageis‘Keepthecandleburning’.Andmembersofthisandothersimilarwebsitesoftenendtheircontributionwiththewords‘lestweforget’.Anniversariesaremarkedbyarushofcontributionsexpressingsimilarlyforthrightsentiments.

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‘...bythetimehedied,andafterhedied,nobodyevermentionedhim.Itwaslikehejust

wasn’tthere.’

Intheintimatespaceoftheinterview,itwaseasierforambiguitiestoemerge.

Participantscouldcometopersonalconclusions-orspeculate-aboutwhattheyhoped

forfromtheirmemorywork.Derekenvisagednoendpoint:‘andI’llcarryiton‘tilthe

dayIdie,Isuppose.AnythingIcanfindout,youknow,I…I’llfindit.’Gwen’sposition

wassimilaralthoughsheacknowledgedtheprocesscouldbetroubling:‘Icanonlydip

inandoutofit,thenitgetstoodark.’Jacqui’sfeelingsweresimilar:

Ihadatableinmyoffice.Literallycoveredwithallthisstuff....Ijustgotsoimmersedinit.AndIwenttotheFEPOWconference,andthoughtarghh!…Itwasjustdoingmyheadin.Youknow,justtoomuch.’

Shewasuncertainaboutthefuture.But,asaprofessionalwriterandamateurartist,she

thoughtshe‘mightdosomeartworkthatsignifiestheangst-riddenjourneyofmy

father.’

Authorsintheliterarytraditionoftenprovideinsightsintomemorythat

complementorsurpasstheworkofacademicscholarship.ThewritingsofCharlotte

Delbo(2001,2014),anAuschwitzsurvivor,carryauthorityandaffectiveweight.She

proposesa‘memoryofthesenses’or‘deepmemory’(Delbo2001,p.3).Deepmemory

‘preservessensations,physicalimprints....Foritisn’twordsthatareswollenwith

emotionalcharge’(Delbo2001,p.4).Shecontraststhiswith‘ordinarymemory’:the

meansbywhichwetrytorenderevents‘intelligible,peggedtoacommonorestablished

frameofreference,sothattheycanbecommunicatedto,andreadilyunderstoodby,a

generalaudience’(p.25).ForBennett(2005),sensememoryisaprocess‘experienced

notasarememberingofthepastbutasacontinuousnegotiationofapresentwith

interminablelinkstothepast’involving‘notsomuchaspeakingofbutspeakingoutofa

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particularmemoryorexperience-inotherwords,speakingfromthebodysustaining

sensation’(Bennett2005,p.38.Italicsintheoriginal).10

Thedistinctionsometimesmadebetweensemanticandepisodicmemory

(Tulving1972)ispertinenttothetestimoniesofparticipants.Semanticmemory‘may

belikenedtoanencyclopaedia,whileepisodicmemoryislikeapersonaldiary’

(Corballis2012,p.874).And‘autobiographicalmemory’resultsfromepisodicmemories

beinglinkedtogether.Corballisdevelopstheseideasfurther:

Episodicmemoryisnotoriouslyunreliableandincomplete,andithasbeenproposedthatitsprimaryfunctionwasnottoserveasafaithfulrecordofthepast,butrathertoprovideabasisforimaginingandplanningoffutureevents.(p.875)

Thisperspectivecomplementsmyresearchaimsinthatmyfirstprioritywasnotto

extractanobjectivehistoricalaccountfromparticipants,buttoexplorehowaparticular

wayoftellingservedthepsychicneedsofthatindividual.Corballis(2012)claimsthat

the‘humanmindhasevolvedtowander,notonlybackandforthintime,butalsointo

imaginaryworlds,andintothemindsofothers’(p.888).Thefreeassociation

psychosocialinterviewofferedaformalstructure-afacilitativepsychicspace-forthis

‘mind-wandering’(p.874)totakeplace.Participantswereableto‘recall’theirepisodic

memoriesandshapedthemintonarratives(‘autobiographicalmemory’).However,

ratherthanobservingrandom‘wandering’,theassumptionofthepsychosocial

approachisthattheresearcherisactuallywitnessing(andco-creating)theproductsof

theparticipant’sunconsciousandrespondingtotheintersubjectivedynamicsevolving

withintheinterviewitself.11Thistypeof‘wandering’andthefuture-orientedqualityof

episodicmemoryfacilitatesthereconstructionofpastrelationshipsandself-identity

10ThetestimoniesofJoannaandDeirdreinChapters4and7conveyedthisformofdeep,sensememory.11Recentbrainresearchsuggeststhattheremaybebiologicalcorrelatestothispsychicprocess:the‘defaultnetwork’thatisactivated‘whenindividualsarelefttothinktothemselvesundisturbed.Thedefaultnetworkalsoincreasesactivityduringmentalexplorationsreferencedtooneselfincludingremembering,consideringhypotheticalsocialinteractions,andthinkingaboutone’sownfuture.Thesepropertiessuggestthatthedefaultnetworkfunctionstoallowflexiblementalexplorations—simulations—thatprovideameanstoprepareforupcoming,self-relevanteventsbeforetheyhappen’(Buckneretal2008).

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thatlieattheheartofChapterSix.Aswehaveseen,memoriescanhaveaproblematic

andambiguousrelationshiptolifeevents,andIturntotheinfluentialnotionof

postmemorytodevelopthislineofthinkingfurther.

Postmemory

MarianneHirsch’schildhoodwasdominatedbyherparents’repeatedstoriesoftheir

personalHolocausttrauma(Hirsch2012a).Shedescribeshowtheirmemories‘crowded

out’(p.4)andintermingledwithherown,so‘connectingdisparatesubjectivities’.12She

describesthisintergenerationalphenomenonas‘postmemory’:

“Postmemory”describestherelationshipthatthe“generationafter”bearstothepersonal,collective,andculturaltraumaofthosewhocamebefore...theseexperiencesweretransmittedtothemsodeeplyandaffectivelyastoseemtoconstitutememoriesintheirownright(p.5).

Significantlyfromapsychosocialstandpoint,Hirschrecognisesthatparentalmemories

arenotsimplyswallowedwholebythenextgeneration:thechildrenwillalsochange

them‘byimaginativeinvestment,projection,andcreation’.Insomecases,theymightbe

‘overwhelmed’bythese‘inheritedmemories’andbythe‘traumaticfragmentsofevents

thatstilldefynarrativereconstructionandexceedcomprehension’.Attheextreme,the

children’slifestoriesriskbeing‘displaced,evenevacuated,byourancestors’(p.5).

Hirsch(2012a)distinguishesbetween‘familial’postmemorywhichoccurs‘vertically’

betweenfamilymembers(‘intergenerational’),and‘affiliative’postmemorywhichtakes

placed‘horizontally’betweenmembersofthesamegeneration(‘intragenerational’)

(p.36).

PostmemoryforthechildrenofFEPOWswasheraldedbytheirfirstawareness

ofthefathers’captivity.Participantsdescribedknowingvaguelythattheirfathershad

12HirschusesthisphraseinaninterviewwithColumbiaUniversityPress(undated)https://cup.columbia.edu/author-interviews/hirsch-generation-postmemory

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beenFEPOWs,withoutnecessarilybeingabletopinpointexactlyhoworwhentheyhad

firstheard.ForSelena,thisvaguenesswastohaveconfusingconsequences.

Idon'trememberwhenIfirstknewaboutdadhavingbeenaprisoner,it’sasifIalwaysdid.IwasobviouslyabitconfusedaboutitasIamreputedtohavetoldalltheclassandtheteacherthatDadwasinprison...whenheturnedupataclasseventtheboysintheclasslookedathimwithaweandwonderandtheteacherseemedabitscared.13

Hirschexplorespostmemorythroughtherepresentationoftraumaticmemoriesin

culturalandartisticworks-especiallyfamilyphotographs-andherlighttouchuseof

psychoanalyticconceptsenableshertorevealtheoperationofunconsciousprocesses

withinbothfamilialandaffiliativeformsofpostmemory(Hirsch2012a).Reflectingon

Hirsch’swork,however,Idowonderwhetherheruseofpostmemoryastheprincipal

framewithinwhichtoanalysesuchabreadthoftransmissionphenomenamightbe

askingtoomuch.Herinitialtightdeploymentofpostmemoryasacategorytoanalysea

particularformoffamilialtransmissionwaswhereitsstrengthlay.Byextendingitinto

thefurtherreachesofsocialandculturaltransmissionasa‘onesizefitsall’concept,she

risksdamagingboththedistinctivenessandtheauthorityoftheoriginalinsight.

Hirsch’sworkhasanexplicitlymoralbasis.Herinterestinmemorycameabout

becauseofherwish‘touncoverandtorestoreexperiencesandlifestoriesthatmight

otherwiseremainabsentfromthehistoricalarchive’(p.15).Sheisconcernedthatthe

‘senseoflivingconnection’withtheHolocaustis‘passingintohistoryandmyth’andso

beingeroded(Hirsch2012a,p.1).Inherview,thiserosionthreatenstoclosedownvital

ethicaldiscussionsabouttraumaandmemory.Whiletimeinevitablydrainsthe

intensityofmemory,theexponentialgrowthofsocialmediatechnologiesandother

memorypracticesmightslowdowntheprocessandpartlyallayherworries.

Culturalproductsandpracticesplayaprominentroleinthepostmemoriesof

theCOFEPOWcommunity.TheFEPOWMemorialbuildingattheNationalMemorial

13WeseeasimilarexamplesofnaïveconfusioninCarlFriedman’sbeautifullywritten‘Nightfather’(1994)inwhichthechildrenofaHolocaustsurvivorstretchthemeaningof‘camp’.

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ArboretumisarichlyvisualandevocativememorialtothewarintheFarEast,butalso

abaseforeducationandresearch.Althoughmorecircumscribedintermsofits

audience,butwithmuchwidergeographicalreach,aretheFEPOWwebsites,Facebook

pages,andonlinediscussiongroups,allofwhicharecurrentlyaccessedbyseveral

generationsofFEPOWfamilies,andcontinuetofindnewmembers.FilmslikeThe

RailwayMan(2013)andUnbroken(2014)14andbooksofartwork,suchasthoseby

JackChalker(2007)andRonaldSearle(1986),aswellasnumerousmemoirsand

diaries,havesucceededinprojectingdeeplypersonalexperiencesintothepublicrealm

anddemonstratethepoweroftheaestheticresponsetotrauma.AlisonLandsberg

(2009)coinedtheterm‘prostheticmemory’todescribememorysourcesthat‘arenot

theproductoflivedexperience’.WhilebeingacloserelativeofHirsch’s‘postmemory’,

prostheticmemoryisfocusedfirmlyon‘mediatedrepresentations’likefilmor

interactivemuseumsthathavetheabilitytocreate‘sensuousmemories’(p.222).15

Participantswhoknewlittleaboutthefather’scaptivityreliedonsuchrepresentations

toengender‘aestheticempathy’(Koss2006,p.139)andtocreatevicariousemotional

connectionswithwhattheyimaginedweretheexperiencesoftheirfathers.Prosthetic

memoriesalsoallowedparticipantstomanagetheirexposuretothetraumaticrealities

(andphantasies)ofcamplife.

Landsbergalsoarguesthatprostheticmemorycansupport‘ethical

engagements’(p.222).Forsomeparticipants,disseminatingawarenessofFEPOW

historywasanethicalchoice.Otherswantedtopromoteunderstandingbetweenthe

14InthecaseofUnbroken,theimpactspreadbeyondtheindividual,constitutingacontroversialchallengetostatediscoursesaboutwartimeresponsibilityandaccountability,provokingactionbyrightwingJapanesepoliticianstohavethefilmbannedintheircountry.Seehttp://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/dec/09/angelina-jolies-unbroken-is-racist-say-japanese-nationalists15PerhapsthemostcreativeandevocativeexampleofrecenttimestookplaceonFriday1stJuly2016onthe100thanniversaryoftheBattleoftheSomme:TurnerPrize-winningartistJeremyDeller’sproject‘Becausewearehere’-alivingmemorialthatbroughtthepastintothepresentinawaythatwasbothhauntinglyintenseandaffecting.Seehttps://becausewearehere.co.uk/

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peoplesofBritainandJapan,apositionthatwasgenerallylinkedtothecorrect

assumptionthatmanyyoungJapanesehaveverylittleknowledgeoftheFarEastPOWs.

CollectivememoryandtheFEPOW‘memoryboom’

Collectivememoryandtheinstitutionsandpracticesthatsupportithelptocreate,sustainandreproducethe‘‘imaginedcommunities’’withwhichindividualsidentifyandthatgivethemasenseofhistory,placeandbelonging....(WeedonandJordan2012,p.143)Collectivememoryisnotabout‘thought’,butisaboutbecoming-togetherinspacewiththematerialartifactsaroundus,infilm,inmuseums,inmemorials(Bollmer2011,p.462).

Thefirstfewdecadesafterthewarcanbeconsidereda‘latencyperiod’duringwhich

therewasminimalinterestinthehistoryoftheFEPOWs.16Aparallelprocesstookplace

inrelationtotheHolocaust(e.g.Hoffman2004,Ch.3).17However,interestintheFar

EastPOWssurgedinthe1980spossiblytriggeredbytherevivalofinterestinHolocaust

memory(Twomey2013).InAleidaAssmann’s(2010)words‘Theparadigmaticshift

fromthemodelofforgettingtoanorientationtowardsrememberingoccurredwiththe

returnofHolocaustmemoryafteraperiodoflatency’(p.12).Aplethoraofexplanations

forthis‘remembrancegap’arecurrent.Winter(2000)proposes,interalia,the

validationoftraumaticmemoryin1980whenPTSDwasaddedtothemedicallexicon,

theincreasingaffluencethatintensifiedthedemandfor‘culturalcommodities’,more

peoplereceivinghighereducation,greaterleisuretime,andthegrowthofcomputer-

basedmedia.TwomajorTVmini-seriesfromthelate1970s-‘Roots’(1977)18and

16Psychoanalytictheorymightarguethatthiswasaggravated,ifnotcaused,byextendedrepressionfollowingthecomplextraumasofthecamps.17Hoffman(2004)coinedtheterm‘postgeneration’,describingherownchildhoodas‘asortoffairytale...anenigmaticbutrealfable’.This‘deeplyinternalizedbutstrangelyunknownpast’(p.6)revealeditselfthrough‘flashesofimagery’and‘brokenrefrains’(p.9)-conceptsthatseemtoresonatewiththisperiodoflatency.18TheviewingfigureintheUSAforthefinalepisodewas100million:(https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/jul/27/roots-remake-whatever-happened-to-the-major-television-event)

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‘Holocaust’(1978)19-wereinstrumentalinpreparingthegroundforacloser

associationbetweenfamilyhistoryandglobalhistory.

AlthoughsomeFEPOWshadpublisheddiariesandmemoirsinthetwentyyears

orsofollowingtheendofthewar,20manymoreappearedfromthe1980s.21Addingto

this,theImperialWarMuseumwasalsoacquiringmoreFEPOW-relatedmaterial

(ParkesandGill2015).22Afurthersurgeofinterestoccurredafterthedeath,in1989,of

Hirohito,theJapaneseEmperorduringthewar(Rose2013).In1998,thepublicvoiceof

theex-FEPOWsrosetoanemotionalcrescendoontheoccasionofEmperorAkihito’s

statevisit.Ex-FEPOWs,aggrievedbythereluctanceoftheJapanesegovernmentto

payingadequatecompensation,orgiveanacceptableapology,turnedtheirbacksin

protestasthemotorcadedrovedowntheMall.SomepubliclyburnedtheJapaneseflag

(MurakamiandMiddleton2006).23

However,macro-levelexplanationsofthememoryboomcanoccludeawareness

ofthesignificanceofindividualpsychosocialanddevelopmentalfactors.MostFEPOWs

wereintheirsixtiesduringthe1980s,manywerestillingoodhealth,andsomefelt

morecomfortableaboutsharingtheirmemories.24Theirchildren-the‘babyboomers’-

werebeginningtoreapthefinancialrewardsofabettereducationthanmanyoftheir

19Afterthe1979rebroadcastitwasestimatedthat220millionpeoplehadwatchedthisseriesinUSAandEurope(including15millioninWestGermany-halftheadultpopulation).Afterthe1979broadcast,theWestGermangovernment‘promptlycancelledthestatuteoflimitationsforNaziwarcrimes,formerlyscheduledtoexpireattheendof1979’.(http://www.museum.tv/eotv/holocaust.htm)SeealsoMonson(1982).20E.g.Attiwill(1958)andParkin(1968).21E.g.Baxter(2010),ChisnallandMaddocks(2014),Cordingly(2014),Godfrey(2003),Griffiths(1989),Hill(2002),Kandler(2010),Peek(2004),Rawlings(2015),andRose,W.C.(2012).22ItisworthnotingthateyewitnessmaterialcontinuestobeofferedtotheJavaClubforinclusionitsemailedNewsletters.Unfortunatelyonlysubscriberscanreceivethese,andtheyarenotaccessibleonline.http://www.thejavafepowclub42.org/23The1990ssawthestartofacontroversialcollaborationbetweentheUK-basedAgapecharityandtheJapanesegovernmenttopromotereconciliationbyfundingvisitstoJapanbyex-FEPOWs.Seehttp://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2002/02/20/national/woman-calls-british-ex-pows-to-japan/#.V96NJyMrKLc24Bar-On(1995)believedthathisworkwiththreegenerationsofIsraelifamilieshadtowaituntilthelate1980swhenmanysurvivorswerestillaliveandwerewillingtospeakoftheirexperiences.Bythentheyhadaccumulatedsufficientevidenceofthefamily’s‘normality’(p.20).

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fathershadenjoyed,andwerebetterequippedtechnicallyandacademicallytoengage

inmemorywork.25

Thestrengtheningofinterestthroughthe1990swasreflectedinthe

increasinglyprominentroleplayedbyformerFEPOWsandtheirchildrenin

remembranceeventssuchastheRemembranceSundayparadeattheCenotaphin

London.26Inmanyrespects,theannualparadeattheCenotaphisthecentrepieceof

remembranceinBritainanditsritualsreplicated,onareducedscale,acrossthecountry

atlocalwarmemorials.Recentdevelopmentsinmediatechnologyhaveallowedthese

ceremoniestobefarmorewidelydistributedthaneverbefore,andbroadcastershave

beguntointroducenewmediaroutesforpersonaltestimonyrelatedtotheseoccasions

andWorldWarTwogenerally.27Despitethisnewemphasisfromthemedia,thestate’s

overallcontrolofthepublicritualsenactedattheCenotaph28continuetoembodythe

rigiditiesoftheBritishclass,religiousandmilitaryorders,whichareseenmost

conspicuouslyintheexpressionofrankandstatusduringthelayingofwreaths.Gook

(2011)describescommemorationasan‘eventofintensifiedrememberingwithothers’,

atwhich‘thetrueperformativeforceofthecommemoration…liesinthesubjectivityof

thoseitaddresses’(p.16,italicsintheoriginal).29Thatbeingthecase,individual

attendeescanchoosewhethertobesweptupintheemotionsoftheremembrance

event,ortorefusetoidentifywiththeideologybeingactivelysponsoredortacitly

endorsed.25WeshouldnotethatmanyfatherswerestillsilentonthesubjectoftheirPOWcaptivity(atleasttotheirfamilies),sointheabsenceofwitnessaccountsfromtheirfathersthechildrenhadtoseekoutalternativesourcesofinformation.26http://www.iwm.org.uk/history/what-is-the-cenotaph27SeetheBBCinitiative‘ThePeople’sWar’:http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/categories/c1204/index.shtml28SeeBonney(2013)foraninterestingaccountofhowtheCenotaphritualshaveevolved,andStephenson(2005)foranalternative,genderedanalysisoftheCenotaph,theTomboftheUnknownWarrior,andtheSilence.29Casey(2000)pointsoutthesomewhatparadoxicalnatureofcommemoration,formany(sometimesall)ofthosepresentatcommemorativeeventscanhavenodirectmemoryatalloftheeventsbeing‘remembered’(e.g.commemoratingtheGreatWar).Caseyarguesthatthepasteventsbecomeimmanentthroughcommemorabilia-asifthepastis‘somehowsetwithintheirmateriality’(p.219),asweseethisindomesticaswellaspublicspaces.

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Joanna’sparticipationintheRemembranceDayparadeattheCenotaph

demonstratedhowcomplexandambivalentpersonalresponsescanbe.Herexperience

atthetimewasemotionalbutingrainedwithheracuteawarenessofclassdifferences.30

Shehadgonewithanoldfriend,Helen:

[It]wasabsolutelyextraordinarilymoving.Witheverybodyclappingusinsilence’.Laterintheinterview,shedescribedherreactiontothemassoffellowmarchers:‘...itsoundsfrightfullysnobby[but]theywere“otherranks”....Verysweet,nicepeople,butabsolutelynothingincommonwiththematall....Theywerejust…different.Butobviouslyweallhadthatincommon[ex-FEPOWfathers].

Whenitcametoexploitingthegrowingpublicinterestinthewar,formerFEPOWswere

inabetterpositionthanmanyotherex-combatants;notleastbecausetheyhad

succeededincarvingoutaclearanddistinctiveidentity,andsubstantialorganizational

capacitythroughanetworkofex-FEPOWclubs.In1952,sixty-fouroftheselocalclubs

cametogethertoformtheNationalFederationofFarEastPrisonerofWarClubsand

Associations(Makepeace2014a,p.258).AlthougheveryindividualFEPOW’sexperience

ofcaptivitywasdifferent,therewerepsychological,social,materialandpolitical

benefitsinbuildingaconsensusaroundapositive,sharednarrative(Makepeace

2014a).Asenseofindividualandcollectivegrievancealsolaybehindtheex-FEPOWs

willingnesstorampuptheirpublicprofile,feelingsthathadbeenhardenedbytheir

claimsforcompensation31(Makepeace2014b),andbywitnessingthecontinuing

financialstrugglesofthewarwidows(Lomas1994)32.Personalbondsforgedby

30Asthenumberoflivingex-FEPOWshasdeclined,visibleclassdistinctionsandbarriershavedissolved.Theremainingfewhavebecomelionized,aphenomenonthatisnowapparentatmanyoftheeventsatwhichex-FEPOWsarehonouredguests,andatwhichotherguests‘baskinthereflectedglory’.Ihaveattendedmanysucheventsinthelastfewyears,andlistenedrespectfullyasIamtoldinhushedandreverentialtonesthatFEPOWXorY‘ishere’.AndIhavewatchedastheJapaneseAmbassadortoLondonmanoeuvredhimselfintoaphotoopportunitywithoneoftheveterans.Asthesemenbecomefrailer,whattheyrepresentdiscursivelyhasbeguntooutweighwhotheyareasindividuals.31‘Inrecognitionoftheuniquecircumstancesoftheircaptivity,theGovernmentannouncedon7thNovember2000,thatasingleex-gratiapaymentof£10,000wastobemadetosurvivingmembersofBritishGroupswhowereheldprisonerbytheJapaneseduringtheSecondWorldWar.’http://s198596577.websitehome.co.uk/fepow/fepow_index.html32Seeespeciallyp.224foranexampleofthelackofcompassionthatwasregularlymetedout.

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membershipoftheex-FEPOWclubsenduretothepresent-day,andhavepermeated

into-andanimated-manyofthesecondandeventhethirdgenerations.33

Thatsaid,manyveteransdidnotjoinlocalex-FEPOWclubs,andsometimes

werebarelyawareoftheirexistence.In1975,theyearbeforehedied,Gwen’sfather

wasinhospital.Therehemetawelfareofficerwhotoldhimaboutthehelphecould

havebeenreceiving.‘…Hedidn’tevenknowabouttheFarEasternPrisonerofWar

Association.TheonlythingheknewaboutwastheBritishLegion.Andhetriedtojoin

theBritishLegionroundhere,anditwasawful.’Otherfatherstookadeliberatedecision

nottojoinanyPOWassociationspreferring,insofarastheycould,todrawasharpline

betweentheirmilitaryandcivilianlives.ForDeirdre’sfather,thiswasdrivenbya

profoundbitternessthatexpresseditselfratherquirkily,andcertainlyinamanner

starklyinconsistentwiththestateapprovednarrativeofWorldWarTwo:

Hewasverybitter.Very,verybitter....Therewasabigoldsideboard,andonittherewasacarving,bustofChurchill.Withhiscigar.Idon’tknowhowhecomebyit,whethersomebodydiditinthecampsorsomething…butitwasareallikenessofhim.Whenhegotinarealtemper,hewouldpickholdofpooroldChurchillandlaunchhim.Andsointheendhehadnocigarleftatall.

Aswenotedearlier,mostformerFEPOWswereintheirsixtiesatthestartofthe

‘memoryboom’.Significantlyperhaps,thisisthesameagerangeasmostofthe

participantsinthisresearch.Seeninapsycho-historicalcontext,thisisthestagethat

Eriksoncharacterizesas‘generativityvs.stagnation’(EriksonandErikson1998).

Peopleinthisphaseoflifeinclinetowards‘expressionsofwisdomandpreservationof

culture’(Slater2003).Inotherwords,itisthepointatwhichonefeelsaparticular

pressuretopassonexperience,tosummate,tobeawitnesstoone’sownpast,34before

wetoobecomehistoryandmyth.FarEastcaptivityhaddisruptedthenormal

developmentaltimeframe:education,career,workandrelationshipshadallbeenheld

33PrincipallythroughCOFEPOW,andvarious‘closed’socialmediaoutlets.34Althoughtheimperativeto‘witness’doesnotfigureprominentlyintheacademicliteratureonFEPOWs,itisattheverycoreofmuchworkontheexperienceofHolocaustsurvivors,forexample,Delbo(2001&2014),GoodmanandMeyers(2012),Laub(1992a,1992b,2014).

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backand,insomecases,damagedbeyondrepair.Fortheex-FEPOWs,thestageof

generativityofferedthechancetoputsomeofthisbacktogether,tocreatepsychic

orderoutofdisorder,andtofinallyattemptacoherentnarrative.Thirtyyearson,andin

thewakeofmajorwar-relatedanniversaries,35itwasthechildrenwhonowfound

themselvesinthisposition.

Memorialisation:theintimateandthepersonalAlthoughthewarintheFarEasthasgrowninpublicstatureinrecentdecades,36itisin

thehomethatwefindsomeofthemostintenseengagementwithmemorypractices.

Warmemorialsarecollectivesymbols.Theyspeaktoandforcommunitiesofmenandwomen.Commemorationalsohappenedonamuchmoreintimatelevel,throughthepreservationinhouseholdsofpossessions,photographs,personalsignaturesofthedead.

(Winter2014,p.51)Manyaspectsofdomesticmemorializationsurfacedduringmyresearchinterviewsand

grewinimportanceastheresearchproceeded.Asaresult,Iarguethatthecurrent

researchliteratureunder-emphasizestheroleofdomesticartifactsinthememory

practicesusedbythechildrenofFEPOWs.Mementoesandotherpreciousobjects

invariablyplayedasignificantroleinparticipants’relationshipnetworks(Siefkes

2012).

Mementoesandfamilyphotographsarepartoftheconsciousandunconscious

textureofeverydaylife,yetinfrequentlyexposedtoresearchscrutiny.Wearingyour

father’swatch,displayingaphotographofyourparent’swedding,holidaysouvenirs...

allarewaysofstayingintouchwiththepastand,tovaryingdegrees,possessan

emotionalcharge.Whenartifactsaretouchedbytrauma,whethertransmittedor

35In2014,the100thanniversaryofthestartoftheWorldWarOne,followedin2015bythe70thanniversaryoftheendofWorldWarTwo.36ThisshiftinpublicrecognitionisespeciallynoticeableinAustraliawhereaccordingtoTwomey(2013)theimageof‘theincarceratedsoldier’oftheJapanesenowrivalsthatofthe‘originalAnzacs’.Shesuggeststhatintheimmediatepostwaryears,Australiansocietyfounditdifficulttoempathizewiththe‘confinementandpassivity’(p.322)ofagroupofdefeatedsoldiersenslavedbyaracewhoseoccupieda‘raciallyinferior’statusinthethen-prevailingdiscourse.

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experienceddirectlyduringchildhood-andespeciallywhenassociatedwithglobalwar

-theybecomeimbuedwithparticularsignificanceandcomplicatedemotionalmeanings

(Mannik2011).37

Domesticmemorializationpracticesincludesiftingthroughthefather’spapers

andbelongings;searchingforanddiscoveringkeyartifacts;decidinghowandwhereto

storeand/ordisplayphotos(printedordigital),documents,orartifacts(andwhowill

dothis);selectingwhichofthefather’sdocumentsandartifactswillbekept,andwhich

discarded;anddecidingwhatuseistobemadeoflettersandartifacts(forexample,

theymaybe‘archived’ordisplayed,orperhapsusedasthebasisofaparticipant’s

creativework).Significantobjectsandpracticeswereintegraltohowparticipants

narrativisedtheirownandtheirfathers’pasts,aprocessthatcouldblurtheboundaries

betweensubjectandobject:

Inthisendlessshuttlingbackandforthbetweenthemindandthematerialworld,itseemsthatobjectscanactlikesubjectsandthatsubjectscanbeacteduponlikeobjects(Ingold2011,p.213).

Ingold’sperspectiveilluminatesthecloseengagementwefeelwithcertainmaterial

objectsthathavemeaningforus,especiallyduringperiodsofreverieorcontemplation

(suchasoccursonanniversaries,oratremembranceevents).ForIngold,material

objectsliewithinarelationalfieldthatembracesboththelivingandnon-living,bothof

whichareconstitutiveofoursenseofself.38Ingoldembracesactornetworktheory,a

basicpremiseofwhichisthatthesocialsciencesneedtorecognisethatmaterialobjects

areessentialtohowhumansestablish,maintainandchangemeanings,identities,and

managerelationships.

37Whilethissectionisconcernedwithartifactsonthedomesticscale,weshouldnotoverlooktheroleofwhatIcall‘celebrityrelics’inFEPOWdiscourse.Onesuchisthe‘TheChangiCross’whichhasitsownFacebookpage-https://www.facebook.com/thechangicross/-andhasfeaturedinpublications,e.g.Cordingly(2015).38PerhapsthemostpowerfulofIngold’sinsightsonthistopic-oftheblurringbetweenlivingandnon-living-ishiscontentionthatthe‘animacyofthelifeworld’is‘ontologicallypriortotheirdifferentiation’.Ashepointsput,weareall‘closetanimists’forsoundevolutionaryreasons:‘Thosewhotakerockstobecrocodileshavegreaterchancesofsurvivalthanthosewhomistakecrocodilesforrocks’(p.68).

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Ifhumanbeingsformasocialnetworkitisnotbecausetheyinteractwithotherhumanbeings.Itisbecausetheyinteractwithhumanbeingsandendlessothermaterialstoo(Law2003).

ForANT,physicalobjectsarenecessarycomponentsofnetworksthatintegratewith

individuals,familiesandgroups.Thematerialelementshaveatangible,presentreality,

butalsoapsychiconethroughtheirexistenceinthe‘objectrelations’worldofthe

individual’sinnerlife.39

Insomeinstances,artifactsassociatedwithafather’straumaticpastmay

becomesosaturated-so‘overdetermined’-withpersonalmeaningastobetreatedas

‘sacred’(Belketal1989),or‘transformative’(Bollas1987).However,theirmeanings

andsignificancemayonlybecomeapparentmuchlaterinthelivesofthechildren,when

theyarediscoveredorrediscovered.AsMargaretGibsonhasnoted,itoftentakesthe

deathofalovedoneforusto‘trulynotice’theirpersonalbelongings(Gibson2008,p.1,

italicsinoriginal).FEPOW-relatedobjectspossessedauniquepiquancyandresonance

becausesomanyofthemmanagedtosurvive.Theseartifactsandimageshaveaforceful

iffluctuatingundertowthatpullstogetherpasteventsandcontemporaryexperiencein

aprocessthatKnight(2012)referstoas‘culturalproximity’.Artifactsaremultivalentin

theirpsychicforce,insomecasesreinforcingestablishedmemories,inotherstriggering

newinsights.

...peoplerequireaparadigmfromthepastinordertounderstandpresentcircumstances.Certainobjects,actionsandnarrativescometotheforeasculturallyandhistoricallysignificant.Thisprocessismorethansimply“rememberingthepast”ashistoricalmomentsareembodiedthrougharangeofmedia—firsthandexperience,inter-generationalnarratives,nationalistdiscourse,artifactsandobjects.(Knight2012,p.369)

AswehaveseenfromtheworkofMarianneHirsch(2012b),photographyisapowerful

mediumforreflectingandshapingpersonalandpoliticalmemoriesandmeanings,and

hasbeenwidelydiscussedbyothers(forexample,Barthes2000,Gibson2008,Kuhn39SeeWoodward(2011)foraninterestingperspectiveonthis,albeitappliedwithinconsumptionstudies.

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2002,Kunimoto2004,andSontag2003).Whenparticipantsintroducedartifactsor

photographsintointerviews,narrativesoftenshifteddirection,eithercomplementing,

orcolliding,withearlierrecollections.Memorieswouldberevived,andthepastand

presentcoalesceintonewpsychicformations.Inmanycasesmorelayeredaccounts

resulted,thatenabled‘personalmeanings[to]iteratewithsocialandculturalmeanings’

(Smart2007,p.158).

MyinterviewwithGwenwasatellingexample,revealinghowtwofamily

photographscouldimplicateandengagewiththeintersubjective,andwithbroader

social,historicalandculturalcontexts.Halfwaythroughourinterview,shebeganto

showmefamilyphotographs,beginningwithoneofherfathersittingonabenchinthe

groundsofahospitalwherehewasapatient.

Gwen:That’saphotoofmyfatherandmysister.Andifyoulookat…Ididn't[lowersvoice]wantthistobeonthere,butthat’sJonathanmyson.

Thephotographshowedascenethat,touseBarthes’sterminology,was‘studium’40and

unremarkableatfirstglance.However,asIattendedmorecloselytothephotograph,I

noticedthatJonathanwasmixedrace.Thisawarenessinterrupted-‘punctuated’-my

contemplationofthephotograph.Ihadbeenjoltedintothedisturbedstateofmind,

provokedbywhatBarthesdescribesasthephotograph’s‘punctum’-‘thataccident

whichpricksme(butalsobruisesme,ispoignanttome)’(p.27).GivenGwen’s

cautionaryandambiguouswords(‘Ididn’twantthistobeonthere’),Istayedsilent

aboutmyobservation(aquietcollusionperhaps).Twentyfiveminuteslatershe

showedmeaphotographofafamilyChristmas,whichagainincludedJonathan.Butby

thistimetheintersubjectivedynamicshadmovedon.

Gwen:Thisismyfather.ThatwasjustaboutthelastChristmasreally.Andmymotherandfather…andJonathan[Ifeelsheisinvitingmetoenquirefurther].Terry:A-Jonathan’serm…mixedheritageisn’the?

40Barthes(2000)usesthistermtodescribephotographsthatwecanunderstandbecausewesharethephotographer’sculturalframeofreference.Whatwefeelaboutthese‘derivesfromanaverageaffect’(p.26),whatwehavebecomeaccustomedtofeelingwhenviewingsuchphotographs.[Italicsintheoriginal].

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Gwen:Yes.Terry:Wasthatanysortofissue,backin…?Gwen:Itwasaterribletime.Myfathersaidtomymother,takehertothedoctorsandsayshe’sgottohaveatermination.Andthedoctorsaid,no,she’sahealthyyounggirl.Ididn’trealise,youknow,myfatherhadsuchissues.AndevenwhenIgavebirth,onmyown,Ihadnobodywithme.Iwasbarelyseventeenandtheysaid,we’llseeyouatvisitingtime....Andmymotherandfathercameinandthefirstthingthattheysaidtomewas,‘Oh,oh,he’scoloured.Areyoukeepinghim?’Costheydidn’tknowwhethertogivehimtometohold.AndIrememberthemsaying,‘Areyoukeepinghimlove?’AndIremembersayingtothem,‘Youmustbebloodymad’.Irememberswearing.Andsaying,‘AfterallI’vebeenthrough,doyouthinkI’dgivemysonup?’Andthenoneofthemsaid-becausethere’ssofewblackpeoplearoundhere.Buttheyweren’tgonnagivemehimuntilIsaidIwaskeepinghim,youknow.

Althoughshemanagedtowinherfatherroundtotheideaofherkeepingthebaby,

GwenandJonathanhadtoputupwithagreatdealofovertracismfromlocalpeople.‘I

hadawfulabuse....oneboythatusedtocontinuallystandinthedoorwithhismother,

andshe’djustlethimcallhimawog.’41However,thesecruelexperiencescontributedto

hergrowingresiliencewhichstoodheringoodsteadforlaterbattles.

Themeaningofanartifactcouldbetransformedinremarkableandunexpected

ways.DerekprizedaJapaneseflagbroughthomebyhisfather.Itwasinscribedwith

handwrittenJapanesecharactersthatIwasabletogettranslatedbyJapanesefriends:

Yes,thisisoneoftheflags,whichwhenayoungmanwasconscriptedandregisterinamilitaryunit.Hisfamily,relativesandfriendsgivetheirsignaturesonaJapaneseflag,withsomeencouragingmessageforayoungsoldier.NowIcanreadtheyoungman’sfirstname,whichisKenichirou.KENmeanswise:ICHImeansone:ROUisasuffixforboysnames.Hemusthavebeentheeldestson.42

Twofamilies,twocultures,andtwohistoriesfortuitouslybroughttogetherthrougha

singleartifact:a‘sacred’objecttobothsideswhosefullculturalandpersonalmeanings

onlybecamemanifestsevendecadesaftertheendofhostilities.43

41RacismwasendemicinsouthWalesduringthe1960s,andattitudestowards‘illegitimacy’remainedveryconservative(Johnes2012).Therehadbeenabackgroundofracialtensioninthearea-duetocompetitionforhousing,jobs,andwomen-culminatinginthe1919Cardiffraceriotsinwhichthreepeoplewerekilledandmanymoreinjured(Jenkinson1987):oneoftheleastsavouryconsequencesofyoungmenbeingsentoverseastofightintheGreatWar.42MythanksgotoYukaandJujiIbukifortheirworkonthetranslation.

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Kidron(2012b)askswhethermaterialobjectsmightbeanalternativemeansby

whichsurvivorscan‘transmitemotiveandcorporealtracesofdifficultand

“unknowable”pasts’,sochallengingoneofthemaintropesofFEPOWdiscourse,the

‘wallofsilence’(p.6).Sally’sfatherdidn’tspeakaboutthewar,butwhenshewasseven

oreightshewouldcreepintohisbedroomandlookthroughthesecrethordeofletters

andartifactsinanoldRedCrossboxatthebottomofthewardrobe:‘itwasliketryingto

findsomethingIsuppose.Youknow,thethingsthatjusthappenedthatweren’ttalked

about.’Kidronalsodescribeshowsurvivors’artifactscouldbeintegratedinto‘mundane

andhabitualdomesticpractice’(p.9)Asaboy,Derekwasregularlyremindedofhis

father’stimeasaFEPOWbecausehisfatherworea‘Japanesehatthatheusedtousefor

paintingtheceilingstokeepthepaintoffhishead’.Itwasonlymanyyearslaterthathe

begantoseethehatandotherartifactsasauniquesetofobjectswithpersonaland

historicalsignificance.

Therelationshipbetweenmemory,artifacts,images,andthematerial

environmentisacloseandevolvingone,anditsstudybecomingmoreprominentin

recentyears.DeNardi(2014)contendsthatmementoesaremorethansimple‘sitesof

memoryorrelics’butcanbethoughtofas‘sitesoffeeling’(p.443),andareflectionof

thegrowingroleoftheembodiedinsocialscience.Forthoseparticipantswhose

childhoodsweremarredbyan‘absent’father,wemightenvisageartifactsactingas

substitutesinsomewayforthelackof‘secureattachments’inchildhood,as

‘transitionalobjects’perhaps(Winnicott1991).

Memoryentrepreneurship

Finally,Iturntotheemergenceofindividualagencyinthefaceofstateorinstitutional

apathy.Gainingapprovalandfundingformemorialshaveoftendemandedpainstaking

43Thiswebsiteexplainstheculturalsignificanceoftheyosegakihinomaru-http://obon2015.com/english/what-is-a-yosegaki-hinomaru.html

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campaignsovermanyyearsbydoggedindividualsandFEPOWgroups:whatConway

(2008)andAssi(2011)refertoas‘memoryentrepreneurs’.

ThemostcelebratedFEPOWmemorialinBritainistheFEPOWMemorial

BuildinglocatedwithintheNationalMemorialArboretum(NMA).44TheNMAwasthe

brainchildofCommanderDavidChilds,aretirednavalofficer.Onlyofficiallyopenedin

2001,itisnowamuchlaudedcommemorativespacewhich,forthefirsttime,allowsthe

characterofindividualconflictstoberepresented.45ThedesignoftheFEPOWmemorial

is‘basedononeofthelargevillagehutsthatcanbeseeninThailand’(Childs2011,

p.84),andthebuildingitselfispackedwithconcretesymbolism,46muchlessabstract

thanmostoftheotherNMAmemorials.Thedrivingforcebehindtheconstructionofthe

buildingwasCarolCooper,theChairmanandFounderofCOFEPOW.47Giventhe

interactivenatureofitscontents,andtheincorporationofasmallresearchcentre,the

memorialensuresthatthehistoryoftheFEPOWsisnot‘frozenin’(Winter2014,p.78).

Asenseofinjusticecandriveindividualstochallengeandovercome

bureaucraticandculturalhurdlesplacedintheirpath.The‘memorialentrepreneurs’in

thiscaseareLindaandKevin.Linda’sfatherwasaPOWinOmicampinJapan.When

theyfirstvisitedthesitein2010,theyweredisappointedthattherewasnomemorialin

theareaoftheOmiprisoncamportheDenkamainfactorywherethePOWsworked.

Theywantedapermanentmemorialtomarkthememory‘ofthesebravemen,asinour

opiniontheyshouldneverbeforgottenbyanynation’.Inthefouryearsfollowingtheir

firstvisitin2010,thecouplehad,throughthegoodofficesoftheBritishEmbassyin

44TreesaslivingmonumentstorespondtolossoflifethroughtraumaticeventswasalsousedinMadridafterthe2004terroristbombings.Dr.DaciaViejo-RosegivesabriefintroductioninthisYouTubevideo(startingat11:11)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NAEFqp4tW2gAsfarasIamaware,thismemorialhasnotattractedanyscholarlyattention.Forphotographs,seehttp://www.fotomadrid.com/listadoFotos/tag/bosque_de_los_ausentes45Theprojectbeganintheearly1990swith‘nomoney,noland,nostaffandnotrees’.Seehttp://www.thenma.org.uk/about-us/who-we-are/46http://www.waymarking.com/waymarks/WM93DK_The_Far_East_Prisoners_of_War_Memorial_Building_The_National_Memorial_Arboretum_Croxall_Road_Alrewas_Staffordshire_UK47http://www.cofepow.org.uk/

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Tokyo,48succeededinpersuadingtheownersoftheJapaneseconglomerate(‘Denka’)to

buildamemorialforthePOWswhodiedinthecamp.Thecompanyprovided£150,000

tofullyfundthememorial,whichisnowlocatedinthegroundsofthecompany

headquartersatOmi.49

In2014,LindaandKevinvisitedJapanonceagaintoattendthehighprofile

unveilingceremony.50ThisceremonybroughttomindthedistinctionmadebyYoung

(1993)between‘collective’and‘collected’memories.Young’sexplicitaimisto‘break

downthenotionofanymemorial’s“collectivememory”altogether’(p.xi).Heprefersthe

term‘collected’because‘asociety’smemorycannotexistoutsideofthosepeoplewho

dotheremembering,evenifsuchmemoryhappenstobeatthesociety’sbidding,inits

name’.Asapersonalattendee,myobservationsbefore,duringandaftertheOmi

ceremonybroughtYoung’sdistinctionintosharprelief.Overonehundredpeoplefrom

differentgenerationsanddifferentnationalitiesgatheredtogetherinamarqueeonthe

rainymarginsofruralJapanandtheirmemoriescouldonlybedescribedas‘collected’.51

TheBritishAmbassadorstrivedforamorecollectiveposition:

Bothsidesrecognisethepainandsuffering;ontheJapanesesidethereisaclearrecognitionthatthisisanepisodeintheirownhistorythattheymustownandaccept;butthatisnotthesameasfeelingpersonallyculpable...AndontheBritishside,mysenseisofasimilarsenseofsharedhistory;ofpersonalexperience,oftenofarelativeratherthanthemselves,butofanoverwhelmingdesirenottoforget,ratherthantheimpossibilityofshakingoffthememory.AtOmiIfeltasharingofsomethingbetweentheJapaneseandBritish(andAustralianandNewZealand)sides,ratherthananegotiatedtruce.52

Hisunderlinedwordsprobablyrepresentedthepsychicrealitiesofthosepresent,but

perhapsnotinsuchpolarizedterms.Fromtheparticipants’stories,Irecognisethatitis

48OtherkeycollaboratorsincludedthePOWResearchNetworkJapan,andMrs.KeikoHolmesofAgape.Seehttp://www.powresearch.jp/en/andhttp://www.agapeworld.com/began.htm49OmiPOWcampinformation:http://www.mansell.com/pow_resources/camplists/tokyo/tok-13b-omi/tok_13b_omi_main.html50AttendeesincludestheBritishAmbassador,thePresidentofDenka,ahighrankingofficialfromtheJapaneseMinistryofForeignaffairs,familiesofthePOWsfromBritain,Australia,NewZealandandUSA.51NationalitiesincludedBritish,Japanese,Australians,Americans,andNewZealanders.52Personalcommunication.

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possibletoholdbothpointsofview:aconsciousdesire‘nottoforget’(seenaspositive)

andapsychicinabilityto‘shakeoffthememory’(seenasnegative).Inotethatin

neitherthepubliclanguageofthediplomatnorinparticipants’testimoniesdoes

Hoffman’ssentimentprevail:‘itmayalsobetimetoturnaway,gently,toletthisgo’

(Hoffman2004,p.233).

Conclusion

Thischapterhaschartedacoursefrombroadconceptualframeworksofmemoryand

remembrance,throughrememberingonadomesticscalemediatedbyartifactsand

images,towaysinwhichmemorycoulddriveindividualstocreatenewmemorialsand

practices.Extractsfromthetestimoniesofparticipantsprovidedanempirical

underpinningforthediscussionofartifactsandphotographs.Forparticipants,they

servedanimportantpsychicfunctioninpersonalmemorypractices;andtheirpresence

aspartoftheinterviewprocessthrewnewlightonthesubjectivitiesofparticipants.

Anumberofkeyissueshaveemergedfromthischapter.Firstly,theroleof

‘postmemory’asavaluableheuristicdeviceforconceptualizingtheimpactofone

generation’smemoriesonthoseofthenext.Secondly,thecamouflagingofindividual

differenceofferedbyhighprofileremembranceeventshighlightsthetensionsbetween

‘collectivememories’,‘collectedmemories’and‘collectivemeaning’.Thirdly,the

pervasiveinfluenceoftechnologicalchangeonmemoryistransforming

memorializationthroughdigitalandonlinecommunications;thesechangesextendand

blurthelimitsoftraditionalmodesofmemorialization,thusallowingindividualagency

greaterrein.Fourthly,thereareparallelsbetweenthe‘FEPOWmemoryboom’ofthe

1980sandthechildren’spresent-dayinterestinthecaptivityexperiencesoftheir

fathers,withthedevelopmentalstageof‘generativityvs.stagnation’beingatitscore.

Finally,myresearchsuggeststhatinsufficientscholarlyattentionhasbeenpaidto

domesticmemorializationpractices,andthepowerofpersonaldomesticartifactsand

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imagesinmediatingthememoriesofthechildren.Withinthis,Iincludedigitaland

onlinemediawhencreatedoractivelyexploitedbyindividuals,whichfacilitatethe

formationofcomplexpeernetworks.Givinggreaterexposuretotheseintimate

practicesmaycounterbalancethefocusonnational,statesponsoredrituals,and

monumentalartifacts,thatpresentlyseemstodominatethewarmemorylandscape.

Athornyissuehauntsmuchofthischapter,however.Whenisitacceptableto

forget,to‘letthisgo’?Whenshouldmemoriesbeallowedtopassintohistory?Although

Iraisethesequestionsinascholarlycontext,inaspiritofreflexivity,Ihaveto

acknowledgethatthesequestionsarehighlypersonal,andcuttothecoreofmyown

motivationforthisresearch.Inthenextchapter,Idiscussthepsychicprocessesthat

underpinthememorypracticesthatparticipantsusedtoreview,re-assessand

reconstructtheirrelationshipswiththeirfathers.

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CHAPTERSIX

NARRATINGANDRECONSTRUCTINGTHEPAST

Introduction

Thischapteractsasabridge,andavantagepoint.ItbuildsonChapterFiveand

connectsthe‘rawmaterial’ofchildhoodmemories(ChapterFour)tothememory

practicesoftheadultchildren(ChaptersSevenandEight).Iarguethat,asthechildren

passedfromchildhoodintoadulthoodandonthroughthelifecourse,pivotaleventsand

anenduringemotionallegacycausedmanytoengageinfundamentalre-assessments

andreconstructionsoftheirrelationshipwiththeirfathers.Takentogether,

participants’testimoniesconfirmedthesignificanceofthefather-childrelationshipfor

theiremotionalwellbeing,andmoreoveroftendisplayedanacuteawarenessoftheir

father’ssingularplaceinthehistoryofWorldWarTwo.Alwaysactiveintheshadows

wasarecurringexistentialuneasethatboundtogethermanyifnotallthechildrenof

FEPOWs:thebeliefthat,haditnotbeenfortheatomicbomb,theywould‘notbehere

today’.Formany,however,thisrecognitionco-existedwiththeequallyinsistent

knowledgeofthehorrorsinflictedonthecitiesofHiroshimaandNagasaki.Inthat

sense,somechildrenofFEPOWswereleftinastateofmoralandpsychicconflict-they

couldnotlivewiththebomb,yettheycouldnothavelivedwithoutit.1Thistopicwas

rarelyraisedexplicitlywithinmyrecordedinterviews.This‘silence’mightmeanthatit

wastreatedasa‘given’(‘weallknowthatwewouldn’tbeherewithoutthebomb’),a

psychicavoidancestrategy(‘Idon’twanttotalkaboutthisbecauseIcan’tdealwiththe

irresolvableconflict’),orasamoraljudgement(‘theybroughtitonthemselves’).2

1SeeLee(2016)forarecentbriefaccountoftheshortandlongtermtraumas,andpoliticalduplicity,thatmakeapersonalmoralresolutiontothishistoricaldilemmasoverydifficultforthechildrenofFEPOWs.2Joannareportedaconversationwithherfather:‘…andIjustsaid,isn’titdreadfuldaddy,thattsunami…AndIsaidhaveyouseenit,youknow,allthosepeoplebeingkilled?Andhesaid,yesdear…Iamquietlycelebrating.Shallwehaveaglassofsherry?

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InthefirstpartofthechapterIaddressthenotionofmemorypractice.Aspart

ofthis,Iofferaheuristicconceptualframeworkthatassociatesunderpinning

motivationswithparticularformsofpractice.Bydrawingonselectedtheoretical

conceptsfrompsychoanalysisandnarrativestudies,Iexamineandillustratehow

participantsprocessedtheconsequencesofchildhoodthroughtheirlifecourse.Itisof

courseatruismthatnorelationshipisfixed,andthatpartofthehumanconditionisto

putourrelationships-pastandcurrent-constantlyunderthemicroscope.Butmy

researchshowedthatforthechildrenofFEPOWsthisurgetoreviewwasremarkably

tenacious.Asthecasestudieswillshow,‘turningpoints’inthelifecoursewereoftenthe

spurforparticipantstobeginare-evaluationoftherelationshipwiththefather.

Memorypractices

‘Memorytakesuswhereweneedtogo’3Agrowinginterestinmemorypracticespointstoashiftfromthestudyofmemoryasa

phenomenonlargelyconcernedwithstaticrepresentation,toonethatengageswiththe

waysindividualsandgroupsascribemeaningstothepastby‘doing’memory(for

example,seeBrookfieldetal2008,GravesandRechniewski2010,Olick1999,andStein

2009).AsdiscussedinChapterFive,thisresearchhighlightedthewiderangeandscale

ofmemorypractices,andhowtheywereoftenderivedfrom,andfirmlyembeddedin,

theroutinesofeverydaylifeandthedomesticecology.Schwarz(2014)commentsas

follows:

...awholebunchofhighlycommonmundanepracticesmaybereinterpretedasmemorypracticesthatsharewithcommemorationrituals,diarykeepingandmonumentsmuchmorethanwouldappearatfirstglance(p.18).

3Thisisaquotationfrom‘WaltzwithBashir’,a2008filmdirectedbyAriFormanwhohadbeenanIsraelisoldierinthe1982Lebanonwar.Thefilmisabeautifullyrealisedmeditationonhowwartraumacanaffect(andeffect)memory,andhowoneindividualsetaboutaddressinghislegacyoftrauma.It‘allow[s]foranencounterwiththetentativeness,incompleteness,fracturingandsurrealityoftraumainthenarrativecontext’(Viljoen2014,p.41).

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MaritaSturken’s(2008)genericdefinitionofamemorypracticeissuccinctyet

comprehensive:

Apracticeofmemoryisanactivitythatengageswith,produces,reproducesandinvestsmeaninginmemories,whetherpersonal,culturalorcollective(p.74).

Furthermore,sheclaimsthat:

...theconceptofmemorypracticesallowsforanemphasisonthepoliticsofmemory,preciselybecausethewaysinwhichtheproductionandconstructionofmemorythroughculturalpracticeshasasitsfoundationthenotionthatmemoriesarepartofalargerprocessofculturalnegotiation(p.74).

Theroleofpoliticsisespeciallypertinenttotheparticipantsinthisresearchbecause

theirmemories-suspendedastheywerebetweenmicroandmacrohistories

(Walkerdineetal2013)-wererarelyexemptfrompoliticalandculturalinfluences.

Sturken’sdefinitionisconsistentwithKarlFiglio’spositionthatmemorialsare‘sitesof

remembering...aroundwhichrememberingisaliveandongoing’(Figlio2014,p.420).

Inthissense,memorypracticesarealsositesofremembering,blendingactivitiesand

artifactsateveryscale.Practicesoftenincorporate‘monuments’whichFigliodefinesas

‘materialobjectswhichfreezememories,confiningthemintoideologicalportrayals’

(p.420).

Applyingtheseideastomydata,wemightconceiveoffamilyphotographsas

typesofdomesticmonumentwhosemeaningshavebeenestablishedbythefamily,and

graduallystrippedofambiguity.Amoreconventionalexamplewithpoliticalovertones

isthesmallmemorialatOmineMachierectedbyJapanesevillagerstocommemorate

theFEPOWswholivedanddiedascoalminersinasitesome120kmfromHiroshima

(seeChapterEightinwhichJohn’spilgrimageisdiscussed).4Thewordingontheplaque

includesthefollowing:‘WhenthewarendedonAugust15,1945,theyreturnedtotheir

owncountries.Butsomeofthemdiedfromillness’.Thiseffectivelyblocksoutany

thoughtsofsufferingandcruelty,andwascarefullychosentoproject(andprotect)an

4In2016,thismemorialbecameunexpectedlypoliticized.ItsremovaltriggeredprotestsfromactivistsinJapanandUK,andinterventionsbytheBritishEmbassyinTokyo.Thememorialhasnowbeenrelocatedtoanearbysite(asatDecember2016).

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ideologicalpositionacceptabletothelocalcommunityandpoliticalsensitivities,

suggesting‘adefensiveforgetting,notjustmultiplememoriesbasedondifferent

experiences’(Figlio2014,p.422).However,havingacknowledgedthepolitical

constraints,thefactthatthevillagersthemselvestooktheinitiativetobuildthe

memorialisanindicationofhumanitarianvaluesoffsettingpolitics.5

Duringtheanalysisofparticipants’testimonies,Igraduallybecameawareof

howtheirmemorypracticestendedtofallintothreelooseclusters.Todevelopthis

observationfurther,Idevisedaheuristicconceptualframeworktoaidmythinking

abouttheexperiencesofparticipants,andabouthowtheconstructof‘memorypractice’

mightbeunpacked(seeTable1,p.164).Theframeworkanditsconstituentconcepts

haveasensitizingnotanoperational,typologicaloressentialisingpurpose.

The‘dimensions’shouldbeseenasdynamicstrands,eachofwhichmaycometo

theforeatdifferenttimes,perhapsinresponsetounexpectedturnsofevent.Trauma

canlastalifetime,andrarelysubsidesinanorderlyorpredictablefashion,soweshould

anticipatechangesovertime.Achangeinonedimensionmighttriggeractivityin

another;forexample,discoveringanewhistoricalfactaboutthefather(adesired

outcomeof‘knowledge-based’practices)mayreactivateunconsciouspsychicmaterial

5Memoriesofactsofmutualkindnesssometimesoccurredwhichmayhaveplayedapartinthelaterdecisiontobuildamemorial.ThisaccountbyEdmondBabler,aUSPOWatOmineMachi,describesanincidentattheendofthewarwhilethePOWswerestillinthecampbuthadbeguntoreceiveboxesofAmericanfooddroppedbyparachutefromB-29s:‘WerememberedanelderlyJapanesemanwhohadhelpedescortustoandfromthemineandattimeswentdownintothemineandactedlikeastrawboss.Werememberedthathehadneverbotheredanyofus,wasneverangryatus,andtreatedusAmericanslikehisownpeople,alwaysgivingusthetimeofday;hewasjustagoodman....wehadsomuchfoodleftoverwetoldthisoldJapanesemantogoandgethiswagonandhorse.Whenhereturned,wefilledhiswagonhighwithboxesofourAmericanfood.Inexchange,theoldmanhauledthefoodboxesthatweweretakingwithusdowntothetraindepotbeforeweboardedthetraintoleave’(Daniels(2004,p.117).ThisactofkindnessmusthavemadeanimpactontheelderlyJapanesemanandhisfamily,especiallyasitwasatoddswithwhattheJapanesepopulationhadbeentoldtoexpect.Thefollowingtestimonywasgivenin1990byaJapanesemanwhoasafifteenyearoldschoolboyhadbeenmobilizedtoworkinacoppermineinIruka.‘WeweretoldthatEnglishandAmericanpeoplewere“demonic”andegocentricandthat,weretheJapanesetolosethewar,everywomanandgirlwouldberaped,allthemencastratedandenslaved....Aswegottoknowthem,wefoundthatmostbehavedinagentlemanlymanner’(Holmesetal1991,p.28).Undersuchcircumstances,itisunderstandablethatasenseof‘normal’moralresponsibilityorasenseofdutytothePOW’shardshipsmightsurfaceinthelocalcommunity,evenifaftersomeyears.

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andthuspropelthepersonmoretowardspracticesthatenablethemtomeettheir

emotionalneeds.Acombinationofknowledge-basedandemotion-basedactionsmight

provokeavalues-basedresponse,suchasdecidingtoengageinreconciliationactivities.

Wemightalsoconceptualisethesedimensionsasthreeprocessesthatarealwaysactive

withinallparticipants-albeitatdifferentdegreesofawareness-andwhosedominant

expression(orcombinationofexpressions)atanyonetimewillvaryaccordingto

childhoodexperience,lifestage,familybackgroundandcircumstances,socialclassand

soon.Thecomplexrelationshipbetweendimensionsandspecificmemorypracticescan

beseeninthecaseofpilgrimageswhichoftenprovidethesettingsandopportunitiesto

meetanyoralloftheseneeds(seeChapterEight).

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Table1: Memorypractices(inthecontextofthechildrenofFEPOWs):

Aheuristicconceptualframework

Construct Dimensions Indicators

Memorypractices

Knowledge-based

Factfinding,gap-filling;accessingpublicarchivesandcreatingpersonalarchives;genealogyandfamilyhistory;recordinganddisseminating(e.g.writingarticlesfornewsletters,offeringresearchservicesonaprobonobasis);attendingandorganizingconferences;visitingPOWsites.Creatingwebsitestoshareinformation.

Emotion-based

Apreparednessorrecognitionthatthereisemotionalworkyettobedone;awillingnesstocometotermswithpastrelationships;engagingwithcounsellingorpsychotherapy(asclientorpractitioner);involvementininformalmutualsupportprocessesduringotheractivities,suchaspilgrimagesandconferences;creativework,e.g.explicitlythroughthecreativeartsor,implicitly,throughthe‘curation’ofdomesticimagesandartifacts,andtheritualsassociatedwiththis.

Values-based

Political,socialandwelfareactivism-e.g.widowspensionsandotherbenefits-JavaClub,NationalFEPOWFellowshipWelfareRemembranceAssociation;resistancetostatesuppressionormarginalizationofFEPOWhistory;personalcrusades-‘rightingfamilywrongs’;activismbasedonreligiousorethicalprecepts;reconciliationasanexplicitaim(perhapsexpressedthroughpilgrimages);resistancetostatemanipulationorsuppressionofmemory.

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Socio-economicfactorsalsoinfluencethe‘choice’ofmemorypractice.Forinstance,

Rex’ssocialbackgroundwasfirmlyuppermiddleclass,andhisancestorsincluded

membersoftheminoraristocracy.Frommyinterview,andfromthepaintingsonthe

walls,itwasclearthathetookimmenseprideinhisfamilylineage.Mostofhisenergies,

however,hadbeendevotedtogarneringandorganizinginformationabouthisfather’s

FEPOWlife.Hedidthisinconjunctionwithasmallgroupoflike-mindedpeoplein

differentcountrieswhosefathershadallbeenheldinthesamePOWcamp.Takenin

thatcontext,then,Rex’smemorypracticeswerelargely‘knowledge-based’.However,as

wesawinChapterOne,Rexalsorevealeddeep-seatedemotionsassociatedwithhis

parents’lettersthathefeltunabletoread.Personalfinancescouldconstrainthechoice

ofmemorypractice.Formanypeople,apilgrimagehalfwayacrosstheworldwouldbe

outoftheirfinancialreach;1and,forothers,evenavisittotheCOFEPOWbuildingatthe

NationalMemorialArboretuminStaffordshirewashardtoafford.

ThelegacyofchildhoodthroughthelifecourseInChapterTwoIexploredaclusterofconcepts-includingtrauma,intergenerational

transmission,attachmentandidentification-thatprovidedmuchofthetoolkitforthe

analysisofthetestimoniesinChapterFour.Participantswhoexperiencedchildhoodas

fraughtandfractured,oftenattributedthistotheirfather’semotional‘distance’or

‘absence’which,inturn,diminishedtheprospectsofestablishingsecureattachmentsin

thefamilyandweakenedidentificationswiththefather.Bothoutcomeswerefurther

compromisedinhomeswhereovertaggressionandphysicalabusehadoccurred.

Laterinlife,oftenafterthefather’sdeath,memoriesofthesechildhood

experiencesreturned,andsometimestriggeredfeelingsofguilt,remorseorforgiveness.

1Inearlieryears,accesstofundingwasalittleeasier,butonlyforex-FEPOWs,theirwivesorcarers.TheJapanesegovernmentfundeda10yearprogrammeofvisitsforBritishFEPOWs,andalsooneofshorterdurationforgrandchildrenofFEPOWs.TheBigLotteryalsoprovidedfundingforveteranstomakereturnvisitstoplacestheyserved,underthe‘HeroesReturn2’scheme,butthisprogrammeclosedinDecember2015.

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Thiswasoftenaperiodwhenconflictingemotionsresurfaced,whena‘crackinidentity’

mightopenup(Frosh2013,p.17)orwhenthe‘cracksandriggingareexposed’and

‘disturbedfeelingscannotbeputaway’(Gordon2008,p.xvi).Myargumentinthis

chapteristhattheimpactofachildhoodinwhichafather’straumawasliberallyyet

unconsciouslytransmittedtohischildrencreatedparticularconfigurationsofpsychic

needinadulthood.Althoughaparticularpatternofneedswasalwaysuniquetothe

individual,commonelementscouldbeidentifiedacrossthecohortofparticipants(as

outlinedinTable1).Theseneedsmanifestedinbehaviours-memorypractices-

throughwhichthechildrenaimed(consciouslyandunconsciously)tore-contextualise,

reinterpretandreconstructtheirpaststhroughrevisednarratives.

Thisre-workingofthepast,ofthefatherandoftheself,begsthequestionof

howwethinkaboutthepastbothfromahistoricalandpsychicperspective.Asthe

philosopher-historianCollingwood(2004)comments,separatingone’sownpast

thoughtsfromthe‘flowofexperience’isdifficultbuthesuggestswelooktoevidence

whereavailable:

Evidencesuchasaletter,abookorapaintingoraveryspecificrecollectionofanactionthat‘clearly’revealedmyaccompanyingthought.Havingdoneso,Irediscovermypastself,andre-enactthesethoughtsasmythoughts;...’(p.296).

Buttheinfluenceofthepresentremainsinescapable,and‘weconstantlyreinterpretour

pastthoughtsandassimilatethemtothosewearethinkingnow’(Collingwood2004,

p.296).Collingwoodgoesontoproposethatifwecandothisforourselves,weare

betterabletodoitforanotherperson.So,intermsoftheparticipantstryingto

understandmoreoftheirfathers’captivity,theywillneverexperiencetheactual

sensationsofthosewhoseworldstheyaretryingtoimaginativelyrecreate:thesmellof

ricecooking,thestenchofsuppuratingwounds,theweightoftheironnailsusedonthe

Thai-Burmarailway,orthedustinthecoalminesofKyushu.Buttheycandiscover

somethingaboutwhattheirfatherswerethinkingfromwhattheywroteatthetime(e.g.

diaries),orfrominterviewsconductedafterwards.Wewillneverknow(beableto‘re-

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enact’)theimmediacyoftheirthinking;wecanonlyknowtheothers’thoughtsina

disembodiedsense,inahistoricalsense.Becausewecannotescapetheinfluenceofthe

present,ourperceptionsandinterpretationsarenever‘pure’butalwaysmediatedby

whatwehavereadelsewhere,discussedwithothers,orbythefilmswehavewatched.

Thisisthechallengefacedbyparticipantswhentheytrytoextractmeaningfromtheir

fathers’artifacts,photographs,andotherarchivalsources.

Thisanalysishighlightsthedifficultiesinherentintryingtogainabetter

understandingofacaptivelifeseventyyearsago.Toaddressthisproblem,weneedto

moveawayfromargumentsaboutspecificallyhistoricalknowledge,andCollingwood

(2004)assistsusbyofferingadistinctionbetween‘thinkinghistorically’and‘engaging

inthescienceofpsychology’(p.303).Thinkinghistoricallymeansto‘re-enact’

experiences(dealingwithwhatcanbe‘re-enactedinthehistorian’smind’,p.302),

whereasthinkingpsychologicallymeansenteringintotheexperiencesofothers‘with

sympathyandimagination...’(p.302),employingouraffectivesensibilities.

Collingwood’scarefullydelineatedconceptionofwhatconstituteshistoricalthought

purposelydistinguishesitselffrom‘thinkingpsychologically’.Intheirsearchforabetter

graspoftheirfathers’FEPOWexperiences,participantshadtograpplewithbothhistory

(the‘knowledge-based’dimension)andpsychology(the‘emotion-based’dimension).

Narrativeandgenerativity Narrativeliesatthecoreofmemorypractices,andisespeciallyimportantin

reproducingculturalmemory(Brockmeier2002).

Itthenbecomesclearthatthesememorypractices,toalargedegree,arenarrativepracticesor,atleast,intermingledwithandsurroundedbythem(p.27)....Andascultureschange,sodotheirmemorypracticesandtheirideasofwhatisworthanddesirabletoberemembered(p.20).

Brockmeiergoesontoexplainhowweusenarrativetoextractmeaningfromour

memorypractices.

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IfIdonotonlywanttocountthephotographsfrommypastcollectedinthatboxandnotonlynamethepersonstheyshow,butalsowanttopointoutwhytheymeananythingtomeatall,thennarrativebecomesthehubofmyaccount.(p.26)

Althoughresidingatthecoreofmemorypractices,aparticularnarrativewasnot

alwaysimmediatelyapparentorclearlyarticulatedduringinterviews.Itcouldemerge

disjointed,truncatedorotherwiseincomplete,orbeheavilyinfluencedbyprevailing

socialdiscourses(HuntandMcHale2008),or‘collectiveframeworks’(Halbwachs

1992).Participantsoftenappearedtostriveforasenseofcoherenceandacceptance,

seekingpsychic‘composure’inthefaceof‘losthistories’(Summerfield2004,p.93).

Theyevenapologisedforastorytheyfeltmightbedeemedunsatisfactoryinsomeway.

AsRobertputit‘IfI’mwafflingonabit…youstopme.’

Iwouldsuggestthatinresponsetohard-to-accept,orhard-to-revealnarratives

participantssometimes‘chose’toconstructcoherentstoriesthatcouldbetoldandre-

toldwithoutriskingexposuretopsychicconflicts.Otherparticipantsfoundwaysto

engagewithmemorypracticesinorderto‘workthrough’difficultpsychicmaterial,thus

minimizingtheneedforcontinueddefensivemanoeuvres.

OverthepasttwodecadesDanMcAdamshasemergedasaleadingfigureinthe

useofnarrativeapproachesinthepsychologyofhumandevelopment,andIdrawonhis

worktodevelopmyargumentfurther(e.g.McAdams2001,2006,2013,McAdamsand

Adler2010).Inparticular,Ifocusonhisviewsofnarrativeidentity,turningpointsin

narrative,andtheroleofredemption,andhowtheseoperatedinthelifestoriesof

participants.Narrativeiscloselytiedtooursenseofself,andisareflexiveconstruction

thatrequires‘constantself-interrogation’tomaintaincoherence(Abrams2014,p.14).

McAdamsandGuo(2015)definenarrativeidentityas:

theinternalizedandevolvingstorythatthepersonhasconstructedregardinghowheorshehasbecomethepersonthatheorsheisbecoming....Innarrativeidentity,thepersonreconstructsthepastandimaginesthefutureasanongoingstorywithsetting,scenes,characters,plots,andthemes(p.2).

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Althoughnarrativeidentityislinkedwith‘autobiographicalmemories’,suchmemories

areinfactaveryselective‘reorganizedsubsetofrecollectionsfromthepersonalpast’

(McAdamsandAdler2010,p.40).ForthechildrenoftheFEPOWs,autobiographical

memorieswere,fromthebeginning,enmeshedwithinpostmemoriesandwithsources

thatcould‘liebeyondtheperimetersoftheindividual’(Freeman2012,p.345).

McAdamsdrawsheavilyonErikErikson’sstagemodelofthelifecycle,andon

theconceptofgenerativityinparticular(seeErikson1977,andEriksonandErikson

1998),buthealsoemploysclassicalpsychoanalyticconcepts,suchasrepression,denial

anddissociationwhendiscussingthenarrationofnegativeevents(McAdamsandAdler

2010).TheEriksonframeworkconceivesofaseriesofstagesmatchedtoagebands,

eachofwhichbringsaconflictorachallengethatmustberesolvedbeforemovingonto

thenext.Thenormativeemphasisinthismodelofhumandevelopmenttendsto

marginalizeorpathologiseanypotentialinterruptionsordislocationstothesmooth

passagebetweenstages.Toreachmaturityunscathedthechildmustachieve,between

infancyandadolescence,various‘psychosocialstrengths’(EriksonandErikson1998,

p.55):trust,autonomy,initiative,industryandidentity.Shouldtheseaimsnotbemet,

theindividualislefttograpplewithaconcoctionofmistrust,shame,guilt,inferiority

andidentityconfusion.Thefailuretoachievethepsychosocialstrengthsassociatedwith

eachstagecanalsobeconceptualizedintermsofproblemswithattachmentorwith

identification,andtheneedto‘makeupground’laterinlife.

Manyparticipantsenteredadulthoodwithauniquecombinationofnegative

tracesaccruedfromthestrugglesexperiencedduringearlierlifestages.Havingmostly

arrivedatlatemiddleage,thechildrenoftheFEPOWswereactivelyre-workingthe

past,reconstructingtheirstoriesandthoseoftheirfathers,aimingtoreconcilepastand

present.ForMcAdams,the‘stageofgenerativity’(adulthood)isconcernedwith

‘promotingthegrowthandwell-beingoffuturegenerationsthroughparenting,

teaching,mentoring,institutionalinvolvement,andarangeofothersocialbehaviors’

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(McAdamsandGuo2015,p.1).Participantspredominantlyinterestedinmilitaryfamily

history,suchasRexandJeff,expressedtheirconcernforfuturegenerationsby

compilingcomprehensivedocumentsthatwouldbecomeapermanent‘knowledge’

record;othersachievedsimilarresultsonline.2Ontheotherhand,participantslike

Louiseproducedartworksthatconveyedbothknowledgeandemotionalresponses.

McAdamsandGuoalsoclaimthatadultswhoarehighlygenerativearemore

likelytocreatenarrativesthatfeature‘redemptionsequences’(McAdamsandGuo

2015,p.2):narrativesthatinclude‘setbacks,failures,losses,anddisappointments’

followedby‘positiveoutcomes’(McAdams2014,p.63).Participantsfrequently

incorporatedredemptivesequencesintotheirtestimoniesthroughwhichtheyhopedto

establishanewinternalrelationshipwiththefather,thusredeemingpastemotional

traumas.Redemptionsequencesareoftencloselyalliedtonarrative‘turningpoints’,or

‘epiphanicmoments’(Abrams2016),3asweshallseefromthetestimonieslaterinthis

chapter.Someparticipantsdisplayedaparticularcapacityforgenerativityand

reflection,andspontaneouslypointedoutredemptionsequencesintheirnarratives.

Deirdredescribedhowherfatherwouldgetangryiftheydidn’teatthefoodputinfront

ofthem:

Deirdre:So,anyway,Isupposeinthelongrunitmademeabetterpersonbecause…Terry:Wh-wh-whatdid?[expressingsomesurprise]Deirdre:Well,everythingthatIwentthough,becauseI’ddecidedthatmykidsweregonnahavethebestupbringingever.Youknow,Iwouldbestricttoapoint,becauseI’dwantthemtogrowupintoproperpeople....Imeanmydaughter,shealwayssays,oh,mum,youknow,Irememberusgrowingup,I’veonlygothappymemorieswithyou...

Deirdre’sreferencetoanidealized‘bestupbringingever’hintedatadegreeofmanic

reparationinhertestimony,suggestingthatherrelationshipwithherfatherremained2SeeAppendix7-Tributesites-e.g.TheChangiartworkofDesBettany.3LynnAbrams(2016)notesthatthe‘epiphanicmomentis constituted by a psychic change in the real time of the interview’ (p.22), and this is something I have also observed. A moving example (and powerful because it marked a clear transition point within the interview) was when Rex revealed that he had not read his parent’s correspondence immediately before the fall of Singapore (and didn’t intend to): ‘AftermymotherdiedIopenedthem,butIhaven’t…(lowersvoice)Ihaven’treadthem.’ This episode was discussed more fully in Chapter 1.

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unresolved(aninterpretationsupportedbyotherpartsofhertestimony).Bywanting

herchildrento‘growupintoproperpeople’shebarelydisguisedherownhistoryoflow

self-esteem.

Bycontrast,Selena’srelationshipwithherfatherhadbeenwarmand

affectionate,butshestillfeltaneed

...toprotecthimfrommyfailings.ThatIhadtomakehissufferingworthitbynotbeingawaster....Ididmybestbutwasneverconvinceditwasgoodenough.Heneverdidorsaidanythingtomakemethinkhewasn’thappywithme,itsjustIfeltIneededtobebetter.Thathedeservedit.

Herfathertoldthefamily‘littlesnippetsofstoriesfromthecamps’thatoftenborea

moralmessage;thesefamilystoriesthenbecameinthemselvesmodelsofredemptive

practiceforthechildren.Itisagainstthisstrongvalues-basedbackgroundthatwe

shouldseeSelena’sexpliciturgeto‘protect’herfatherandtocompensatehimthrough

herbehaviour.Hegarneredconsiderablerespectfromhisfamily.4

Asenseofguiltorregretsuffusedmanytestimonies,andformedtheemotional

drivebehindparticipants’subsequentmemorypractices.Manywishedthattheycould

havelearnedmoreabouttheexperiencesofcaptivitydirectlyfromtheirfathers:they

wishedtheirfathershadvolunteeredinformation,andtheyfeltregretthattheydidn’t

askmorequestionswhentheyhadtheopportunity.Kim’scommentsweretypical,

althoughfewparticipantshadsuchanexplicitinvitation:

…Idohaveareallybigregret.WhenIwasateenagerIsatwithmyboyfriendandmydadandwatched‘MerryChristmasMr.Lawrence’,andafterwards,hesaid,oh,whatdoyouthinkofthatthen?Andasatypicalteenager,Iwent‘Oh,thatwasboring,wasn’tit?’AndIdidn’treallyunderstandtheconcept,andwhathewasgettingat.AndIoftenthinkthatyouknowifIhadshownaninterestthen,hepossiblywouldhaveopeneduptome.Butsadly-obviously-Ididn’t.Erm…anditwasn’tuntilafterhediedthatIcameacrosssomephotographs,andIrecognizedoneasbeinginKandyinSriLanka.

Regrethasbothemotionalandcognitivecomponents,andthelattermayexpressitself

throughrecurrentcounterfactualthinking(Landman1987,CoricelliandRustichini

4ArespectIwasabletowitnesspersonallywhenImetthefamilyata70thanniversarymemorialeventin2015.

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2010).AsKimsaid:‘...ifIhadshownaninterestthen,hepossiblywouldhaveopened

uptome’.

FromStephen’stestimonywediscoverhowregretcancolouralifestory,

releasingthepsychicenergytocreateaproductivelifeagainsttheodds.Borninthe

earlyyearsofthewar,Stephenwastheeldestchildoffour,5andwasthoughtbyother

membersofthefamilytohavebornethebruntofhisfather’simmediatepostwar

trauma.Theunderlyingdetailswereneverrevealedtome,however,andIsuspectwere

notwidelysharedwithinthefamily.Hewrotetheeulogyforhismother’sfuneralbut

couldnotattendhimselfbecauseofaseriousmedicalcondition.Theeulogygivesthe

slightestofhints,butscreenedbehindatrope:‘She...caredforourDadwhenhegot

backfromtheWorldWar,averydifferentmanfromtheoneshemarriedin1940!’

Stephenemigratedinthe1970sbutreturnedtotheUKtenyearslaterona

sabbatical.Hisfather’shealthhaddeterioratedsharply,andwithinashorttimehehad

lapsedintounconsciousness.

IdidnottakewhatwastobethislastopportunitytotalktoDadabouthisillnessorofhispastexperiencesinthewarandIdeeplyregretit.WiththepassageoftimeIhavecometorealizethatIknewverylittleaboutmyfatherandamperturbedbythisappallingignorance.HadIbeensobusywithmyownyoungfamilyandthepreoccupationwithademanding...career,wasitperhapsbecauseIhadnotcaredabouthimenoughorsimplythatIdidnotappreciateatthattimehowlittleIknewabouthim?Inhindsightitwasprobablyacombinationofthesefactors.Atanyratethissituationpromptedmetowritethesememoirssothatfamilymembersandfriendsmayhaveabetterknowledgeofmyownstory.

Inthispassage,inasinglesweep,hereflectedonhisrelationshipwithhisfather,

reviewedhisownattitudesandvalues,expressedhisregretinpassionateterms,and

determinedthathewouldpre-emptanysuchoutcomeforhisownchildrenbywritinga

lengthymemoir.Stephen’swordssuggestthatwritinghismemoirwasaformof

5Threeofthefoursiblingswereparticipantsinthisresearch.Althoughthereisnotthespacetodevelopthisphenomenonfurther,Ihavebecomeintriguedthroughmyworkwiththisandotherfamilies,bythepotentialsignificanceof‘lateral’or‘horizontal’transmission(Stein2012).InStephen’scase,howtraumaintheeldestsiblingcanperhapsbetransmittedtoayoungerbrotherorsister,andhowmemorypracticesmightthenbedistributedacrossthesiblinggroup.

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memorypracticewithaclearreparativepurpose,aresponsetotheguilthefeltabout

nottakingmoreinterestinhisfather.Becausehewas‘soupset’afterhisfather’sdeath,

hewasunabletohelpwithanyofthepracticalarrangements,leavingthetasktohis

youngerbrother.Hisinabilitytocopewithhisfather’sdeath,hisenergeticpursuitof

personalchange,andhiscommitmenttowritinganextensiveandreflectivememoir

wereallremindersofconsciousandunconsciouslegaciesthathavecontinuedtohaunt

himthroughouthislife.

Reparation

InotedhowsomeofStephen’sactionscouldbeseenintermsofreparation,andinthis

sectionIexaminetheseideasfurther.Inapaperarguingforareconciliationbetween

psychoanalysisandattachmenttheory,DianaDiamond(2004)claimsthat,bythrowing

ourselvesintodisplacementactivities,webelievewewillmakethingsbetterandavoid

havingtofacethetruemeaningofourloss,orourownsenseofguilt.

Thefullexperienceofthesadness,guilt,anddespairabouttheobject’slossisavoidedthroughmanicdefensesofdenialandidealizationofselfandother,orthroughrepetitive,exaggeratedattemptsatreparation(Diamond2004,p.288).

Someparticipantspursuedidealizedversionsoftheirfatherswhichhadtheeffectof

suppressingmemoriesofpasttraumasandunresolvedconflicts:responsesthat

suggestedmanicreparation(Segal1974).Theexpressionofmanicreparation-or‘mock

reparation’touseAlford’sphrase(2006,p.101)-mayincludethefollowingfeatures:

...thedenialoftherealityoftheloss;theobsessiveattentiontodetailssurroundingtheloss,whichheraldsareversiontoconcretethinkingandawayfromsymbolicformulations;theexaggeratedsenseofresponsibilityforthedeath;theeulogisticspeech;thedissociativetrancelikestateswhenexperiencinglossthatforetellthelackofacceptanceofrealityoflossintimeandspace;andtheindicesofpsychologicalconfusionbetweentheselfandthedeceased(Diamond2004,p.288).

Manicreparationisnotinevitable,ofcourse.However,makingtruereparationwiththe

fatherisastruggle:

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basedontherecognitionofpsychicreality,theexperiencingofthepainthatthisrealitycausesandthetakingofappropriateactiontorelieveitinphantasyandreality.Itis,infact,theveryreverseofadefence,itisamechanismforthegrowthoftheegoanditsadaptationtoreality(Segal1974,p.95).

Inmanicreparation,unconsciousfeelingsofambivalencetowardsthefather-the

‘denialofthehurtandthepaininflicted’(Alford2006,p.102)-preventafulltransition

tothedepressiveposition;anditisthisambivalenceandpsychicsplittingcharacteristic

oftheparanoid-schizoidpositionthatprovokethemanicdefensiveresponse.

Kleinmakeslittledistinctionbetweenreparationinphantasyandreparationin

reality(Alford2006).FormanychildrenofFEPOWs,however,thisdistinctioncouldbe

profound:becausethefatherwasnolongeralive,reparationinphantasywastheironly

option.Roper(2013)providesareminderofhowreparationmightmanifestaspositive

actionintherealworld:

Intheindividual’sattempttorepairdamagetotheirinternalworld,reparationbecomes,inBobHinshelwood’sphrase,‘apowerhouseformatureenergyandcreativityintheactualexternalworld’.Itisthroughhumanitarianprojectsintheexternalworldthatreparativeimpulsesareenacted(p.317).

Althoughtheoriginsofreparationandsublimationaredifferent,theirpractical

expressionmaybesimilar.Forexample,theactionsofparticipantswhohavebeen

primemoverswithinFEPOWactivistorganisationsseemtoderivefromoneorthe

other,orperhapsboth,ofthesepsychicprocesses:reparationbeingfoundedon

personalpsychicissuesderivedfromchildhood,andsublimationasapossible

displacementofmaternaldrives.EriksonandErikson(1998)sawthelatterintermsof

‘generativity’,asapositivealternativewhenbiologicalparenthoodiseithernotpossible

ornotdesired:asashifttowards‘productivityandcreativity’(p.53)andabroader

conceptionof‘care’.

TheexampleofJoanna(seelaterinthischapter)demonstratesthebenefitof

beingableto‘makerepairs’inreality,arisingthroughunexpectedopportunities

occurringlateinherfather’slife.Otherswerenotsofortunateandhavebeenleftnot

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onlywiththeaftermathofchildhood,butalsowiththeguiltof‘notasking’,orofnot

takinganinterest,whiletheirfatherswerestillalive.However,Figlio(2014)arguesthat

wecanthinkofmemoryitselfasreparation,‘revivingthepastthroughabenignand

restorativerelationshiptoit’,andmanicreparationasembodyingthe‘ambiguous,

ambivalent,conflictedimpulsetoassertafalsifying,forgetting,ordistortingmemory

againstrestorativememory’(p.424).Theconceptsofreparationandmanicreparation

arevaluableinunderstandingparticipants’responsestothepast,buttheyshouldnot

beseenasinbinaryopposition;thebattlesthatparticipantsfoughtwiththeirpastssaw

repeatedfluctuationsbetweenthetwoformsofreparation,aswillbeseeninDeirdre’s

storylaterinthischapter.

Turningpoints

Manyfieldsofsocialresearchhaveincorporatedtheconceptofthe‘turningpoint’(e.g.

HarevenandMasaoka1988,McAdamsetal2001,McAdams2013,Reimer2014,

SampsonandLaub2016,andSchiffrin(2003).TeruyaandHser(2010)definethe

turningpointasfollows:

‘Aturningpointofteninvolvesaparticularevent,experience,orawarenessthatresultsinchangesinthedirectionofapathwayorpersistenttrajectoryoverthelong-term’(p.189).

Whilethisdefinitionexcludestemporarychanges,itstillbegsmanyquestions,suchas

whenareturningpointsrecognizedassuch,andbywhom?Amongstmyparticipantsit

wascommonplaceforthesesignificantepisodestotakemanyyearstoberecognized

andincorporatedintoanewnarrative(Hutchison2007,p.18).Thefollowingthree

cases-Jacqui,JoannaandDeirdre-showhowturningpointsinthelifecourseenableda

reconstructionoftheirpersonalnarratives.

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Jacqui

By1997,Jacquihadlostbothherparents,andsheconsignedthefamilypaperstoboxes

thattravelledfromlofttoloftasshemovedhouse.Finally,in2013,shebegantowork

herwaythroughtheseboxes.Amongstthedocuments,shediscoverednumerousletters

writtenwhileherfatherwasinactivemilitaryservicebutbeforehewastakenprisoner.

Asaresult,shewasforcedtoconfrontapictureofherfatherverydifferentfromthe

personshehadknownthroughoutherlife:

HeisadifferentpersonandI’vereadaletterwherehetalksaboutCliff,whenCliffwaslittle.AndthismusthavebeenwhenhewasintheSudan.Hewasawayfrommumforayear,beforehewastakenprisoner.HewrotelettersallthewaythroughtheSudan…tomydarling,youknow,alltheselittlepetnameshehadforher.And,youknow,giveCliffakissfrommeandbla-di-bla-di-bla.Sohewasclearlydifferentthen.

Jacquiwasbornin1953,andherrelationshipwithherfatherwas‘awful’.But,she

believesthatherbrotherCliff-bornin1939-‘gottheworst...because[Dad]wasso

raw’.

AndIreadthislettertoCliff,andhe…burstintotears.Cliffisnowseventy-five,living[abroad].AndIsaidIwantyoutohearthis-‘coshenevercametodad’sfuner--Oh,hedid,hedidn’twantto.Imadehimcome-andIsaid,ifyoudon’tcome,you’llreallyregretit.‘Cosyoucan’tbeestrangedfromsomeoneandthenjustnotturnup.Buthesaid,Idon’tfeelanydifferentafterwards.ButwhenIreadthisextract,oftheletterthatmentionedCliff,andhehadafantasticpetnameforCliff,‘bumbles’orsomething.Itwassosweet,anditwassoaffectionate.AndIreadthisletterout,andCliff,Icouldhearhimjustbreakingintoasob.

Readingherparent’sletterspushedJacquitodiscovermoreaboutherfather’s

childhoodaswellhisFEPOWexperiences.Toreconstructtheimageofherfatherina

morerealisticlight,andtobegintotheprocessofreconstructing,infantasy,herpast

insecurerelationship,shedeterminedtovisitherfather’schildhoodhomeinCanada.

Thiswasherversionofpilgrimage:tovisittheplacesherfatherknew,suchasthelake

heusedtorowacrosseachdaytogettouniversity.

Iwantedtoseewherehegrewupand…feelwhathefelt,really.AndIthinkItriedtounderstandhowhegottobewherehewas.ButIdon’tknow.ImeanIwouldhavelikedtohaveknownfromhisownwords,whathefeltandyouknowhishopesandfears,youknow.Whatdidhethinkgoingtouniversitythefirst

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time?Youknow,whatwasthatlike?AndwhataboutwhenhegotintotheR-A-F.Wasthatexciting?Washepleasedordidhefinditdifficult?

AsmentionedbrieflyinChapterFive,Jacquimanagedhermemorypracticesinsucha

wayastoprotectherselffrombecomingoverwhelmed,choosingwritingandthevisual

artsasherpreferredgenres.6

Joanna

‘Ifhehaddiedbeforehegotdementia,Idon’tthinkIwouldhaveevenshedatear.’

Afurtherlevelofpsychiccomplexityariseswhendifficultiesbetweenchildandfather

extendintoadulthood,andreactivateearliertraumas,effectivelyproducinga‘re-

traumatisation’.Joanna’sstoryexemplifiedthis.AswesawfromChapterFive,the

traumaticmemoriesofchildhoodwerecompoundedmanyyearslaterbythe

devastatingeventssurroundinghermother’sdeath.Laterinlife,however,Joanna

experiencedaseriesofturningpointsinherrelationshipwithherfather.

Thefirstwaswhenanepiphanyledtoanunexpectedapology.In1993,her

seventy-threeyearoldfatherhadreadanarticleinaFEPOWnewsletterwrittenbythe

daughterofaFarEastprisonerofwar.Inthearticle,thewomandescribedhowher

childhood‘wasn’tlikeotherpeople’s....Wewereneverallowedtomakeanoise,were

neverallowedtodothis,wewereneverallowedtodothat,anditwassostrictandmy

fatherwouldhaveoutburstsoftemper,andallthisstuff,andwehadtocreeparound

thehouse.’Afterreadingthisarticle,Joanna’sfatherreactedinawaythatcameasa

completesurprisetoherandherbrother.

Anyway,myfathercutthisoutofthenewsletterandsentacopyofittomybrotherandacopyofittomewithachequeeachfor£150whichwasveryunlikehim.Andhejustsaid,IreadthisandrealizedthatthiswaswhatyourchildhoodwaslikeandI’mreallysorry…whichwasthefirsttimehe’deveracknowledgedit.Andheactuallyrecognizedthatthat’showhehadbeenasafatherwhereasbeforehe’dneverdoneanythingwrong,youknow.Hewas

6In2015,shewroteamajorfeatureaboutherFEPOWlegacyforanationalnewspaper.

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alwaysright,wewerealwayswrong…Soitwasinterestingthathe,hesuddenlyreadthatpieceandthought,yes,thatiswhatIwaslike.

Hedevelopeddementiainhisearlyeightieswhichbecame‘veryevidentwhenhewas

abouteighty-five’.Bythetimehewaseighty-nineheneededapacemaker,andentereda

‘verynice’nursinghome(whichhecametobelievewashisownhome),foraftercare.

Shortlyafterwards,JoannawasapproachedoutofthebluebyanAustralianex-POWfor

helpwithwritinganarticleabouther(Joanna’s)fatherforabattalionnewsletter.7It

wasaratherunusualinstanceofthesecondgenerationbringinghistorytothesurvivor.

Itookit[thenewsletter]intothenursinghometoshowmyfather,andIsaid,oh,justwantedtoknowifyou’dbeinterestedinthis,daddy.I’vebeendoingsomeresearch,costheywantedthispieceaboutyou,soI’vesentthemthis,andthere’saphotoofyou.Andhejustlookedatit,andhejustturnedtomewithtearspouringdownhisface.Andhesaid,Ineverwantedyoutohavetogothroughthis,Joanna.….Sothat’swhatitwasallabout.Heneverwantedusto…sufferorknowaboutanyofhisexperiencesbecauseitwouldupsetus…Andsotheykeptitallin.Theywerealltoldnottotalkaboutitanyway.Wesufferedtheconsequencesofit.Butweweren’tactuallytosuffertheknowledgeofit.

Fromthatpoint,Joannafeltthattheirrelationshipbecamemorepositive,herfather

havingacceptedsomeresponsibilityandinvitingforgiveness.Joannawasgratefulthat,

regardlessofthedementia,healwaysknewwhoshewas.Despiteherearlierdifficulties

withhim,shebegantoaccepthisexpressionsofregret(‘Ineverwantedyoutohaveto

throughthis,Joanna’)andbegantorestore,andfeel,agreateridentificationand

attachmenttowardshim.Thecareshenowwillinglygaveherfatherembracedalevelof

intimacyandphysicalitythatshehadpreviouslyexperiencedonlyasachildvictimof

hisdominanceandcontrol.However,afterlearningmoreaboutherfather’swar

experiences,shebeganto‘repair’thatpastthroughthecaretaskssheundertookfor

him.

Heneverforgotme.Eveninthemiddleofthenight,andhe’dwetthebedandyou‘dhavetogetupatthreeinthemorningandchangethebed,gethimintheshowerandsorthimoutand…allthestuffyouhavetodoasacarer.Healwaysknewitwasme.

7Joanna’sfatherhadbeenhelpedbyAustralianPOWswhenhewasseriouslyill,andhadkeptmanyAustralianfriends.

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Towardtheendofhislifehefracturedhiship,andJoannaspentmanyhourswithhimin

thenursinghome.Sherefusedtolethimbetakentohospital.Ashislifeebbedaway,she

madeassociationswithherfantasiesofhisFEPOWpast.

I’mnothavingthatforhim.Hewasaprisonerofwar,heisnothavingthatforhislastdays.So,Isaid,he’sstayingwhereheis.Andthat’swhathappened.HoursIspentwithhim....Hehadthebestpossiblecare.Buthetookweeksandweeksandweeks…andhewas…intheendskinandbone.Hewasprobablyaboutthesizeofwhenhecamebackfromthewar.

Eventuallyhesankintoacomatosestate.

...hesuddenlyhadamomentoflucidity....Hepointedatme…Iwasattheendofthebed…andhejustpointedandsaid,Joanna.AndIhadtogoroundandhughimandeverything,andIsaidtohim,I’vegotyourcygnetring.Becauseit’sfallenoff,hishandsweresothin.Isaidyourringhasfallenoff,daddy,I’vegotyourcygnet-[ring].LookIamwearingyourcygnetring.Andhestraightawaylookedatthering,andthenhelookedathishand....Andhe’dbeeninacomaforweeks!Itwasextraordinary.Hewasextraordinary.So,hedefinitelyknewme.…Yeah.

Joanna’syearningfora‘goodfather’couldnothavebeenmoreevident.Hergrowing

understandingandforgivenessofherfather’sflawswerestrengthenedduringher

pilgrimagetoSingapore(describedinChapterEight),andherempathywasdeepened

bytheresearchshewasundertaking.

Butinalotofprocessing,andcertainlysincehegotdementia,andcertainlysincehe’sdied,I’vedonealotmoreresearchintoit,and…goingouttoSingapore,andgoingroundChangimuseumandeverything…(intakeofbreath)Itisjustabsolutelydreadfulwhattheywentthrough.Dreadful.So,how,howthey-howhe-evermanagedtoliveavaguelynormallife,Idon’tknow.

…evengettingbackatallwasacompletemiracle,andhowincrediblystronghemusthavebeen.Bothinmindandbody.Justtogetthroughitandcomeback.Thefactthathewreckedourlives…wellitreallywasn’thisfault.Butitmademerespecthimmore.Whereasbefore,Imean,I’dalwayssaidifhehaddied…well,anytimebefore,really…anytimebeforehegotthedementia,Idon’tthinkIwouldhaveevenshedatear.

Heruseoflanguage,hereandelsewhere,impliedthatherapproachtomemory

practiceswasheavily‘emotion-based’,andthehighlychargednatureofhertestimony

maysuggestedthatshewasenactingpastfeelingswithintheresearchrelationship

(itselfaformofmemorypractice),asameansofreachinggreatercomposure.

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Deirdre

Deirdre’schildhoodhadbeenscarredbyphysicalandemotionaltrauma,andshewas

stillcomingtotermswiththis.Fromaveryyoungage,shehadbeentraumatisedbyher

father’scrushingbehaviour.Deirdrewasquitenervousaboutmeetingme.Hertwin

sisterhadinitiallyagreedtobeinterviewedatthesametime,butchangedhermindat

thelastmoment.AccordingtoDeirdrehersisterhadsufferedevenmorethanshehad.

Ibegantheinterviewwithan‘open’question,butshehadtroublegetting

started-‘you’llhavetoaskmeaquestion’.Butthiswastheonlyinstanceduringthe

interviewwhensheshowedanynoticeablehesitationinarticulatingherstory.Inthe

event,sheadaptedwelltomyinterviewingstyle,andhernarrativewasgraphicand

detailed,withstrongemotionalcontentthatemergedalmostfromthestart.

Terry:Whatarethefirststrongmemoriesyouhaveofyourfather,shallwesay?Deirdre:…Well,toputitinanutshell,meandmysisterwerepetrifiedofhim.Terry:You’llneedtoexplainthat,though,won’tyou?Deirdre:Yes.Well,hewasaveryviolentman.And,youknow,Idon’tknowhowmypoormumputupwithit.Erm…ImeanIcanexplaintoyou…inincidents.Terry:Yes.Please.Deirdre:Isupposemyearliestmemories…WelivedinLondon…Terry:WhereaboutswereyouinLondon?Deirdre:WelivedinLondon.Anditwasathreestoreyhouseandwelivedinthebasement.Andobviouslywhenmyfathercamehomefromthecamps,he’dcaughtmalarialikeeverybodyelsedid,andhealsohadtuberculo-...TB.Hehadabitofashort,veryshortfuse.Andwe’dbeen,youknow,bathedandhair-washedandeverythinglikethat.Idecidedtogooutinthegardenandthrowaloadofdirtabout.Allgotinmyhair,onmyclothes.Hewentballistic!And,youknow,asidefromthegoodhidingIgot,erm…Ihad,youknow,quitelonghairwithlikelittleringletson.Hejustgotthesescissorsandcutmyhairoff.So,Icanrememberthatandfeelingabsolutelydevastated.

ButworsewastocomeforDeirdreandhersister.Therewas,forinstance,atimewhenhewasteachingustolearntotellthetime.Andwecouldonlyhavebeenaboutseven....Andhe’dmadethesetwolittleleatherstools.…Hesatusinfrontofthefireplace,andonthemantelpiecewastheclock.So,Anne’sthere,I’mhere.Andhe’dgooutoftheroom,comebackinandaskuswhatthetimewas.Itwasbecauseweweresofrightened,wecouldn’tcomprehendthetellingofthetimeanyway.Andobviouslywegotitwrongallthetime.Andhewentoutoftheroomagain,andmysisterwasdyingtogotothetoilet.Andshekeptsayingtome,[loweredtones]‘Ineedthetoilet,I’mgonnawetmyself’youknow.Andwhenhecamebackinandaskedthetime,Isaid,Anneneedstogotothetoilet.Badly.Andhesaid,‘tilyoucantellmethetime,youwillnotgetupandgotothetoilet.So,consequently,shewetherself.‘Courseit…itallwentintothisleatherstoolthathe’dmade.[intakeofbreath]

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And[longexhalation]……hejustdraggedherintothebathroom,and…hejustpunchedandpunchedandpunchedher.

ThemannerofitstellingmadeDeirdre’stestimonyallthemorepowerful;sheconveyed

thisintenseemotionwithnomelodramaticflourishes.Barelyschoolage,thesetwin

sistersweresubjectedtoextremeviolencefromtheirfather.Onecanonlyguessathow

Deirdremusthavefeltatthetime,watching,andlistening,tohersistersufferinginthis

way.

Meanwhile,livingconditionsintheirbasementhomedeteriorated.Stagnant

waterhadcollectedbeneaththefloorboards,andthecouncilcondemnedtheflat.Not

longafterwards,herfatherwastakenintoasanatoriumforayeartoundergosurgery

forhisTB.

Youknow,mostchildren,ifoneoftheirparentshadtogoawayforalongtimewouldbemortallyupset,wouldn’tthey?Wewerehighlydelighted....MysisterandIwerequiteclose,andweweren’tgoingtogethitanymore.DoyouknowwhatImean?

Theresponseofthechildrentotheirfather’shospitalization,whileperfectlyrationalin

thecircumstances,demonstratedjusthowfarthefamilyhaddriftedawayfromthe

normsofahealthyhomeandfamilylife.

Deirdrewentontotalkaboutherfather’supbringingandhiscareerinthenavy.

Bornin1912,hewastheninthsurvivingchildoutof‘about’thirteensiblings,andhad

beenraisedinDr.Barnardo’s.‘Thisiswhymumalwaysmadeexcusesforhim.Because

hewasraisedinDr.Barnardo’s.’8Atseventeenhehadjoinedthenavy,remaininguntil

theendofthewar.In1994,fouryearsbeforehisdeathattheageofeighty-six,Deirdre

startedresearchingherfamilyhistory.Inthecourseofthisresearch,sheacquiredher

father’srecordsfromBarnardo’s,butdidnotsharethemwithhermother:‘...shewas

8Deirdre’smothervariedtherationalizationsshemadeforherhusband’sbehaviouraccordingtothecontext.InChapter4,wesawhow‘threeandahalfyearsinaprisoncamp’fittedthecircumstanceswhenwardingofftheneighbour’sthreattoreporthisabusivebehaviourtotheauthorities.

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quitefrail.Shehadosteoporosis,and,youknow,shewouldhavegotveryemotional

readingthat.’Hermotherliveduntiltheageofninety,dyingin2008.

TheBarnardo’srecordsmadeadecisiveimpactonDeirdre,and‘fiveorsixyears

ago’shesetaboutuncoveringmoreofherfather’sFEPOWbackground.TheBarnardo’s

recordshadopenedDeirdre’seyestoherfather’ssociallydeprivedupbringing.Butthe

mostprofoundemotionalturningpointinDeirdre’sstoryofherrelationshipwithher

fathercamewiththechancediscoveryofasmallbook.Shedescribedthisshift

hesitantly,almostwithembarrassment:‘Wemusttalkaboutthis,ifwedon’ttalkabout

anythingelse.Youknow,Iam…Iamnow…I-I’mprettyproudofhim…’.Afterthe

accountshehadgivenofherchildhood,thesewordscameassomethingofasurprise.

Deirdre:Isentforthisbook[shehasthebookinherhands]...andIsatupallnightreadingthis.Terry:Howdidyoucomeacrossthebookinthefirstplace?Deirdre:Well,IactuallywentonGoogleandjustgoogledmyfather’sname.Andbecausehegoterm…DSM9,isitDSM?Allthesedifferentthingscameupabouthim.Andhegotitbecauseofbeingonthisboat...thattookontheJapanese.Terry:Sothatmusthavebeenquiteastartlingfind.Deirdre:Itwas.Itwasstartling.So,yeah,basicallybyreadingit,that’showIfoundout,youknow,thathelandedonBankaIsland.Butitwasgettingtherefromtheboatsinkingthatwashorrendous.Cosyou’dgottheJapanesefiringdownonyou.Therewas88Ithinkpeopleonboardthatboat,anditwasamixtureofChinese,therewassomenavalmen.…Terry:Soyouonlycameacrossthisafteryourfatherhaddied.Isthatright?Deirdre:Oh,yeah.Ididn’tknowaboutitbefore.Terry:Andwasyourmotheralive?Didyoudiscussitwithher?Deirdre:Yes.Idon’tthinkIhadthebookbuttherewasquiteabitontheinternetaboutthatboat.Sotherewas88peopleonthatboatandonlytensurvived.

Deidre’sentireadultlifehadbeenpunctuatedbydistressingincidentswithherfather.

Despitethis,theserevelationsofhisnavalpast,withtheirpsychicandhistorical

resonances,causedDeirdretorethinktherelationshipwithherfather.Butshewas

unabletocompletelyredeemtheemotionaldamagealreadydone.Thisemergedclearly

fromthecircumstancessurroundingherfather’sdeath.Theunderlyingconflictbetween

9D.S.MistheDistinguishedServiceMedal.

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humiliationandviolence,ontheonehand,andthelateremergenceofacautioussense

ofpride,ontheother,wasstillactive,ascanbeseenfromthefollowingextract.

Deirdre:Andhewaseighty-sixIthinkwhenhedied....Whathappenedwas,he’dfallenover,afterdrinkingabouthalfabottleofbrandy,andbrokenhiship....Andthenmumdecidedshe’dhavetogetanambulancebecausehewasinsomuchpain.…withintwodayshewasdead.Hewasgoingdowntothetheatre,therewasme,mysister,myson-myfatherwasveryfondofmyson.Itwasasifhewasfondofthemalesinthefamily,butnotthefemales....So,quartertotwo,twoo’clockinthemorning,Igetsaphonecall,saying,yourfather’sgotfluidinhislungs.He’snotgoingtosurvive.Doyouwanttocomeandseehim?Ididn’tgo.…Ididringmymumstraightaway.Ididn’tsaytoherthey’daskedmeifIwantedtogoandseehim.Andshedidn’tsay,shouldIgoandseehim?Shedidgoandseehimwhenhewaslaidout.ButIdidn’tactuallygoandsaygood-byetohim.Idolivewiththat.ButIsupposeIjustthought,well,there’snothingIcando.AndIdidn’twanttogoupthereandsayalotofthingsIdidn’tmean.Sothat’swhyItookthatdecision....Iphonedmysisterandsaidthatdadhadpassedaway.There’snowayshewouldhavegone.Shewouldhavehadthesamethinkingasme.Terry:So,whenyourdaddied,whatwouldyousaywasthestateofyourrelationshipbetweenyouandhim?Deirdre:Well,itwasn’tasbadaswithmysister,obviously.Iwastalkingtohim,butI’dquiteoftenputthephonedownonhim.Becausehewasjustsorude....Apartfromhisdrinkingandhisgambling,hewasalsoawomanizer.

Inanswertomyfinalquestion,Deirdreintroducedafullyformedemotionalnarrative

describinghowthefamilyhandledthefuneralarrangements,repletewithambiguity

andvividsymbolism.

Terry:Isthereanythingelsethatyouwanttosay...?Deirdre:TheonlyotherbadthingIfeelis,whenmydaddied,yougetthediscussionofwhat,youknow,ishegonnabecremated?Ishegonnabeburied?AndIsaidtomymum,wecouldapproachtheRoyalNavyatPortsmouthandperhapsputhisashesouttosea.Isaidbecausehewasabitofawanderlust,myfather,hecouldn’tsettleinoneplace.Ididn’twanttofeelcompelledthatI’dgottagoandkeepputtingflowersonhisgrave,or...andbirthdaysandthingslikethat.Ididn’twantthatpressure.Andso,Iwasbeingabitselfishreally,......Andsoweallwent.Mysisterhadneverbeenonaboatinherlife,notevenacrossthechannel.Soshewasabitnervous,butitwasn’tactuallyscatteringtheashes.Shehadtogetalittlecasket,leadlined,soitwasactuallygoingtositonthebottomoftheocean.10CoswhenIfoundthatout,Ididfeelbad.…CosIhad

10‘Forpracticalreasonsashesmustnotbeliterallyscatteredatsea.Theashesshouldbestoredinaweighted,ventedandunmarkedcontainer/casket.TheNavalBasechaplaincyCTLwillbeabletoprovidecurrentregulationsregardingthecasketrequired.ThecasketistobetreatedasacoffinandistobecoveredbyasmallUnionFlag.TheWhiteEnsignisnottobeused.’(para.3129)http://bit.ly/1WSpi0A

184

thisideathatyouwouldopenthiscasketandjustletthewindtakeit.Andwherethewindtookit,itsettledyouknow.So,Idofeelabitguiltyaboutthat.Terry:Youweren’tawareofthatuntilitactuallyhappened?Deirdre:No,no.Well,untilactuallywewereatPortsmouth,andmumsaid,Ihadtogetaflippinleadlinedlittlecasket.Cosmybrothersaidtoher,hewascarryingit,hegoestomymum,Godinheaven,hegoes,whathaveyougotinthisbox?Andshesaid,well,it’sgotleadinit.Andthenitclicked.AndIthought,oh,God.SoIsaid,theydon’topenitthen,andlettheashesout?Andshegoes,well,noapparentlynot.…theyneedtoknowit’sonthebottomoftheocean....Yeah,soIdidgothroughastageoffeelingveryguiltyaboutthat.Itwasalovelyservicetheydo.…Theydoyoutea,andsandwiches,andit’sallatnoexpensetous....ItwasquiteawayoutintotheSolent....Itwasquiteemotionalreally.Yeah.PlusthefactthatIthought,hecan’tcomebackandhauntme.Orus,Ishouldsay.

Deirdremadeasignificantemotional‘turn’inthecourseofherlife:fromimmersionin

memoriesofahorrendouschildhood,toahesitantcapacitytofeelprideinherfather,

accompaniedbyfleetingfeelingsofguiltonherpart.Deirdre’sprideinherfather,or

perhapsmoreprecisely,herneedtoexpressprideinherfather,raisesinteresting

questions.Hadshemadethistransitiondespite,orbecauseof,thechildhoodtrauma?

Wasthisacaseofegodefencethroughreactionformation,orthepartialhealingofa

damagedpsyche?Wasthisreparationormanicreparation,orboth?Deirdre’s

behaviourattheendofhislifesuggestedthatsheremainedambivalent,stillharboured

negativefeelingstowardshim.Shehadreachedapointwhereshecouldfeelsome

respectforhim,couldrecogniseandidentifywithhispaststruggles,butcouldnot

dismissthetraumahehadinflictedonhiswifeandtwodaughters.11Sadly,however,as

shewrotetomeinanemailsoonaftertheinterview:‘...myfathernevershowedany

remorsetomyself,mysisterorourmotherandneitherdidheeverapologise.’

ConclusionThischapterhasfocusedonhowparticipantstriedtomakesenseoftherelationships

theyhadwiththeirfathersacrossthecourseoftheirlives,andhashighlightedthe

11Heneverabusedhisson.

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narrativetrajectoriesandcontoursevidentastheyrevisitedandattemptedto

reconstructtheserelationships.

Basedonmyempiricalwork,Ihaveproposedatentativeheuristicframeworkto

facilitatethinkingaboutthecomplexitiesinherentinhowandwhyparticipantsengaged

indifferentgenresofmemorypractice.Threedimensionsemergedfromthisexercise:

knowledge-based,emotion-based,andvalues-based.Isuggestedalsothatthememory

practicesofparticipantscouldbeunderstoodasuniqueanddynamicformulationsof

thesethreedimensions.

Ihavearguedfortheanalyticstrengthofcertainkeyconstructs:memory

practice,generativity,redemption,reparation,and‘turningpoints’,andhaveshown

howthesemanifestedinthelivesofStephen,Jacqui,Joanna,andDeirdre.The

testimoniesofJoanna,DeirdreandJacquiillustratedthesignificanceofturningpointsin

narratives,butalsoclearlydemonstratedthevariations:intimescale,inintensity,andin

theeventsthattriggered‘turns’.Mostimportantlyperhaps,thestoryofDeirdre

spotlightedthepsychicsubtletiesentailed:howthelivesofparticipantsdidnotpass

smoothlyfromonestagetothenext,butfrequentlyhadtonavigatedisturbing

emotionalcrosscurrentsandconflicts,throughtothepresentday.

Theprocessof‘reconstruction’wasacontinuingprocess,andthevestigesofthe

pasthadtobeaccommodated,orlivedalongside.Nevertheless,althoughthenegative

consequencesofflawedrelationshipsmighthavetobeshouldered,positiveoutcomes,

suchasgreaterpersonalresilience,couldstillresult.InthenexttwochaptersIexamine

twogenresofmemorypracticethatfeaturedprominentlyinthetestimoniesof

participants:onefocusedonthesearchformilitaryfamilyhistory(ChapterSeven),and

theotheronpilgrimage(ChapterEight).

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CHAPTERSEVEN

THESEARCHFORMILITARYFAMILYHISTORIES

‘…IwasdownattheNationalArchivessoonafterthey’dreleasedthisbatchofdocuments……Idon’tthinkI’llevercompletethisjigsaw’(Pete).

...onefindsevidence[...]ofagroupofresearcherswithanastonishinggraspofahugeanddauntingrangeofsourcesanddisplayinganhistoricalsensitivityandacumenthatwouldbetheenvyofsomeprofessionalhistorians(Erben1991p.280).‘...formanytheprocessoffindingoutbecomesassignificanttotheirexperienceaswhattheyfindout,andnewendsarecreated’(Bottero2015p.4).

Introduction

Inthecourseofmyfieldwork,Icametorecognizeagroupofparticipantswhosechoice

ofmemorypracticewasremarkablydistinctive,andforwhomthesearchfor

informationevokedtheconnectiontheyfeltbetweentheindividualhistoriesoftheir

fathersandthewidercontextofthewarintheFarEast.1Theireffortstomakesenseof

thepastthroughtheuse,andexpansion,ofthearchiveexemplifiedatransparent,

intimate,andrichlydynamicconnectionbetween‘personaltroubles’and‘publicissues’

(Mills2000).

Thegeneraldesiretolearnmoreaboutthefather’sexperiencesinthePOW

campsiscommonamongstchildrenofFarEastPOWs,oftenbeginslaterinlife,andmay

betriggeredbythedeathofthefather(orofbothparents).However,unlikethe

participantsdescribedinthepresentchapter,mostdidnotfeelasimilarurgeto

systematicallyresearchandmeticulouslydocumentthefather’smilitaryhistory.

Inthischapter,Iaddressthequestionofwhyasignificantproportionofthe

childrenofFEPOWsdochoosetoinvestcopiousamountsoftime,energyandmoneyin

tracingtheirmilitaryfamilyhistories.Iexaminethenatureofthisgenreofmemory

1JayWinter(2006)remarksonhowhistoryisabletolocate‘familystoriesinbigger,moreuniversal,narratives’(p.40).

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practice,illustratekeyissuesthroughextractsfrominterviews(principallyPeteand

Jeff),anddiscusshowinsomecasesthepracticehasbecomeaninfluentialforcein

reworkingidentity.Withlittledirectlyrelevantresearchtodrawonortocritique,I

considerliteraturefromthefieldsofgenealogyandfamilyhistory.2

The‘COFEPOWresearchers’3hadnarroweraimsthanmainstreamgenealogists

orfamilyhistorians,theirfocusbeingonasinglepersonandasinglegeneration.4While

quiteevidentlylocatedwithinfamilyhistory,theirworkwasalsoassociatedwiththe

disciplineofmilitaryhistory.Forthatreason,Isettledontheterm‘militaryfamily

history’5tocovertheactivitiesundertakenbytheCOFEPOWresearchers.Unlikefamily

historyingeneral,thepurposeofmilitaryfamilyhistoryisnotto‘moveon’tothenext

linkinthegenealogicalchain,butto‘drillin’,todiscovertheprecisemovementsofone

manoveraveryspecificperiodandsetoflocations,andtoextricatetheminutiaeofhis

day-to-daylife.

Tounderstandthedrivebehindtheactivitiesundertakenbytheseparticipants,

weshouldkeepinmindthewordsofMichaelRoperonhowhistoriansoftheGreatWar

havetendedtoneglecttheemotionaldimensionsoftheirsubject:‘facedwithscenesof

psychicdissolution,itissaferforthehistoriantostayintherealmsoftherational...to

trytomakesafetheunconsciousresiduesofviolenceandterror,dispatchingthemtoa

2Inlinewithwhatappearstobethecurrentconsensusamongstpractitioners,Ishallemploytheterms‘genealogy’and‘familyhistory’interchangeably.Sometimesthetermsaresubtlydifferentiated,forexample,bytheSocietyofGenealogists.Inthesesituations,theterm‘genealogy’applieswhenestablishingapedigree,and‘familyhistory’usedforthebiographicalstudyofagenealogicallyprovenfamily(whichshadesinto‘socialhistory’).‘FamilyHistoryincorporatesGenealogy’2.http://www.sog.org.uk/learn/education-sub-page-for-testing-navigation/guide-ten/3Forpurposesofclarity,Ihavedecidedtousetheterm‘COFEPOWresearchers’todescribeparticipantswhoseself-declaredaimistoresearchtheirfather’sFEPOWhistory.Thisdesignationisnotintendedtoimplythattheyhavenointerestatallinotheraspectsofthefathers’experiences,justthatthisisthemostvisiblefeature.4Afewparticipantsextendedtheirsearchestograndfathersiftheyalsohadamilitarybackground.5Inthiscontext,IamusingthetermtodescribeaveryspecificbranchoffamilyhistorywhoseprimarypurposeistouncoverinformationaboutaparticularFEPOW,totraceanddocumenthismovementsthroughthewar,includingthedetailsofthePOWcampswherehewasheld,the‘hellships’hewason,andhisrouteofrepatriation.

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kindofculturalstrongboxfromwhichtheycannotburstout’(Roper2009,p.266).One

ofthequestionsaddressedbythischapter,then,ishowfarCOFEPOWresearchersmay

beusingtheirparticularmemorypractices-deliberatelysituatedinthe‘realmsofthe

rational’-asa‘strongbox’toprotectmorevulnerablepartsofthepsyche.Fewscholars

haveattemptedtoproblematizethisfieldtoanysubstantialdegree.Suchtheoretical

workasdoesexistislocatedlargelywithinthesociologyoffamilyhistorywhichis

whereIbeginmydiscussion.

Thepracticeofmilitaryfamilyhistoryandthepsychosocial

Thewidespreadinterestinfamilyhistorybegsthefundamentalquestionofjustwhyin

factpeoplestrivesoassiduouslytouncoverthefinegrainoftheirownfamilyhistories.

Isthismerelyahobbywhosepopularityisentirelyfathomable,oramoresubtleprocess

ofself-making?Theliteratureprovidesarangeofanswers.6

Somescholarsspeculatethatrapidsocialchange,socialdislocationandother

existentialconcernsgeneratepracticestostrengthenidentity,asenseofself,orgreater

‘ontologicalsecurity’(Back2009,Basu2004,Bishop2005,Bottero2015).Emotional

reasonscanbedominant,suchastheneedformeaningwhendealingwith‘grief,

depressionandalackofselfesteem’(Kramer2011a,p.380)or,atamoremundane

level,thewishforsocialcontact:‘wantingtobecomeamemberofaclub’(Erben1991

p.280).Thedesiretocreatea‘compellingfamilyhistory’thatcanbepassedontofuture

generationsisapowerfuldriveforothers(Bishop2008),perhapswiththeaimof

satisfyingthe‘ultimatehumanfantasy,thepursuitofimmortality’(Lynch2011,p.116).

Rathercontentiously,Edwards(2009)addstothislistbysuggestingthatfamilyhistory

exercises‘someoftheemotionalcapacitiesthatwouldotherwisebeexercisedby

organizedreligion-althoughtheyarenotmutuallyexclusive’(p17).Kramer(2011a)6GivenitsrecentboomintheEnglishspeakingworld,severalacademicshavequestionedwhysociologyandotheracademicdisciplineshavetakensuchlittleinterestinamateurgenealogyandfamilyhistoryresearch,(e.g.Barnwell2015,Bishop2008,Edwards2009,Kramer2011aandb).Durie(2017)writesofgenealogysufferingfrom‘academicneglect.’(p2.)

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alsopursuesasocialandpsychologicalrationale,concludingthatgenealogyisa

‘creativeandimaginativememorypracticewhichproduceskinship,auto/biographical

selvesandinteriorities...’(p.381).

Fromapsychoanalyticstandpoint(Erben1991)introducesthepotentialroleof

obsessive-compulsivetraitstoexplaintheattractionof‘listingnamesandconnecting

themwithlines’(p.279),andthereissubstantialsupportforthisintheliterature

(Subkowski2006).ErbenalsorefersadmiringlytoLawrenceStone(1971)whoseview

isthat

Intermsofpsychologicalmotivation,theseobsessivecollectorsofbiographicalinformationbelongtothesamecategoryofanal-eroticmalesasthecollectorsofbutterflies,postagestamps,orcigarettecards;allareby-productsoftheProtestantEthic.7Butpartofthestimuluscamefromlocalorinstitutionalprideandaffection,whichtooktheformofadesiretorecordthepastmembersofacorporation,college,profession,orsect(p.49).

Inotherwords,Stonespeculatesthatthe‘collectionofbiographicalinformation’may

meetanintrinsicpsychicneed,whilstalsoallowingforthe‘prideandaffection’that

figuredprominentlyamongstthecommunityofCOFEPOWresearchers.Whilewarning

againstexaggeratingtheFreudianinterpretationofgenealogy,Erben(1991)concludes

thatit‘shouldnotbeunder-emphasisedorgoundeveloped’(p.279).

Onewayofthinkingaboutmilitaryfamilyhistoryistoseeit‘asasetofpractices

anddiscoursesofexpertise’[inwhich]‘accountsoftheresearchprocessareprominent’

(italicsinoriginal)(Bottero2012p.68).Sheemphasisesthat‘familyhistoryasasocial

practice’,isembodiedintheskillsandthe‘proceduralconventions’acquiredwhile

delvingintothearchives(Bottero2015,p.18).Theseskillsincludesifting,tracing,filing,

checking,collating,documenting,travellingtolibrariesandarchives,drawing

conclusions,attendingmeetingsandconferences,visitingsites...andintheprocess,and

perhapsaboveall,creatingnarratives.Asthestorytellingproceeds,typicallyinknight’s

7‘...secular vocation, self control, hard work, collective responsibility, responsible stewardship’ (Jones 2001, p.328) - characteristics which do seem consonant with those of the COFEPOW researchers.

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movefashion,thesocialpracticesentailedinbuildingafamilyhistorythemselves

becomea‘formofidentity-work’(p.2).

Conventionally,familyhistoryhasenabledpeopletomanagekinship,toallow

in,ortoexcludefromview,particularancestors,behaviours,orevents(Kramer2011b).

Bydefinition,however,participantsresearchingtheirfathers’militaryhistorieshave

largelypredeterminedtheirchoices.Withsomuchresourceandemotioninvestedin

onesignificantperson,smalldifferencesbetweenexpectationsandrealitybecome

magnified,withinevitablefrustrationsif,andusuallywhen,theresearchheadsdown

blindalleys.

Astheirinvolvementdeepened,COFEPOWresearcherswereobligedtobecome

familiarwithmainstreampracticesofarchive-basedresearch,andapseudo-

professionalismsupersededtheirpreviouspracticesthathadbeenheavilydependent

on‘communicativememory’(Assmann2008).CarolynSteedman(2001)comparesthe

archivetomemory.Thearchivemayinherwords‘…takeinstuff,heterogeneous,

undifferentiatedstuff…texts,documents,data…andorderthembytheprinciplesof

unificationandclassification’,whichcangivetheimpressionofbeinganalogousto

humanmemory.However,unlikememory‘TheArchiveisnotpotentiallymadeupof

everything…anditisnotthefathomlessandtimelessplaceinwhichnothinggoesaway

...’(italicsinoriginal).Whilehumanmemoryisconstantlycalledupontoprovidethe

rawmaterialweusetonarrateameaningintoourlives,inthearchive,this‘stuff’-some

chosen,somethere‘asmadfragmentationsthatnooneintendedtopreserve’(p.68)-

waitsaroundforsomeonetoread,respondandintegrateitintoanarrativetosuittheir

particularpurpose.Theinherentandparadoxicalrandomnessofthearchive(the‘mad

fragmentations’)hascausedCOFEPOWresearchersgreatconsternationovertheyears,

butthearchivestillretainsits‘allure’and,especiallypertinently,‘romance,asinthe

senseofthequest:enduranceofallkindsoftrialandtribulation,inpursuitofsomegoal

orgrail’(Steedman2008,p.6).

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Theemotionalpotencyofthearchive-tuckedawayfrompublicgaze-mustnot

beunderestimated.8However,workingwithemotionallychargedmaterialshasrisks,

andcanreleaseunconscioustraces:those‘spectersorghosts[that]appearwhenthe

troubletheyrepresentandsymptomatizeisnolongerbeingcontainedorrepressedor

blockedfromview’(Gordon2008,p.xvi).The‘archivalimpulse’,that‘desiretofindor

locateorpossessthemomentoforiginorthebeginningsofthings’(Boscacci2015,p.1),

canarisefromunconsciousmotivation,asanexpressionofthe‘compulsiontorepeat-

torecollect/re-collectinmemory’(p.3).Inthissense,creatingarchivesmaybeseenas

awaytopossess‘themomentoforigin’andindoingsototakecontrol.

Pete9

Petewasbornin1948,thethirdoffourchildren.Hisfather,John,wasaquartermaster

sergeant,responsibleforstoresandsupplies,andsocomfortablewithdetailandthe

workingsofthemilitarybureaucracy.Despitehisfatherbeingaprofessionalsoldier,

Peteclaimednospecialinterestinmilitaryhistoryassuch.Earlyintheinterview,Pete

begantosetouthisfather’sarmycareerwithcharacteristicfluencyandgusto.

DadjoinedtheRegimentin1927.AndfromGermanyhewenttoNorthernIreland,andfromNorthernIrelandhewenttoIndiain1936.HewasinaplacecalledJabalpurforafewyears.HehadayearonthenorthwestfrontiertryingtokeepthefeudingtribesapartThey’restillfightingeventoday.AndthenhewentbacktoAgra,in1939.Whichiswherehemetmum.Hewasacompanyquartermastersergeantandsohewasinasupportiverole.Beforethetwobattalionsmerged,hewasthequartermastersergeantforD

8Althoughmyownresearchhasnotreliedonregularvisitstothestatearchives,IcanvividlyrecallthepsychologicalimpactoflookingthroughmyfirstbatchofdocumentsintheNationalArchivesatKew,materialsthatcoveredhowthemilitaryhighcommandplannedtogettheFEPOWshome.IhadnotanticipatedthatIwouldrespondemotionallyinthewayIdid.Itfeltlikeasuddencollapseofthepastintothepresent,courtesyoftheoddlymundanebureaucraticminutiae,the‘throwaway’commentsinlettersandtelegrams,andwhatseemedtome,ratherpompously,astheincongruoushumour.Ofcourseitwascompletelycongruentwiththetimesandtherealitywithinwhichthesepeoplewereworking(assomeonewhospentagooddealoftheirprofessionallifeworkingwithmadnessanddeath,Ireallyshouldhaveknownbetter).Thistactileandweighty(inallsenses)experience-andthesmells-raisedquestionsandfeelingsIdon’tthinkIcouldhavesummonedfromengagingwithsecondarysourcesalone.9Petehasabrother(Stephen)andasister(Brenda)bothofwhomwerealsoparticipantsinthisresearch,andwhosetestimoniesfigureinChapters6and4respectively.

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company.Andthen,afterthemerger,hewasaquartermastersergeantinHQcompany.AndIthink,youknow,beingHQcompany,theywereprobablymorealignedtotheseniorofficerswhichisprobablywhy,whenhewasinChangi,Idon’tthinkheactuallygotpostedawaytoaworkpartycampinRiverValleyorAdamPark,orSimeRoadoranywherelikethat.HewasinChangiforafewmonths,fromFebruary‘tilOctober1942.Thenhewentupontotherailway.SohegotuptheresortofNovember…andthenhewasontherailwayquitefarnorthuntilFebruary’44.Andthentheyallstartedmovingsouthagain.Yeah.EventheguysthatwerebuildingtherailwayfromtheBurmaendfilteredthroughintoThailandandallendedupintheChungkaierm…ThaMarkam,Kanchanaburiarea.AnditwasfromtherethatmenstartedgettingnominatedforpartiestogodowntoSingaporeandofftoJapan.Fortunatelydadwasn’t.

PeteexplainedthatastheJapanesemilitarypreparedfortheconstructionoftheThai-

Burmarailway,theywerekeentoexploittheskillsofthementheyhadcaptured.He

relishedsharinghisfather’sprideinminoractsofsabotage.

Hetalkedaboutsabotageandleavingboltsinthecylindersandthingslikethat.Therewasoneenginestillnotworking,evenatthetimeoftheJapanesesurrender.Sohewasratherproudofthat!IthinkhewasliberatedfromKairincampinthecentralrailwayworkshop.Ithinkhewentbackthere.TheevidenceIhaveforthatisaphotographhehasinhiscollectionofSingaporecathedral,andonthebackofthatisaversewrittenbyapadreHarryThorpefromSaratogainNewSouthWales,Australia.IhavefoundreferencetohiminWearyDunlop’sdiariesforinstance.Butit’sdatedKairinAugust1945.AndIthinkthat’sprobablywheredadwasatthetime.

Pete’smasteryofdetailandhisjoyinitscommunicationtypifiedtheprowessofthe

COFEPOWresearchers,asdidthereferencestoanimpressiverangeofsources,some

fairlymainstream,suchasthe‘WearyDunlop’sdiaries’,10otherslessso,asleastto

Britishears(‘padreHarryThorpe’).ThemacrohistoryofthewarintheFarEast

providedcriticalpointsofanchorageforthedetailsofhisfather’sstory,adding

significancetothefamilystoriesandprovidingarichgeopoliticalcontextagainstwhich

tolocatetheactionsofotherwisemarginalactors.

10ThefamousAustraliansurgeonwhohasbecomeaniconicfigureinPOWdiscourse.SeeDunlop(1990).

194

Famousintermediaries,suchasWearyDunloporLadyMountbatten,11provided

historicalreferencestofacilitatenarrativetransitionsbetweenpersonal,local,national,

internationalandglobalperspectives.Whereevidencewasmissing,Petemade

educatedguesses-workinghypotheses-that,inaccordancewithstandardscientific

method,heexposedtochallengeashismeticulousresearchesflushedoutfreshdata.

Theeffortsoftheprisonersofwartosabotagethebuildingofthe‘railway’havebecome

somethingofatrope,12butPete’sjocularityintellingthisstorysuggestedthatastrong

senseofpridewasinjectingmotivepowerintohisextensiveinquiries.Otherthan

occasionaldiversionsintomoreconventionalfamilyhistory,Petedirectedhisattention

andenergiesfirmlyontothetaskofuncoveringthefactualdetailsofhisfather’sPOW

existence.Petebeganresearchingintohisfather’shistoryin2006,afterhehadretired

fromaseriesofseniorrolesintheoilandsteelindustries.Hehadlittletogoon.

Terry:HowconsciouswereyouofthePOWpartofyourfather’slife?Pete:WellIthinkIwasawarethathehadbeen…associatedwiththeBridgeontheRiverKwai.Andthatwasprobablythelimit.Youknow,Ididn’thaveanydetailsofwherehe’dworked,whathe’dbeendoing,whichcampshe’dbeenin.Terry:Hadheeverspokenaboutittoyou?Pete:No…no.No.Atanystage…Terry:So,whenyouweredoingyourresearch,andyouwerestartingoff…Pete:Well,itwashisarmyrecords.Hisarmyrecords.Terry:Yeah.Butyouhadtogetthose,didn’tyou?Pete:Oh,yeah.Terry:Beforethendidyouhaveanythingaroundthehouse?Pete:Well,Ijuststartedlookingonline.Terry:Oh,okay,soyoudidn’thaveanyconcretematerial[no]thathadsortofcomethroughthefamilyor[no]afteryourmum[no,nothing].Nothingatall?[no,no]Ah,okay.Pete:No,Imean,it’sonlysubsequentlythatIhavefoundthingsthathavebeenleftbehind,likediaries.Notdiarieserm…addressbooks...andofmum’sand,youknow,likeIsaidearlieraboutmum’saddressbookwithcontactsinthem.

SerendipitycametoPete’said.AfamilyweddinginNewZealandwasthecatalystthat

ledtothediscoveryofunexpectedmaterial,andgaveextramomentumtohisresearch.

Duringtheweddingvisit,hisyoungerbrotherhadshownhimnumerousfamily11Seehttp://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19450911-1.2.5.aspx12AlistairUrquhartprovidedconvincingdetailina2010articlefortheDailyMail,:http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1254168/Monsters-River-Kwai-One-British-POW-tells-horrifying-story.html

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photographswhichprovedinvaluable.But,otherthandocumentsandscansofthese

photos,hehadnoartifactsofhisowntohandle,ortodisplay.Hewasmissingwhat

SusanPearce(1994)callsthe‘poweroftherealthing’,itssheerfacticity,aswellasits

‘message-bearing’potential(p.20).Whatitemswereheldinthefamily-thefather’s

medals,hisclarinet,andaceremonialdagger(ofuncertainprovenance)-wereallinthe

possessionofhiseldestbrother,whoalsolivedinNewZealand.Inreconstructingthe

past,sensoryelements(‘relics’)areoneofthethreeinterconnected‘routes’-history,

memoryand‘relics’-thatLowenthal(2015)suggestsareessentialinachieving‘full

awareness’(p.398).InPete’scase,theverymeagrecontributionofrelicstohiscause

meantthathepursuedhistoryandmemorywithparticularinsistenceandintensity.

Terry:Wereyoualwaysinterestedinmilitaryhistory?Pete:No.No,no.IrealisedthatIknewsolittleaboutdad’smilitarycareerthatIthoughtwellitwouldbequiteinterestingtofindoutwhathedid.AndIjuststartedwithanA4sheetandatable,andIjustputkeydatesthatIknewandIstartedputtingbitsofinformationinthatIknewaboutdad.AndthenIthought,rightwelllet’sgethisarmyrecords.Igothisarmyrecordsandthatenabledmetoputafewmoredatesin.Andthistablestartedgettingbiggerandbiggerandbigger.Andthen,Istartedcollectinginformationtogether.Ithinkitwas2006Istartedthat.Andthenitwasattheendof2006,that’sright,myniecesweddingoutinNewZealand.IwentouttoNewZealand,metupwithmyyoungerbrother,13toldhimwhatI’dstarteddoing.Hesaid,oh,youmightbeinterestedinthesethen.Andhebroughtoutallthesephotographs.Andthat’swherephotographsofStephen14camefrom,andthechurch,thecathedral…theinscriptionon…Well I did realise dad had a photo collection but it had never occurred to me where it had gone. But it turned out that he had given it to Jim, you know. And so he was sort of the custodian of dad’s photograph collection. Terry: Did he have all of your dad’s papers then, effectively, connected to the war? Pete: Well, no. No. Just the photos. There were no other papers as such.

WhatmarkedoutPete’sresearchfromallotherswasthatheexpandedhisrealmof

interestbeyondhisfather.Remarkably,hecarriedoutdetailedtrackingworkonall935

membersofhisfather’sbattalion.Infullflow,Peteprovidedarunningcommentaryon

his‘live’research:

TheywerealltakenbacktoBangkok,putonDC-3DakotasandflowntoRangoon.Now,foralongtime-upuntilaboutaweekago-myresearchhad

13BothofPete’sbrotherslivedinNewZealand.14Hiseldestbrother,bornin1941.

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identifiedthathecouldhavecomebackononeoftwovessels.TheBoissevain16ortheEmpirePride.TheyarrivedinLiverpoolonthe12thofOctober1945.Andthereweretwoshipsthatarrivedthatdaywhichaccordingtodad’sarmyrecordswasthedayhecameback.

Atthecloseoftheinterview,Peteshowedmehisspreadsheetsdetailingthemovements

ofthe935menofthebattalion.Laidoutend-to-end,theyseemedtoextendhalfway

acrosshislivingroom.

PeteisthebrotherofBrendawhosetestimonyIdiscussedinChapterFour(and

alsothebrotherofStephenwhoappearsinChapterSix).MyinterviewswithPeteand

Brendawereverydifferent,incontentandinaffectivetone.Petewasmuchmore

outgoingand‘incontrol’,whereasBrendawasverytentativeandreluctanttoventure

anopinion.ThesignificantepisodethatBrendaraisedaboutherfatherretreatinginto

thefrontroomforseveraldaysatatimewasnevermentionedbyPete.

ThelevelofdetailrevealedinPete’sresearchesbegsquestionsaboutthe

dynamicsof‘listmaking’.ErnstvanAlphen,ascholaroftheHolocaust,drawsattention

toaphenomenonhecalls‘listmania’(vanAlphen2015):thegrowingpropensityto

createlists.Inthisway‘allvictimscanbeacknowledgedandrepresented.Notbymeans

ofonesymbolorallegorythatissupposedtorepresentallvictims...’.Butashepoints

out,thegenrehasbeen‘contaminatedbyitshistory,astheNazishadparticularly

excelledinlisting’(p.12).15TheNazi’sfanaticaldedicationtorecordkeeping-numbers

tattooedonarms,transformingdetaineesinto‘archivedobjects’(p.13)-wasnot

followedbytheJapanese.Althoughtheywereobsessiveaboutcountingtheprisoners

(‘tenko’orrollcall),beyondthatday-to-dayritual,theirattitudetokeepingPOWcamp

recordswasmuchlessassiduous.Nonetheless,itwasstillthoughtsufficiently

incriminatingtobringabouttheirdeliberatedestructionattheendofthewar.16

15Erben(1991)notestheambivalencesfacedbyJewswhentracingtheirrelatives’fatesduringtheHolocaust.Firstly,theemotionalimpactofdiscoveringthat‘lineafterlineofancestry’(p.280)endedintheconcentrationcamps;secondly,theknowledgethatNazishadusedfamilytreestotraceindividualJewsinthefirstplace.16https://www.forces-war-records.co.uk/prisoners-of-war-of-the-japanese-1939-1945

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PetewasfollowinginaproudtraditionoflistmakinginthePOWcamps.At

considerablepersonalrisk,farsightedPOWshadcreatedlistsofPOWsthatrecorded

themovementsanddeathsoftheirpeers(e.g.Godfrey2003,Kandler2010).IntheFar

East,itwasthevictims,ratherthantheperpetrators,whowereusinglists:towitness,to

resistthedevaluationandtheobliterationofindividuallives,andtopreserveforhistory

andhumanityarecordofthosedestructiveforces.So,whileacknowledgingthe‘driven’

natureofPete’slistkeeping-evenperhapsthe‘listmania’-wecanalsorecognisethe

altruistic,values-baseddimensionunderpinninghismemorypractices.

Paradoxically,however,theverynumbersinvolvedcanrisk‘anoverwhelming

effectofabsence’whichiswhatvanAlphenclaimshashappenedwiththeVietnam

VeteransMemorialinWashingtonDConwhichareengravedthenamesof58,000

soldierswhodiedorwhoweremissinginactioninthatconflict(vanAlphen2015,p.

16).ShouldwesimplyseePete’slistingof935menasanarchivethatallowsaccessto

otherwiseobscurefacts,orviewitasamemorialtothosewho,now,arelikelyalldead?

Ithinkitisbestregardedasboth.

Jeff

Formingnetworksofthelike-mindedisakeyskillofanyCOFEPOWresearcher,butfew

couldmatchJeff’senergyandsheerdoggednesswhenitcametomakingandgrowing

connections.Hisexpandingandincreasinglydiversenetworkencompassednotjustthe

peoplehewantedtotalktobutalsotheideas,practicesandartifactsthatwereneeded

tothrowfurtherlightonhisfather’spast.Theseincludedportraitshisfatherdrewin

thecamps,personalreflectionson‘hierarchiesofsuffering’,andtheactivitiesthatgrew

outofthememorypracticeitself,suchascollaborativelytranscribingtenhoursoftape

recordingsthatthenetworkhadtrackeddown.

Jeffwasbornin1948andraisedinNewZealand.Ihaveincludedhistestimony

inmyresearchbecausehewasinstrumentalininstigatinganinformal,international

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networkthatincludesUK-basedCOFEPOWs.Itisthisinternationaldimension,initiated

byindividualscomfortablewithexploitingdigitalmedia,thatisaninterestingfeatureof

evolvingmemorypracticesinthisfield.Althoughholdingadegreeinhistoryand

archaeology,Jeffhasastrongtechnicalbent,spendingmostofhisworkinglifeinthe

steelindustry,mostrecentlyconcentratingonmarketdevelopmentforthetwomain

slagaggregatesproducedatNewZealandSteel.Jeffhadcontactedmeinresponsetomy

originalemailrequestforresearchparticipants.

TherewasaprominentBroadcasterinNZ–PaulHolmes–nowdeceased,whocoinedaphrasethat“Ourgenerationlivedintheshadowofthewar.”IcanthinkofnobetterdescriptionandcertainlyforthosewhoseparentswerecaptivesoftheJapanese.InmycasemylateFatherwasaNavalPOWinPalembang,SumatraafterthefallofSingapore.FromaveryyoungageIknewabout“thecamp”butalsoknewthathedidnotliketotalkaboutitmuch,exceptforsomeofthefunnythingsthathappened.

Jeff’sfatherwasatalentedamateurartistwhohadjoinedtheNavalVolunteerReserve

in1940.HewascapturedbyJapaneseforcesinFebruary1942attheendoftheBattleof

Singapore,thenheldatthreePOWcampsinIndonesiabeforebeingliberated.Jeff’s

interestinhisfather’stimeasaPOWtooksomeyearstogrow.Initiallyquitemodest,

hisinterestacceleratedaftercomingacrossaFEPOWwebsite,andthenbeingdeeply

affectedbyreadingRussellBraddon’snowclassicaccountoflifeasaPOW,TheNaked

Island(Braddon1952).17

MyFatherhasbeendeceasedformanyyearsbuttherewasalwaysmylingeringfascinationofwhatactuallywenton,promulgatedbyreadingvariousbooksbyexPOW’s.SufficetosayIknewthecampwasbadbutIdidn’tknowhowbaduntilrelativelyrecently.RonTaylor’sFEPOWwebsitewasthetriggertofindingoutmoreandgraduallyIwasabletostartbuildingupabetterpicture,addedtobyincredibly,twobooksthatwerepublishedinthemid1990’sbyfellowPOW’s.

IthinkIreallybecameinterestedinearnestafterreadingRussellBraddon’sbook“TheNakedIsland.”BraddonwascapturedduringtheMalayancampaignandasheputhishandsupinsurrenderherealiseditwashis21stBirthday.Iwas21atthetimeandwonderedhowIwouldhavereacted.ThiswasthefirstbookIreadaboutJapanesePOW’sandIsetouttoreadmore.

17http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituaries-russell-braddon-1613338.html

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Allwentquietforanumberofyears,thenonedaymyMotherphonedtosayshehadreadanarticleinanEnglishmagazineaboutabookonJAPPOW’sinPalembangand“Wasn’tthatDad’scamp?”

AnEnglishman,RayStubbs,hadbeenimprisonedwithJeff’sfather.In1995,Stubbs

pennedamemoirofhistimeincaptivity(Stubbs1995).Afterhismother’sphonecall,

Jeffsearchedforthebook.Hecouldn’tgetholdofacopyatfirstbutafterwinklingthe

telephonenumberoutofthepublishers,herangRayStubbsdirectlyandwassenta

copy."ItwasreallythefirstinformationI'dhadaboutthecamps,"Jeffwrote.

SubsequentlyhefoundacopyofaportraitofRayinhisfather’scollectionandsentitto

hisfamily(Rayhaddiedbythen).

IconductedmyinterviewwithJeffbyemailoverseveralmonths,andwas

immediatelyrewarded,yettakenaback,bythefreedomandebulliencewithwhichhe

respondedtothisopportunity.Tomyshame,hisrepliesconfoundedmystereotypical

expectationsofsomeonefromsuchastrongandsuccessfulscientificbackground.18

Overseveralyears,Jeffhadputtogetheraninternationalnetworkofcontacts

comprisingsonsanddaughtersofpeoplewhosefathershadalsobeeninPalembang.It

allbeganwhenheacquired‘meticulousrecords’fromthesonofthecampadjutant.

Imanagedtogetholdofthesefromtheson,copiedthemelectronicallyandthenwasabletostartcorrespondingwithpeoplewhohadpostedonFEPOWre“MyFatherwasaPOWinPalembangbutIdon’tknowmuchaboutit”sortofthing.MyFatherhaddoneformalportraitsofseveralandIwasabletoprovidethemcopies–highlyemotionalasyoucanimagine.

AidedbyJonathanMoffatoftheMalayanVolunteer’sGroup,19Jeffpushedhisresearches

further.

…withthehelpoftwoUKbased“childrenof”thatIhadfoundwestartedtoreallyborein,particularlywiththehelpofJonathanMoffatwhohadagoodstashofmaterialextheNAatKew.VeryrecentlythisincludedfinallygettingholdofthetranscriptsofthepostwartrialoftheguardsinSingaporein1946anda10hour(!)oralhistorybyoneLtBrewerthatwaslurkingattheIWM.Wearestillslowlydigestingthelatter,includingfundingthetransferofthe1980’stapestodigitalfortheIWMtoputontheirwebsite.

18Jeffwasrecentlydescribedinatradejournalashavinga‘passionformelterslag’.19http://www.malayanvolunteersgroup.org.uk/node/1

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Jeffnowhasconnectionswithsixteen‘”relativesof”scatteredaroundtheworld’.Oneof

thesewasRex(anotherofmyparticipants)whomJeffhadcontacted

viaanother“relativeof”whowithhissontrolledthroughtheUKphonebook.Hewasquitetakenabackwith[the]call,particularlyasIhadsomecaricaturesofhisFatherwhichIhavesincesenttohim.

MuchofJeff’sdrivetostayengagedwithhisparticularstyleofmemorypractice-which

blendsdetailedmilitaryfamilyresearchinterwovenwithproselytizing-isfoundedona

senseofinjusticeembeddedinthepublicdiscoursesurroundingFarEastPOWs.

ThethingaboutallthisJapanesePOWstuffTerryisthatmuchofwhathasbeenpublishedisaboutChangiandtheRailwayanduntilrelativelyrecently,verylittleonothercamps.It’sabitlikeSpitfireswinningtheBattleofBritain.WellactuallyHurricanesshotdownmoreGermanaircraftbutSpitfiresgotalltheglory.ThisisnottodenigratethesufferingthatwentoninChangiandparticularlytherailway.TherewerethousandsofPOWsinvolvedverses[sic]about1200inPalembangorotheroutlyingcampsinthethenJapanesedomain.Intruthconditionsintheseothercampswerejustasdireasthoseontherailway–possiblyworseinsomecases–buttheRailwayandChangigainedthemostnotoriety,probablybecauseofthenumbersinvolved.CommanderClark(hewhosailedaroundtheworldwhoImentioned)toldmyFatherthatChangiwas“Afivestarboardinghouse”comparedtoSungaiRoninPalembangandIthinkyouwillfindothercommentsinthesameveinfromthosewhoeithertransitedthroughChangiorwhoweresenttherefromoutlyingcampsaroundMay1945.

AnotherofthebeneficiariesofJeff’spassionforfactsandcommunicationwasKevin.His

father,George,hadalsobeenaPOWinPalembang.Kevin’sstoryprovidedanunusual

opportunitytotouchonthefactorsthatmayalignparticipantswithparticulargenresof

memorypractice.Kevintoldhisfather’sstorybymeansofaselfcreatedpublic

website20packedwithphotosandhyperlinkswhosepagestestifiedtothededication

neededtoputtogetheranonlinefamilyarchive.‘Jeffsuppliedmewithavastamountof

informationandpointedmeintherightdirectionformyresearch.Jeffalsosuppliedme

withinformationthatconfirmedmyfather’sfinalPrisonerofwarcamp’.21Thefollowing

extractisfromthewebsiteanddescribeshisfather’sreturnhomeattheendofthewar:

20http://aotn.dvrdns.org/MyWeb/public/websites/ww2/21Discoveringtheidentityof‘thelastcamp’issignificantformanyparticipants.ItwastheplacewherethePOWsheardthenewsofthewar’send,andfromwheretheybeganthepsychological

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BackHomeAfterdisembarkingfromtheDakotaairplanemyfatherwouldhavegoneformedicalassessmenttodetermineifhecouldgohomeonthefirstavailableship.UnfortunatelytheyearsofcaptivityhadtakeagreattollbothphysicallyandmentallysohewouldhavebeenadmittedtoaHospitalinSingapore,possiblyWoodbridgeHospital,forinitialtreatment.22MyFatherarrivedbackintheUKonthe10thFebruary1946andwasadmittedtoCarstairsHospitalinLanarkshire,Scotland.Anoteonhisrecordstated"Nottobepostedoverseasbefore10thAugust"andthenanote"NottobesenttotheFarEastunderanycircumstances".[emphasisinoriginal]CarstairsHospitalwasconstructedduring1936–39.Althoughitwasplannedandfinancedasafacilityfor"mentaldefectives"(i.e.personswithapsychiatricdisorder,theformertermisnolongerused)itwasfirstusedasanArmyhospital,duringWorldWarII.TheArmyrelinquishedcontrolofthehospitalin1948,whenitopenedastheStateInstitutionforMentalDefectives.Myfatherwasdiagnosedwith'ManicDepressivePsychosis'.

Becauseofmyownprofessionalbackgroundinmentalhealth,myeyesweredrawnto

thediagnosisofmanicdepressivepsychosis.23Itisabrave(orfullyconvinced)

psychiatristwhowouldmakethisdiagnosisinamansorecentlyreturnedfrom

prolongedwartrauma.Nevertheless,itdrewmyattentiontothefactthattheCOFEPOW

researcherssharedcertainpersonalitycharacteristics.Theseincludedhighlevelsof

drive,optimismandinquisitiveness,whichistypicalofpeoplewith‘hyperthymic

temperament’.24Akiskal(2005),amajorauthorityonmooddisorders,writesof

affectivetemperamentsasfollows:

Mostpersonshaveacharacteristicpattern...Forinstance,someareeasilymovedtotearsbysadorhappycircumstances,whereasotherstendtoremainplacid....Temperamentstendtoclusterintobasictypes...[including]thehyperthymictemperament,inwhichthepersonisnaturallyinclinedtowardcheerfulmoodshasbeenreportedin4to8percent[ofthegeneralpopulation](p.1614).

andphysicaltransitionsfromcaptivitytofreedom.Pragmatically,itwasalsovaluabledatainthesearchforthefather’srouteofrepatriation.22Noticethefreeuseofconditionalverbstoplugawkwardgapsinthenarrative.23Nowadaysmorecommonlyreferredtoasbipolardisorder.24Althoughthehyperthymictemperamentrelatestothemanicpoleofbipolardisorder,itisnotapathologicalcategoryinitself.IndeedRavaietal(2013)writethatithasbeenshownto‘improvethequalityoflife’(p.2075)and,ofallthe‘affectivetemperaments’,itisthe‘mostadaptive...themostfunctionalanddesirable’(p.2076).

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Heproceedstodescribethepsychoanalyticrationaleforalinkbetweenelationand

depression.

Elationisconceptualizedpsychodynamicallyasadefenseagainstdepressionorasadenialofthepainofloss,asexemplifiedbytheso-calledmaniacalgrief,arareformofbereavementreactioninwhichelatedhyperactivitymayreplacetheexpectedgrief(p.1614).

PeteandJeff,andRex,participantswhosestoriesappearinthethesis,sharemanyofthe

corefeaturesofthehyperthymictemperament,andtheircareerhistoriesalsosuggest

theyareaboveaverageachievers.Theirgregariousnessseparatesthemfromthe

caricatureofthefamilyhistoryresearcherwho,accordingtoBishop(2008),typically

worksaloneinfrontofthecomputerorinalibrary.Byworkinghardtoformproductive

collaborativeresearchnetworkstheseparticipantsalsorecreatedsomethingofthe

spiritof‘mateship’thattheyimagined(orhoped)waspartoftheirfathers’socialworld

inthecamps(Twomey2011and2013).

Identityandthere-workingoftheself

Whatevertheprimaryreasonforstartingtoinvestigateanyformoffamilyhistory,

Bottero(2015)maintainsthattheprocesswilltendtometamorphoseinto‘identity-

work’(p.3).Bytracing‘ancestrallinks’,familyhistorianstryto‘reconstructthelivesof

ancestors’(Bottero2012,p.55),thusactivating‘tracesofthepast’(Kramer2011a

p.429).Inthecourseofdoingso,theyworkthrough‘notionsofculturalandbiological

“belonging”’(Bottero2012,p.55),and‘rootedness’whichare‘foundationaltoidentity’

(Kramer2011ap.429).Thepracticeofmilitaryfamilyhistoryisthesearchfor

somethingmissingorlost,butitalsopossessesthecapacitytochallengeoursenseof

self:‘Theverysearchforwhatislostandgone(inanindividualpastorapublic

historicalpast)altersit,asitgoesalong,sothateverysearchbecomesanimpossible

one’(Steedman2001,p.77).

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TodelineatethenatureoftheCOFEPOWresearchermoreprecisely,itwillbe

helpfultocontrastitwithJames’ssituation.Althoughhebeganasanenthusiastic

collectoroffacts,thissoonfaded,andhebecameambivalentabouttheirvalue.Itwasno

coincidencethatthecoreofJames’stestimonywasfocusedonhisemotions,and

showedtheinfluenceofpsychicpain.

…I’mnotsurehowimportanttheactualfactsare.Imean,Iwastremendouslyinterestedintheactualfacts,but…moreimportantreallyformetogettothe…thefeelingsreallyandmakesenseofitforme.BecauseIknowatthetime,Iknowasasmallchild…Ididn’t…Ididn’tknowanyofit.Ijustknewbitsandpieces,butIdidn’tknow…so,Imean,my-myexperienceinawayismoreimportant…thantheactualfactsofwhatwas…

Jameswasawarethatduringhischildhoodthefamilyhad‘secrets’,oneofwhichwashis

father’sFEPOWexperiences.Buttherewereothersand,astheyoungestchildoffive,he

struggledthroughchildhoodconvinced(correctly,itseems)thateveryoneelseknew

morethanhim.

Terry:So,what’syourtakeonhowmuchyouknowaboutthat,versushowmuchyouneedtoknow?James:Idon’treallyneedtoknowanyofit.I…Iwas…Iwaskindofdrawnfairlyrecently…withoutknowingwhy,really...kindofdrawntoknow.Ireallywanttoknow.AndIkeptlooking,andlooking,andlooking.ButIdon’tfeelthatsomuchnow.Idon’treallyneedtoknowitatall.Itwouldbenicetoknow.But,Imean,IknowIwon’tknow.There’ssomuchIwon’tknow.It’simpossibletoknow.AndIknowsomeofthethingstheywentthrough.ButIcan’tpossiblyknowwhatitwaslikeforthem.Can’tpossibly.AndIknowsomeoftheeffectsithadonhim...

WecanseefromJames’stestimonythatthedesiretoknowcameunbidden,thenwaned,

asthepsychicurgemetthelimitsofthearchives.Moresignificantly,herealisedthat

knowingthefactswouldnotsatisfyhisneeds.Insteadhecontentedhimselfwithpartial

accounts,andsplicedinexistinggenericnarrativeswhererequired(‘AndIknowsome

ofthethingstheywentthrough’).

Thesocialpracticesoffamilyhistoryarenotsimplywaysofaccessing

‘resources’:theycanchangeidentityandtheself(Bottero2015).Givenmyown

theoreticalposition,Iamboundtoseeany‘splitting’ofthesocialfromthepsychic,and

viewingfamilyhistorysolelyasanexternally-orientedsocialpractice,asuncomfortably

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twodimensional,andinconsistentwiththefindingsfrommyresearch.25Froma

psychosocialperspective,then,Iwouldarguethattheembodied,practiceelements

inevitablyinteractwiththematerialthatisbeingrevealed,andcreateapsychodynamic

matrixthatwillholdidentifications,transferencesandprojections.Thatsaid,by

introducingthenotionof‘socialpractice’,Botterooffersaninterestingalternativeframe

ofreferencethroughwhichtorevisittheworkoftheCOFEPOWresearchers,andto

reconsiderhowthespecificsoftheirpracticesmighthaveconsequencesfortheirlives,

identities,andsocialroles.

Overtheyears,Petehasevolvedhispracticethroughmakinghismaterial

availabletoothers.Throughthiswork,hehascarvedoutanewandexpandingpost-

retirementrole.Hehaswrittenreportsandgiventalks,activitiesthatsatisfyhis

particularpersonalneeds,yetalsoprovidemuchneededinformationforfamiliesnotin

apositiontodothisworkforthemselves.Hisresearcheshavespawnedseveral

documentsandevents.Usinghissmall,specialist‘archive’,groundedinhisextensive

spreadsheets,hewroteacomprehensivereportin2014thathesubsequentlymade

availableonline.Hisexpertisehasbeenacknowledgedontheregiment’sofficial

website,26andherecentlyorganizedaneventatalocalhotel,inassociationwiththe

regimentalassociationandCOFEPOW,whichwasattendedbyninetydelegatesandwas

coveredbythelocalpress.

Whatnext?

...genealogyisnomerepastime.Anthropologicalstudiesattesttothepowerfulroleofgenealogyin‘signifyingexistenceitself’(Erben1991,p.277)

25Bottero(2015)doesseemtosensethedangershowever-‘...incastingpeopleas“carriers”ofpractices,thereisapotentialdangerofeffacingtheindividualandoflosingsightof“identity”altogether’(p.8).26Mostparticularly,thesecontributionshavetakentheformof‘additionalnotes’thatprovidesupplementaryinformationaboutindividualveterans.

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Mostfamilyhistoryworklacksanending(Bishop(2008).Theparticipantsinvolvedin

militaryfamilyhistorypracticemostlysharedthisassumption,andthisremainedthe

caseinspiteofmuchFEPOWresearchhavingtightlypredeterminedtemporaland

spatialboundaries.Forthereremainsanalmostinexhaustiblesupplyofunopened

boxesintheNationalArchives,orboxesabouttobereleased,oraccidentally

discovered,andcertainlynoshortageofrumoursandspeculationaboutwhatmight

remaintobediscovered.

Aquestionthatlurkedintheshadows-andonethatIaskedeveryparticipant-

was‘whatnext?’Whatdidtheyhaveinmindfortheirpainstakinglycollectedhistorical

findings?Wherewasitallleading?PierreNoracommentsonthegrowingimportanceof

materialityandvisibilityinmanagingmemory:

Modernmemoryis,aboveall,archival.Itreliesentirelyonthematerialityofthetrace,theimmediacyoftherecording,thevisibilityoftheimage.Whatbeganaswritingendsashighfidelityandtaperecording.Thelessmemoryisexperiencedfromtheinsidethemoreitexistsonlythroughitsexteriorscaffoldingandoutwardsigns-hencetheobsessionwiththearchivethatmarksourage,attemptingatoncethecompleteconservationofthepresentaswellasthetotalpreservationofthepast(Nora1989,p.13).

Nora’sargumentisthattherushtoarchiveisfoundedona‘fearofarapidandfinal

disappearance’(p.13),andasaconsequencewefindcomfortinthis‘materialityofthe

trace’.Pete’spleasureinthesheerphysicalityofhisabundantspreadsheetsspoke

volumestothisdisposition.Likearchaeologistssiftingsoilatanexcavationsite,Pete

andhispeerspickedtheirwaythroughthearchivesforfragmentsortracesof

informationthatwouldshapehowsubsequentgenerationswouldcometo‘remember’

theseevents.

ThepracticesoftheCOFEPOWresearchersexemplifiedNora’scontentionthat

‘thematerializationofmemoryhasbeentremendouslydilated,multiplied,

decentralized,democratized’(Nora1989,p.14).Thepervasive‘fear’towhichNora

refers,hintsatthedynamicunconscious:thecontrol,theregimentationandthe

orderlinessrequiredtocreateandmaintaintheseparticulararchivalformsofmemory

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practicemaybeadeptatkeepingatbaythe‘unconsciousresiduesofviolenceand

terror’(Roper2009,p.266).

Togetherwithhiscollaborators,Jeffwasundecidedabouthowtohandlethe

materialheandhis‘correspondents’hadaccumulated,andheseemeddauntedbythe

prospectofmorearriving.

Ihavecommentedtoanumberofmy“correspondents”thatresearchingthisisratherlikethePinkFloydsong“Allinallitsjustanotherbrickinthewall.”Youpickuptheoddbrickhereandthereandthensuddenlyawholetruckloadarrives.Sonowwehaveawholebundleofstuff–abrickyardfullasitwere.Mysoninlaw–the“FamilyFerret”–hasakeeninterestinourrespectivefamily’smilitaryhistoriesandlastyearscuttledoffwithmycollection:todeliveronXmasdayan86pagemanuscript,allcarefullyannotated,crossreferencedetc.AbitlikeaPhDthesis(!).Whatwedonowremainstobeseen.Aprivatepublicationperhaps-Rexisquitekeentopublishsomething–includingsomeofmyFather’sdrawingsandpersonalreminiscencesIcanremember–plusofcoursestuffthathasjustarrived.Dunno.We’llsee.

WehavenotedhowcollaborationfeaturedstronglyinJeff’scase,andaltruismin

generalfiguredhighlyintheworkoftheCOFEPOWresearchers.Manywentoutoftheir

waytosharetheirfindings,ortocarryoutworkonbehalfofothersunabletodothisfor

themselves.Atthislevel,Assman’s(2008)conceptof‘communicativememory’seems

particularlypertinent,andthegrowthofsmallpeergroupsliesattheheartofwhatare

nowextensiveinformalonlinecollaborativenetworksthatstrengthenthe‘commonality

andconnectedness’betweenmembers(Bottero2015p.2).27

AtintervalsinthischapterIhavesuggestedthatparticipantswithaprimary

interestinthemilitaryfamilyhistoryoftheirfathersmaybelesscomfortablewiththe

emotionaldimensionsofmemorywork.Occasionally,however,chanceeventsmay

bringemotionalissuesclosertothesurface.Ihadbeentryingtoarrangeaninterview

withaprominentCOFEPOWresearcher,butthelogisticshaddefeatedus.However,I

bumpedintohimonavisittotheFEPOWBuildingattheNationalMemorialArboretum.

27InChapter5IarguedthatparticipantslikePeteoperateinthe‘floatinggap’betweencommunicativememoryandculturalmemory,sharingtheirinformationandexpertiseastheirbodyofworkmovesclosetopermanence.

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Iintroducedmyselfandremindedhimthatwehadbeeninemailcorrespondence.He

immediatelyrespondedwith‘Ioweyouanemail’,thenquicklythrewdoubtonwhether

aninterviewwouldbeofanyvalue.‘Therewerenohorrorstories’,hesaid,assuming

thatthiswaswhatIwanted.Giventhecontextandhiscomments,Idecidedtodropthe

ideaofaninterview.Afewmonthslater,IunearthedapostonaFEPOWwebsitefrom

tenyearsearlierinwhichhetoldacuriousstoryofhisown.Herecalledhowhehad

contractedtuberculosisasachild,andhadbeenhospitalizedforninemonths.Yethis

fatherhadnevervisited.‘IoftenwonderedwhyDadnevercametovisit“intheSurrey

countryside”’.Hewentontosurmisethatthiswasduetotheappearanceofthe

hospital’sperimeterfence,whichwastoppedwithbarbedwire.‘Understandingseems

tocomesolate!’heconcluded.

Ismilitaryfamilyhistoryagenderedmemorypractice?28

Theurgetocollectisaubiquitousphenomenonwhichhasanthropological,sociobiologicalandindividualpsychodynamicroots,butoccursfarmorefrequentlyamongmenthanwomen(Subkowski2006,p.383).

WhenIbegantopreparethischapter,Iadoptedtheratherflippantworkingtitleof‘the

historyboys’becauseinmysamplethisgenreofmemorypracticewassoevidently

gendered.Itwasthemenwhodisplayedthemostintenseinterestinthespecificsof

militaryhistory,whowantedtoaccumulateanddocumentthe‘facts’,andwhowere

mostinsistentonrecountingthechronologyoftheirfathers’POWhistories.Iam

reluctanttoascribesimplisticexplanationsusingtheoriesofmasculinity,butthe

approachoftheCOFEPOWresearchersdidseemtoembedtraditionalgenderroles

consistentwith‘hegemonicmasculinity’(ConnellandMesserschmidt2005,Hinojosa

28CarmenPagliaisinlittledoubtthatmilitaryhistoryperseisdominatedbymen:‘…fornearlytwentyyearsIhavebeencallingforyoungfeministstostudymilitaryhistory’(Paglia2008,p.2).Seealsothefollowingonthetopicofgenderandinterviewing:Jefferson(2002),OliffeandMroz(2005),Pini(2005),andSmithandBraunack-Mayer(2014).Wikipedia’slistofover150‘militarywriters’doesnotasfarasIcouldtellincludeasinglewoman.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_writersIamawareofafewfemalescholarsinthemilitaryfieldbutitseemsasifmenstillhaveastrangleholdoverthe‘airfixkit’genres.

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2010).Inaddition,someofthesemen(someofthetime)identifiedwiththemilitary

backgroundsoftheirfathersandthedisciplinethatservicelifehadinstilled,whichin

turnfurtherreinforcedthistypeoftraditionalmasculinity(Demetriou2001,Hinojosa

2010).

Earlierinthischapter,Iraisedthepossibleconnectionsbetweentheactivitiesof

theCOFEPOWresearchersandassociatedpersonalitytraitsandpractices(suchas

‘listing’).Ifwecanacceptthatlistingisavariantof‘collecting’,thenSubkowski(2006)

offersarangeofpsychodynamicexplanationsforwhythisshouldbemorecommon

amongstmen.29Heproposesthefollowinghypotheses:firstly,that‘womenplacea

highervalueonrelationshipswithlivingobjects,whereasmenpreferinanimateobjects

(ofcollection)’andsecondly,that‘womenappeartoexpressthemselvesthroughartistic

creativityandtheirfecundity...whilemen,however,tendtodefinethemselvesthrough

possessions,30whichinturnincludetheircollections’(p.386).Hesuggeststhatwomen

investmoretimeandenergyinmaintainingtheir‘socialnetworks’thanmenwho

appearcontentto‘spend[theirtimeandenergy]intheclosed-offuniverseoftheir

collection’(p.386).Onthefaceofit,thishypothesismaynotappeartofitJeffandhis

networkofcollaborators.However,extensiveastheyare,Jeff’sinteractionsarelargely

onlineand,arguably,mightbeseenaspartofaninanimate,digitaluniverse.

Inhermuchcited1981paper,AnnOakleydistinguishesbetween‘proper’

(‘legitimate’)interviewingthatsheequatedwithamasculinestressonthescientific

method,rationalityandobjectivity,and‘improper’(‘illegitimate’)interviewingthatwas

reflexiveandintersubjective,thatwasattentivetoemotionalmatters,andlevelled

29Freudhimselfcollected-‘ItisknownthatFreudwasapassionatecollectorofRoman,Greekand,albeitlessso,Egyptianantiquities,andby1933heownedalmost3000pieces’(Subkowski2006,p.383).Freud’sarcheologicalmetaphorsareinharmonywiththe‘excavations’oftheCOFEPOWresearchers.30Whichtheyuseasobjectsofdisplacement-‘Inallformsofcollecting,thecollectordisplacesrelationshipneedsontoaninanimateobject’(Subkowski2006,p.388).

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powerrelationships(Oakley1981).31Maleparticipantsseemedreadytoalign

themselvesmorereadilywithOakley’s‘proper’paradigm,anticipatingthatIwould

followsuitbyadoptingamoretraditional,directivemodelofinterviewing.Theysaw

theirroleasproviding‘data’which,afterall,wastheparadigmtheyadoptedintheir

ownmilitaryfamilyhistorypractice.Byfailingtoconformwiththeirinitial

expectations,Ihadintroducedatransientunsettlinginfluenceintotherelationship.32

Participantssometimesraisedthetopicsofmilitaryrankandsocialclass,both

ofwhichimplicateissuesofmasculinitiesandpower.Theoccasional‘clashes’of

masculinitiesthatsurfacedintheinterviews33shouldbekeptincontext,however,

becausetheywereinseparablefromthetransferences,countertransferencesandother

psychicmechanismsinoperation,whichsuggestsperhapsthatweneeda‘more

adequate,morepsychosocialviewofmasculinity’(Jefferson2002,p.63).

ConclusionsInthischapterIhavefocusedonthememorypracticesofthe‘COFEPOWresearchers’:a

groupofparticipantswhosedominantpracticewas‘militaryfamilyhistory’.Although

theywerethemosthomogenoussubgroup,itwouldbeinaccuratetosuggestthatthis

groupandthepracticeofmilitaryfamilyhistorywereexactlycoterminous.However,

althougheveryparticipantwascuriousabouttheirfather’sPOWbackground,itwas

onlythe‘COFEPOWresearchers’whochasedthedetail.

31Oakley(2015)recentlyre-appraisedher1981paper.Althoughreducingtheemphasisonfeminism,andintroducingtheconceptof‘thegift’tosuggestwhypeopleagreetoparticipateinqualitativeresearch,shedoesnotrevisitthe‘masculineparadigm’(Oakley1981,p.31)-asidethatisfromageneralcommentonthepoliticalcontextoftheearly1980swhen‘socialsciencewasemergingfromaperiodofmasculinedomination’(Oakley2015,p.196).Sheexpressesnoopinionabouthowcompletethatemergencemightbe/havebeen.32ButIdoneedtorecognisealsothatattimesImayhavecolludedunconsciouslytokeepsomeemotionalissuesunderwraps.33InChapter1IdiscussedmyinterviewwithRexinwhichtheintroductionof‘rank’temporarilyfracturedtheflowoftheinterviewandledhimtoseeka‘redeeming’identityformyfather.Beingill-treatedasacoalminer(‘Oh,Ididn’tunderstandthat.Oh,myGod...Bloodyhell!’),seemedtogivemyfatheranalternativestatusthatcompensatedforhisrank.

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Ihavenotedthecomplexrelationshipbetweengeneralfamilyhistoryand

militaryfamilyhistorypractice,andwhetherunderlyingpersonalitycharacteristics

mightbesignificant.Thepropositionisthatparticipantsmayhavebeendrawnto

particularmemorypracticesthroughpersonality-basedpredispositions,suchas

obsessivecompulsivepersonality,andhyperthymictemperament,aswellasbypsychic

needsderivedfromtransmittedemotionsinchildhood.

Sociologicalresearchintogenealogyandfamilyhistoryissparse,andhastended

tofocuson‘socialpractices’,aperspectivethatthrowslightonhowsocialpracticescan

facilitatenew,nicheidentitiesandsocialroles.Idescribedhowmilitaryfamilyhistory

didindeedpromotenewidentitiesandsocialrolesforPeteandJeff.Throughengaging

withthisparticulargenreofmemorypracticetheyevolvednewrolesforthemselves

withintheCOFEPOWcommunity,andreachedthepointwheretheyachieved

recognitionasexpertswithintheirfield.However,unlikesomeotherparticipants,deep

emotionsstayedespeciallydeepamongstthe‘COFEPOWresearchers’.Theyremained

firmly‘intherealmsoftherational’(Roper2009,p.266).

Finally,Iarguedthatmilitaryfamilyhistoryseemstobeagenderedpractice.

TheCOFEPOWresearchersinmysamplewereallmen,andIdrewattentionto

theoreticalandempiricalevidencethatassociatesmenwiththedisciplineofmilitary

history,with‘collecting’(theirprioritybeingon‘possessions’),andfinallywith

particularexpectationsaboutinterviewingwhichwerereflectedinmyfieldwork.

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CHAPTEREIGHT

PLACEANDPILGRIMAGE

Withtheeraofmemory,theeraofreturns.(Hoffman2004,p.203)

IntroductionFormanyparticipants,visitingsitesconnectedwiththeirfathers’POWcaptivityadded

enormouslytotheirstoreofknowledgeandunderstandingofthehistoryofWorldWar

Two,andoftheirfathers’placeinit.Moresignificantly,thesejourneys-thatIdescribe

hereas‘pilgrimages’-becamefocalpointsintheirpersonaldevelopment:expressions

ofpsychictransformationthathadoftenbeenlonginthemaking.Enactedwithin

physicalandemotionallandscapesofexquisitepersonalandhistoricalsignificance,the

dynamiccombinationofdisparatememories,visceralexperiences,andablendof

plannedandserendipitousactivitiescreatedthepsychicconditionswithinwhich

participantswereablebothtolearnandundergoenduringchange(Lopez2013).

Inthischapter,Iaddressthenatureofpilgrimageandexplorethosedefining

featuresmostpertinenttothechildrenofFEPOWs.Theheartofthechapteristhe

pilgrimageexperiencesoffourparticipantswhosejourneystookthemtoverydifferent

locationsacrosssoutheastAsia:Singapore,Japan,Ambon(theninthe‘DutchEast

Indies’),andtotheThai-Burmarailway.Theirstoriesshowhowvisitstotheirfathers’

POWsitesrevealednuancedemotionalassociationswiththepast,andhowpilgrimage

asamemorypracticeenabledthemtoaddress‘thefatherwithin’.

Theuseofthelabel‘pilgrim’canbecontentious.NotalltravellerstoFEPOW

sitesselfidentifyaspilgrims,orseethemselvesas‘onapilgrimage’.Incontrast,the

travellersinterviewedbyScatesappearedtobeofonemindonthismatter:

Nonetheless‘pilgrimage’isthewordtheychoosetodescribetheirjourney.Itcapturedthesenseofaquest,oftenanordeal,ajourney(asVictorandEdithTurner’sclassicformulationputit)‘outofthenormalparametersoflife[and]entryintoadifferent,otherworld’(Scates2013,p.3).

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Onlyaminorityofmyparticipantschosetodescribethemselvesinthisway.Whilethe

ideaofsecular‘pilgrimage’wasbroadlyaccepted,mostsawthemselvesastravellers

withaveryparticular,andpersonal,aiminmind.However,iftheywerepartofagroup,

thenthissocialcontextaddedaninterestingpsychicdimension,asIsuggestlaterinthe

chapter.Forconsistency,Iusetheterm‘pilgrimage’whetherornotthetravellersself-

identifiedas‘pilgrims’.

Thenatureofpilgrimage

‘atouristishalfapilgrim,ifapilgrimishalfatourist’(TurnerandTurner,1978)

Pilgrimageissurelythemostcomprehensiveandintenseexpressionofanembodied

andreflectivememorypractice.However,theconceptcaneasilybecomeunhelpfully

diffuse,ascanbeseeninthedelightfullymeanderingessaybytheJeanWatson(2014)

inwhichshesuffuseseverydaylifewiththespiritofpilgrimage,gentlyaligningherself

withScates’contentionthat‘alongsidetheseactualjourneysisajourneyofthemind’

(Scates2013,p.9).

Whilethepurposeofpilgrimageisalwaysuniquetotheindividual,historically

thepracticehasbeencloselyalliedwithreligiousinstitutions.Christianity,Hinduism,

Islam,JudaismandBuddhism-allhavejourneystoholysitesattheircore.However,

Collins-Kreiner(2009)suggeststhatnowadayspilgrimageneedstobeseen‘asa

traditionalreligiousormodernsecularjourney’(p.440)and,inrecentyears,scholars

havebeguntoreflectontherelationshipbetweentourismandpilgrimage.Some

proposeaderivativelinkbetweenthetwo(e.g.Collins-Kreiner2009),arguingthat‘the

originsoftourismarerootedinpilgrimage’(p.444),andmoreoversuggestingthatthe

gapbetweenconceptsofpilgrimageandtourismisclosing(Cohen1984,Collins-Kreiner

2009,Margry2008).Certainly,someconvergenceappearstohavetakenplaceandis

especiallyvisibleinthecommercialfield.Visitstositesofwar-relatedtraumaarenow

oftenlinkedwithmainstreamtouristdestinations.Traveloperatorsoffer‘optional

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excursions’toAuschwitzonpackagetourstoPoland,andtocivilwarsitesontripsto

theeastcoastofAmerica.Conversely,intripstositesoftrauma,touroperatorswill

oftenincludegeneralsite-seeing.

Theterm‘darktourism’enteredthepilgrimagelexiconinrecentdecades,and

hasbeendefinedas‘theactoftravelandvisitationtositesofdeath,disasterandthe

seeminglymacabre’(Collins-Kreiner2009,p.445).But,asStoneandSharpley(2008)

pointout,thisformofbehaviourhasbeenoccurringforaslongaspeoplehave

travelled,arguingthatoneofitspurposesincontemporarysocietyistodesensitize

individualstotheideaofdeath,byallowingittobe‘broughtbackintothepublicrealm

anddiscourse,thusactingasade-sequesterthatallowsabsentdeathtobemade

present’(p.589).

IntheiranalysisofajourneytoGallipoli,HydeandHarman(2011)define

pilgrimageas‘ajourneytoanon-substitutablesiteembodyingthehighlyvalued,the

deeplymeaningful,orasourceofcoreidentityforthetraveller’(p.1343).Thisview

supportsScates’s(2013)argumentthatthecommonfeatureofsecularandreligious

pilgrimagesis‘emotionalgeography...asenseofquest,ajourneythroughlandscapes

saturatedwithmeaning’(p.78).Pilgrimagesarepersonal,usuallymeticulouslyplanned,

andalmostalwayskeenlyanticipated-andsubsequentlyperceived-aseventsofgreat

significance,andpilgrimsinvariablyhave‘somedeeplyfeltconnectiontothesite

concerned’(Scates2013,p.3).Thetestimoniesofthechildrenshowedthatthedecision

tomakeaphysicalpilgrimagewasoftentheculminationofaprotractedandpossibly

tortuouspsychicjourney.Atthecoreoftheirdecisionwasthedeterminationtotravel

tothesite(orsites)pertinenttotheirfathers’wartimestruggles,thatistheir

destinationswere‘non-substitutable’(HydeandHarman2011).

Intraditionalreligiouspilgrimages,theseverityofthejourney,andthesuffering

andhardshipsenduredalongtheway,reflectedthepilgrim’slevelofcommitment

(SchnellandPali2013).Participantsoftenspentmanyyearsontheresearchneededto

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determinethepreciselocationsofthePOWcamps,andtoorganizeaworkable

itinerary.JourneyingtoPOWsitesintheFarEastisgenerallymorecomplexand

expensivethangettingtotheirEuropeancounterparts.Moreprofoundly,however,on

somevisits,suchasthosetotheThai-BurmaRailway,therewasadualsignificancein

thejourney:firstly,thetravelbetweentheparticipants’homecountryandThailandand,

secondly,thejourneysbetweenthecampsitesreflectingthemovementsofthe

FEPOWs.Withhelpfromlocalexperts,pilgrimstravelledalongsectionsoftherailway

route,gaininginsightintotheirfathers’punishingexperiencesastheywereshunted

fromcamptocamp,constructingthe250milesoftrack.1

CommercialpilgrimagetoursfromtheUKtoFarEastPOWsitesare

uncommon,2andtomainlandJapanalmostunheardof.Travelcompaniesoffering

mainstreamholidaystotheFarEastmayallocateadayorsotovisitthoseFEPOWsites

thataresupportedbyadedicatedtouristinfrastructure,suchasChangiinSingaporeor

theThai-BurmaRailway.3TourstoPacificwarsiteshavealwaysbeenbiggerbusinessin

USAandAustralia,wheretheBurmaThailandRailwayMemorialAssociation4andits

precursorshavebeenofferingtripstoJava,SingaporeandThailandsince1985.Visiting

thePOWsitesonmainlandJapanrequiresanintrepidsenseofadventureorthesupport

ofindividualsinJapangarneredthroughpersonalcontacts.Theonlyorganization

offeringtailoredpilgrimagesistheUK-basedcharityAgapeWorld,foundedbyMrs.

1RodBeattiepioneeredtheopeningupoftheareaasapilgrimagedestination-http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2015/08/10/asia-pacific/australian-thailand-devotes-life-wwii-pows-death-railway/#.V-ZQ5yMrISI2AnexceptionisBattlefieldTourswhichoffersSingaporeandtheBridgeovertheRiverKwaihttp://www.battlefieldtours.co.uk/tours3b.htm3Forexample,CosmosToursoffersenticesprospectivetravellerswithheavilytrope-ladendescriptions-‘Asombremorningvisitingthetown'sfamousJEATHWarMusuem[sic].JEATHstandsforJapan,England,American,Australia,ThailandandHolland-thenationalitiesofthePrisoner'sofWarinvolvedwiththebuildingoftherailwayinWW2.Thisfascinatingmusuem[sic]detailsPOW'sexperiencesduringthebuildingoftheworldfamous"BridgeovertheRiverKwai".BuiltduringWorldWarIIbytheAlliedprisonersofwar.Includedisathrillingrideonthenotorious"DeathRailway"alongtheinfamousrailway.’http://www.cosmostoursandcruises.co.uk/holiday/taste-of-thailand-new?itineraryVersion=20164Seehttp://www.btrma.org.au/index.html/

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KeikoHolmes,5whichhasbeentakinggroupsofFEPOWsandtheirfamiliestoJapan

sincetheearly1990s.Herpilgrimagesfocusonreconciliation,andoperatewithinan

explicitlyChristiancontext.6Inpracticethismeansthatitinerariesincludevisitsto

Christianchurches,andalsotoschoolsanduniversities(sometimesprivateChristian

universities).MostofthelocalvolunteersareChristian,thoughnotexclusivelyso.

Althoughpilgrimsareencouragedtoparticipateintheseplannedactivities,thereisno

pressuretoexpressanyovertorpersonalcommitmenttoChristiantheology.

ThedesiretovisitsitesofpersonalsignificanceMemoriesofchildhoodoftendictatewhywechoosetotraveltoparticularplaceslater

inlife;placeswhereweusedtolive,orwherewespentourholidays.Forthechildrenof

FEPOWs,however,thememoriesmostcloselyassociatedwithpilgrimagedestinations

arenottheirownbuttheirfathers’,transmittedduringchildhoodaspostmemories.As

HirschandMiller(2011)argue:

Whiletheideaofpostmemorycanaccountforthelureofsecond-generation“return”,italsounderscorestheradicaldistancethatseparatesthepastfromthepresentandtherisksofprojection,appropriation,andoveridentificationoccasionedbysecond-andthird-generationdesiresandneeds(pp.4-5).

WhileconcurringwithHirschandMilleronthemotivationalsignificanceof

postmemory,Iamintriguedbytheirreferenceto‘therisks[myitalics]ofprojection,

appropriation,andoveridentification’.Observingthese‘risky’processesinsomeofmy

participants’narratives,Iprefertoregardthemascommonplacefeaturesofeveryday

memorypractice,evennecessarystepsinhowparticipantscometoaddressthepast.

5Seehttp://www.agapeworld.com/contacts.htm6SheconvertedtoChristianityaftermeetingherEnglishhusband.Histragicdeathinanairaccidentover30yearsagoleftherwithtwosmallsonstoraiseintheUK.Aftershe‘discovered’thememorialtothePOWs(the‘Irukaboys’)whohaddiedinthecopperminenearherhomevillageofKiwa-cho,shedeterminedtocontacttheex-POWsofIrukatopromotereconciliation.Sheorganizedherfirstpilgrimageforex-POWsandfamilymembersin1992,andshehascontinuedtoofferthemeversince.

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Giventhatmuchpostmemoryinthesefamiliesis,attheveryleast,tingedwith

trauma,whydopeopledecidetovisitsitestheyknowmayupsetthem?Thereasonsare

rarelysimpleorfullyevident,even(orperhapsespecially)tothepilgrimsthemselves.

Writingabout‘touristpilgrimage’,Sturken(2011)pointsoutthat,‘peoplemake

pilgrimagestositesoftragedynotsimplytopaytributetothedeadbutalsotofeel

transformedinsomewayinrelationtothoseplaces’(p.285),perhapsbyparticipating

inritualizedmemorypracticessuchasreadingthenamesofthedead,participatingina

(usually)religiousservice,orleavingbehinditemsofsignificance,suchasacrossor

photograph.WhileSturkenisrighttointroduce‘transformation’intothedebateasa

personal(butpossiblyunconscious)goalofmanypilgrims,mydatasuggestthatwe

needtothinkbeyond‘place’astheprimarysettinginwhichtransformationmight

occur.

PsychoanalystWarrenPoland(1977)alsostressesthedynamicaspectsof

transformationinpilgrimage,viewingmodernsecularpilgrimageas‘apatternofaction

thatcanserveasanorganizerforresolvingconflictandforpsychicgrowth...resulting

fromidentificationspasseddownthroughthegenerations’(p.398).Manypilgrims

experiencedtransformationnotatthedestinationitself,butalsothroughthedynamics

ofthejourney.Boththeplaceofpilgrimageandthepilgrimagejourneyenabled

participantstorevisitandreflectupontherelationshiptheyhadwiththeirfathers,and

withtheirownsenseofself(DevereuxandCarnegie2006,Schmidt2009).Thatisnotto

minimizethephysicalityand‘presence’,thehistory,theethos,andtheaestheticsofthe

siteitself;indeedtheymaybeextraordinarilypowerfulinprovokingemotional

responses(Dunkleyetal2011).ButIarguethatweshouldview‘place’and‘journey’as

complementaryandmutuallycatalytic.Sacralizedlandscapesprovidedthecontext

withinwhichparticipantsworkedthrough-inanembodiedway-painfuland

unresolvedtraumas,andoperatedasreadysettingsfordisplacementandprojection.

Timespentinpilgrimagesites(typicallyanythingfromfewhourstoseveralweeks)

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enabledparticipantstounconsciouslyrepeatinimaginationthetypeofpsychicdistress

thatFreud(2015)arguesallowsindividuals‘toworkoverinthemindsome

overpoweringexperiencesoastomakeoneselfmasterofit...’(p.10).

Participantsdescribedhowpilgrimagechangedanddeepenedrelationships:

betweenmembersofthepilgrimagegroupitself(someofwhommightberelated),7and

betweenthegroupmembersandhelpersorguides(McRae2007).Kidron(2013)notes

thepaucityofresearchinto‘familytourism’(p.178),andpresentsfindingsfromher

interviewswithdescendantswhohadparticipatedin‘rootstrips’.Sometravelledwith

theirHolocaustsurvivorparent(s),otherswentalone.8Whatemergedmoststrongly

fromKidron’sinterviewswashowvisitingsitesoftraumacouldtriggerchangesinthe

wayfamilymembersrelatedtoeachother,thusenabling‘familymembersto“perform”

emotionsthat,athome,weremoretacitlyexpressed’(p.188).Althoughthepilgrimages

consideredaspartofmyresearchdidnothavethefamilygroupasitsfocus,the

testimoniesandmyownpersonalobservationsconfirmedthatmembersofgroupswho

startedoutasstrangersquicklyfeltcomfortablesharingpersonalexperiencesand

emotions,andthatthisinturnpromotedgreatertrustbetweenmembersofthegroup.

Liminalityandreflexivity

Pilgrimagedetachestravellersfromfamiliarenvironmentsandplacestheminunknown

situations,whichheightensreflection(Beckstead2010,p.384)andintensifiesthe

overallexperience.AccordingtoanthropologistVictorTurner(1969),pilgrimages

typicallyinvolveastageofliminality,similartothatobservedinthe‘ritualprocess’

(Collins-Kreiner2009,p.446),inwhichnovicesfindthemselvesinatransitionalstage

(or‘threshold’)betweentwodifferentstatuses.

7Inearlieryears,groupsoftencomprisedsurvivorsandtheirspousesand/orchildren.Withfewsurvivorsandtheirspousesnowalive,itisthechildrenofex-FEPOWsandtheirspousesand/ortheirchildrenwhoundertakepilgrimages.8Asthechildofasurvivor,Iwouldarguethattheideaofbeing‘alone’onapilgrimageisproblematic.Giventheemotionworkentailedinpreparingforandlivingthroughsuchpilgrimages,shouldwenotacknowledgethatwealwayscarrythesurvivorwithin?

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Adoptingthisframework,wecouldviewparticipantsaspassingthrougha

process(a‘ritual’),aseriesofliminalstages,duringwhichtheyaddressedtheirpasts,

theirmemoriesofthosepasts,andtheevolvingrelationshipwiththeirinternalized

fathers.The‘approachtothepilgrimagesite’(Beckstead2010)issignificantincreating

theconditionsforliminality.IfwetaketheTajMahal,Uluru,LourdesandPetraas

quintessentialpilgrimagedestinationswithclearlydemarcatedphysical‘approaches’,

thenthesitesvisitedbythechildrenofFEPOWs(withtheexceptionofconventional

warcemeteriessuchasYokohamainJapan,andKranjiinSingapore)areoftenlesswell

definedandcertainlyless‘managed’.Indeed,pilgrimagesitesmaybequiteprosaicand

onlyrevealtheirmeaningsthroughtheknowledgethatthepilgrimsbringwiththem.9

Thisisareminderperhapsthattheconceptof‘theapproach’needsalsotoembracethe

psychologicalpreparationforthepilgrimage.

Myown‘approach’lastedmanymonthsbeforethestartofthephysical

pilgrimagein2010,andevolvedprogressivelythroughtheentirejourneyfromUKto

Japan,culminatingatthesiteofmyfather’sPOWcamp,somesixtymilesfrom

Hiroshima.10Oncethere,touseBeckstead’s(2010)terms,theinternalcatalysts-‘faith

…adeeplyfeltvaluesuggestiveofthingsheldinhighregard’(p.390)-andexternal

catalysts-‘thesensuousandsymbolicenvironmentandlandscape’(p.390)-combined

tocreateanexperienceperhapsbestdescribedasafragileandfragmented,self-

conscioussenseofawe,andanexpectationto‘perform’inanalienbutexquisitely

resonantJapaneselandscape.‘Fragileandfragmented’becauseofthecircumstances

underwhichthevisittookplace:abriefvisit,accompaniedbythelocalpressandTV.

Despitetheephemeralnatureoftheexperience,withinminutesitbegantocoalesceinto

9SuchastheoriginalmemorialboardinMukaishima,attachedtothesideofafactorylocatedinaratherunprepossessingneighbourhood.Withthedemolitionofthefactory,anewmemorialwascreatedontheplotofanewlybuiltsupermarket:http://www.us-japandialogueonpows.org/Mukaishima.htmandhttp://www.us-japandialogueonpows.org/2013POWvisit/Mukaishima%20Camp%20Memo.pdf10IundertookthispilgrimagewellbeforethestartofthePhD.ThesereflectionsarebasedonthecopiousnotesthatImadeatthetime.

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somethingmoretangible,asmembersofthegroupinvitedmetotellthem‘howIhad

felt’.Thateveninginthehotel,wegatheredinthehotellobbytowatchthenewsitemon

localTV,andpooledourmemoriesoftheevent.Graduallyandsilently,Ibegantoforma

coherentreminiscencethatIcouldsharewithothersonourreturnhome,andhoped

thatthisretrospectiveaccountboresomeresemblancetowhatIhadfeltatthetime.11

Myprioritywastonarrativizethematerialaspectsoftheevent,includingresponsesby

theJapanesepeoplewhowerealsopresent.Stilllingeringwithinwereambivalent

feelingstowardsmyfather,distressingchildhoodmemories,andpostmemoriesand,I

suspect,forthosereasonsIwasunabletoadequatelysymbolizemydeeperemotions.

YetIalsosensedthatthecombinationofconcreteactionanduntamedreflectionthat

occurredduringthepilgrimagehadcreatedameansofaddressingtheseunsettled

psychicmatters.However,as(Poland1977)pointsout,pilgrimagesalsomayalsobe

useddefensivelytoavoidanxietyanddifficultemotionalwork,perhapsundertakenout

ofasenseofduty,andarenotalwaystheharbingersofgreaterpsychiccomposure.

WithsomanyFEPOW-relateddestinationswelloffthebeatentrack,inrural

areasthatfewforeigntouristschoosetovisit,pilgrimssoonfindthemselvesimmersed

inlocalculture.Asaformofritual,pilgrimageprovidesparticipantswithsomeplanned,

andmanymoreunplanned,opportunitiestoengageinwhatTurner(1969)describesas

‘thereflexivityofthesocialprocess’(p.vii),andtocreatethepsychosocialspacesin

whichwemightdetecttheexpressionorimprintofpersonalandidiosyncratic

unconsciousforces.EspeciallyinJapan,thisprocessmayexposeconflictsand

contradictions.12Pilgrimsareexposedtophysicalandsociallandscapes,andaspectsof

11DoriLaub(2013)describesasimilartransmutativeprocessbywhich‘fragments’areputtogether‘creatingawhole,makingsuchawholeapartofone’sexperientiallandscapeinatemporal,historicalsequence,historicizingit,restoringthenarrativeflow,andassociativelylinkingittootherexperiencesandtotheexperiencing“I”’(p.187).12OfraBloch(2015)describeshowshejourneyedtoGermanytosatisfyher‘urgentneed’tolearnabouttheperpetrators’descendants(p.314).Shegoesontoexplorewhatreconciliationmightmeanundersuchdifficultcircumstances.https://vimeo.com/58763621Similarly,JapanisthesinglelocationwhererelativesofFEPOWsareguaranteedtobebroughtfacetofacewithdescendantsofthe‘perpetrators’.

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traditionalJapaneseculture,thattheirfatherswouldhaverecognizedoverseventy

yearsearlier.GazingoutofthewindowoftheHiroshimatoOnomichishinkansen,13

fantasyquicklytookover,andIsankintoareveriethatstrippedawaytheglossof

contemporaryJapaneselifetorevealimagesofpastevents,colouredbyearlier

conversationsandvisits.VictorTurner’swordsareparticularlyevocative:

Society,moreover,isaprocessinwhichanyliving,relativelywell-bondedhumangroupalternatesbetweenfixedand—toborrowatermfromourJapanesefriends—"floatingworlds."Byverbalandnonverbalmeansofclassification,weimposeonourselvesinnumerableconstraintsandboundariestokeepchaosatbay,butoftenatthecostoffailingtomakediscoveriesandinventions:thatistosay,notallinstancesofsubversionofthenormativearedeviantorcriminous.14Yetinordertolive,tobreathe,andtogeneratenovelty,humanbeingshavehadtocreate—bystructuralmeans—spacesandtimesinthecalendaror,intheculturalcyclesoftheirmostcherishedgroupswhichcannotbecapturedintheclassificatorynetsoftheirquotidian,routinizedspheresofaction.Theseliminalareasoftimeandspace—rituals,carnivals,dramas,andlatterlyfilms—areopentotheplayofthought,feelingsandwill...(Turner1969,p.vii).

Thoughtsandimagesthatmakefleetingappearancesduringtrainridereveriesarenot

alwayscharitableorfair.Fantasiessummonedbyourfathers’storiesprovokeprimitive

emotions,especiallyinthemidstofhistoricallyhostilememoryscapes.Perhapsnotall

‘subversionsofthenormativearedeviantorcriminous’,butwewouldbenaïveto

believewecanfendoffretaliatoryandaggressiveimpulsesentirely,evenduring

pilgrimagesorganizedforreconciliation.15Intheendperhapsitwouldbe

counterproductivetodoso.Formyownpart,Ifindtheharshversionofthemale

Japanesevoicedifficulttoadjustto.EachtimeIhearit,Ireactviscerally,thrownback

intomystockofviolentimagery,immersedinthepostmemoriesIhavedrawnonforso

long,andaccompaniedbythesoundofmyfather’sjawbeingsmashedbyariflebutt

wieldedbyacampguard.16

13http://english.jr-central.co.jp/about/14Archaiccriminal.15SeeBloch(2015)forarelateddiscussioninthecontextoftheHolocaust.16Thisisnotametaphorbutarealassault,andmyfatherhadapermanentfacialscarasaresult.

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Sharedexperiencesforgedfriendships.Inpilgrimagegroups,participants

travelledtogether,exchangedmemoriesofchildhood,andswappedstoriesofthewar

passeddownbytheirfathers.InJapan,thiscouldextendtosharingtheritualsofa

communalbath,anddoingsointhecompanyofJapanesepeopleofthesame

generation.Suchexperiencesarenoteasilyforgotten.VictorTurner’ssubjectsfollowed

formalandtraditionalritesofpassage,whereasthoseundertakenbytheFEPOW

pilgrimsweremoreidiosyncratic,theirpurposelessexplicitandtheoutcomesless

predictable.Nevertheless,framingthepilgrimageasakindofriteofpassagedoesopen

upnewlinesofthought.

Whatisinterestingaboutliminalphenomenaforourpresentpurposesistheblendtheyofferoflowlinessandsacredness,ofhomogeneityandcomradeship.Wearepresented,insuchrites,witha"momentinandoutoftime,"andinandoutofsecularsocialstructure,whichreveals,howeverfleetingly,somerecognition(insymbolifnotalwaysinlanguage)ofageneralizedsocialbondthathasceasedtobeandhassimultaneouslyyettobefragmentedintoamultiplicityofstructuralties(Turner1969,p.96).

Howshouldweinterpret‘lowliness’withintheliminalphasesofthepilgrimage

experience?Perhapstheideaofhumilitygetsclosest,displayedthroughawillingnessto

putasidehardenedattitudesorpreconceptions,andto‘submit’totheexternalor

internal‘other’:tointernalpsychicobjectsthatrequireattention(suchasthefather,or

thechildself),tothelandscape,totheimmanenceofthepast.Andtoloosenlongheld

beliefsandstereotypicalattitudesembeddedindiscoursesofWorldWarTwo,suchas

therolesascribedtotheFEPOWs,theJapanesepeople,andtheBritishgovernment.For

somepilgrims,‘submitting’tothesepsychicshiftswasanecessarypreconditionfor

reconciliationbasedonasenseofsharedhumanity.

Joanna...apilgrimagetoSingapore

InChapterFour,Iexploredhow,atthepointofhermother’sdeath,herfather’scaptivity

experienceshad‘burstthrough’intothepresentasa‘traumaticrevival’(Davoineand

Gaudilliere2004,p.124).WhilethiseventrepresentedapivotalmomentinJoanna’s

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relationshipwithherfather,herwholeadultlifehadbeendoggedbyhermemoriesof

himandhowhisviolenttemperhadcreatedmayhemduringherchildhood.

Overtheyears,shehadsoughtcomfortfromratherunorthodoxsources.One

day,‘somebody’justleftaclairvoyant’sphonenumberonhercarseat.This‘wasweird

…andsoIthought,ahh,I’mobviouslymeanttogo.Iwasabsolutelygobsmacked,atthe

stuffthatsheknew,thatonlymymothercouldpossiblyhaveknown.Thatwasvery,

verystrange’.Severalvisitstotheclairvoyantconvincedherthatsheshould‘believein

somethingelse,somethingafterwards’.Shefeltthat‘they’re,sortof,floatingabout

watchingoverme…insomeshapeorform.’Thisamorphousbeliefinanafterlifewas

strengthenedduringthe‘pilgrimage’shemadetoSingapore.

Joanna’srelationshipwithmainstreamreligionwasproblematic.Herfatherand

motherhadclashedoverwheretogetmarriedwhichledtoaschisminthefamily.Her

fathereventuallyinsistedontheChurchofEngland.Hermother’sfamilythenboycotted

thewedding,andhermotherwas,asJoannaputit,‘excommunicated’fromtheCatholic

church.Aschildren,sheandherbrother,David,hadbeen‘draggedtochurch’bytheir

father.But,yearslater,herfatherhadrejectedreligionentirelyafterDavid’slifewascut

shortbyabraintumour.DeathhadbeenarecurrentthemeinJoanna’slife,and

persistedduringmyinterviewwithher.Joannaexplainedhowshecametotravelto

Singapore.

BecauseI‘vegotanotherfriendwho’sdying..Imean,I’vegotmorefriendswho’vediedthanIhaveleftwhoarealive(laughs).Ihavegotonewho’sdyingatthemoment,whosefatherwasaJapaneseprisonerofwar.Andshe’sgotterminalcancer...ButshewantedtogoouttoSingaporetolayafewghoststorest....Anditsohappenedthehotelwewerestayingin,whichusedtobetheBritishadministrativeheadquarters-soit’sanoldcolonialbuilding-issetinthemiddleofanationalpark,theirnationalpark.Andtheweekwewerethere,theyhadontheirwebsitethattheyweredoingtreeplanting.Anybodywhowantedtoplantatreeinmemoryofsomebody....So,wejustcouldn’tresistit.And,ofcoursethehotelthoughtthiswasbrilliantPRbecausethefirsttwopeopleplantingtreesweredoingitinmemoryoftheirfatherswhohadbeentakenprisonerinSingapore....Theychosetreesthatwereendangeredspecieslikeourfathers.Theywillbethetallesttreesinthepark,soit’s…theysaid,itwillbelikeyourfathersareoverlookingthewholeofSingapore.They’revery

223

hardy,asobviouslyourfatherswere.They’ddonetheirresearchandmadeitreallypersonaltous.AndIfounditreally,erm……quitespooky.Ididfeelthatmyfatherwassomehowlurking…Andalso,Isuppose,cosit’sonlytwoyearssinceIputhisashesinmymother’sg-grave,Imean,hisashesinacasketinterredinhergrave.…AndIwasintheredigging…WellthegardenershaddugtheholebutIwasplantingthistree,anditwasearthagain,youknow,itwasallsortof,I’mbackdown…gravediggingagain.So,Imean,Ijustthought,yeah,hereallywouldbeproudofthis.

Inthisparticularplace,atthisparticulartime,Joannaexperiencedherselfasconnected

withherfatherinprofoundandtranscendentalways,andfoundmeaningatpsychic(‘I

didfeelthatmyfatherwassomehowlurking’)andarchetypallevels(‘Iwasplantingthis

tree,anditwasearthagain...’).BennettandBennett(2000)notethatasenseofthe

presenceofthedeadmaylastmuchlongerthanpreviouslythought,andthatpeople

whohavehadsuchprojectiveexperienceschoosefromarangeofavailablediscourses

torationalizetheirphenomenology,thusgivingrisetoa‘morefluidongoing

relationalitybetweenthebereavedandthedead’(Maddrell2016,p.172).

Joannawasfluentinheruseofsymbolism,forexampletheideaof‘endangered

species’and‘hardiness’thatsheappliedtobothtreesandtotheex-FEPOWs,andthe

factthatthetreeswouldbe‘thetallestinthepark’.Arguably,wemightinferthatthe

treerepresentedheridealfather,devoidofflaws:tall,upright,reliable,hardy,and

commandingyetunthreatening.Notcontenttoleaveherinterpretationofeventsatan

abstractsymboliclevel,however,shepushedhernarrativefirmlytowardspersonal

resolution,claimingthevalidationandemotionalresponsefromherfathershehadso

yearnedforasachild,andindeedasanadult(‘...Ijustthought,yeah,hewouldbereally

proudofthis’).17

17InEastAsiancultures,theroleofghostsandspiritsisembeddedincontemporarysocialanddomesticrituals,andresponsibilitiestowardsthedeadaretakenseriouslyandmoreliterallythanintheWest(e.g.Walter2009).Itisdifficulttojudgewhether-ifatall-thisspecificculturalcharacteristichadanybearingontheactionsofindividualswhileontheirpilgrimages.SeeBraunlein(2013),IwasakaandToelken(1994),Nelson(2008).UriuandOdom(2016)showhowthememorializationofancestorsisbeingblendedintocontemporaryliving.

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IsupposeI’vealwayswantedhimtobeproudofme.Andheneverwas,Idon’tthink…Ithinkhewasintheend.Intheend,hewas.

Againstthebackgroundofextensivetraumasinherlife,thispilgrimageenabledJoanna

toreflectonherlife,andtoreachapositioninrelationtoherfatherthatmightnothave

beenanticipatedfromherlifestory.Throughtheembodiedpracticesofpilgrimage,the

impactofspecificplacesshevisitedandthepeopleshemet,andtravellingwithafriend

whocouldprovidesupport,shere-evaluatedhersituation,andsecuredameasureof

psychiccomposurethrougha‘redemptionnarrative’thatdrewtogether‘people,places

andpractices’(Murakami&Middleton2006,p.292).

MurakamiandMiddleton(2006)appliedaspectsofactornetworktheoryin

theirstudyofthereconciliationpracticesofex-FEPOWsonareconciliationvisitto

Japan,aneventcentredonalocalmemorialinKiwa-Choclosetowherethemenwere

forcedtolabourincoppermines.Theiranalysisofinterviewswiththeveteransdraws

attentiontotherelationshipbetweenlocalissues(e.g.individualfeelings,attitudesand

dispositions)andglobalissues(suchashistory,geopolitics,18andnationalidentities),

andshowshowreconciliationpracticesemergeoutof‘networksofcirculating

reference’(p.284).19Asaresult,individualscreatednarrativesthattiedtogether

“heterogeneityintermsofpeople,material,places,time,andpractices’(p.291),thus

enabling‘newformsofbelonging’(p.292)andtherebythemeansto’openup’thepast

indifferentways(MiddletonandBrown2005,p.216).

Bybringingthepsychosocialapproachintocloserproximitywithactornetwork

theorywemaybebetterabletoenvisionhowunconsciousforceswithintheindividual

mayinteractwithembodiedandmaterialexternalactionsandphenomena-individual,

18Forexample,thechangingpositionofJapanintheworld.19MurakamiandMiddleton’sowndefinitionof‘circulatingreference’maybehelpfulhere:‘Bycirculatingreference,wemeanthatthememorialisinscribedinstoriesofdiscovery,mobilizedinreconciliationactivitiesandcivicandinternationalceremonial,andincorporatedintoresearchonthedynamicofcollectiveremembering.Itssubstanceiscontinuallytransformedandextendedintonetworksofcirculatingreference’(MurakamiandMiddleton2006,p.284).

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communal,global-thatconstitutecomplexmemorypracticessuchaspilgrimage.A

furtherextractfromJoanna’stestimonywillillustratehowthesetwoapproachescan

worktogether.Threemonthsbeforetheendofthewar,Herbert,oneofthemenunder

thecommandofJoanna’sfather’s,contractedperitonitis.

...ofcoursetherewerenodrugs,nothing,andIsuspectmyfatherhelpedkillhimbecausehewouldhavebeeninagony.Withnodrugs,withperitonitis.HewouldhavebeenscreamingandscreamingandscreamingsoIexpectthatdaddyhelpedhim…alongtheway.Hewasprobablyaskingtobehelped.Heprobablywascryingoutandsaying,forgod’ssake,justendthispain.Forgod’ssake,justendthispain,youknow.Anyway,whentheygotbackfromthewar…myfatherwenttovisittheparentsandthewife-hewasmarried,nochildren-tosay,youknow,wewerewithhimwhenhedied,andweburiedhim.Thewifehadalreadymetsomeoneelse,soshe…youknow,hadalreadygone…erm…whichmademyfatherevenmoreofamisogynistthanhealreadywas.And,ofcourse,theparentsweretotallydistraught.Hewastheironlychildandsotheywereverygratefultomyfather.Manyyearslater,theysenthima[copyofa]RonaldSearledrawingoftheirsonwhenhewasaprisoner,Ipresume.Andmychildren,andmybrother’schildren,youknow,aresodisinterestedinanyofthisthat,Ijustthoughtthere’snopointinmehangingontothisbecauseifIdropdead…itwillgoonaskip.And,Ican’thavethat.So,ItookittoSingapore,withme,gaveittotheguysatChangimuseum,and,ofcourse,theywereabsolutelydelighted…andtheysaid,wewillactuallytryandputitsomewherewherepeoplecanseeit,because,Isaid,it’ssosadthatthischaphadnochildren....Nobodyknowsabouthim,exceptme!AndIdidn’tknowhiminthefirstplace,but,youknow,somebody’sgottotakesomenoticeofthispoormanthatdiedagedtwenty-four…fornogoodreason!…So,they’vegotitatChangi.

Joannaconstructedanemotionalnarrativearoundthedeathofherfather’scolleague.

Sheinvestedtheeventwithanimaginedcontextandmotivation-‘mercykilling’-that

shehadalsousedtorationalisethepartherfatherhadplayedinthedeathofher

mother(seeChapterFour).BydonatingthecopyoftheSearledrawingtotheChangi

Museum,shecreatedapresencenotonlyforanotherwiseunknownsoldier,butfor

someonewhoshespeculatedhadbeenclosetoherfather.WhileinSingapore,she

placedacrossatHerbert’sgrave.Joanna’smemorypracticesonthispilgrimagenotonly

wentsomewaytomeetingherownpsychicneedsbut,usingMurakamiandMiddleton’s

(2006)framework,locatedherwithinanetworkofassociationsbetweenSingapore,the

copyofSearle’sdrawing,theChangimuseumanditsstaff,thecross,Herbertandhis

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family,hermother’sdeath,andherdyingfriend.Individually,eachoftheseelements

helditsownparticularresonance;togethertheycreatedanewanduniquenetworkof

associations,worthyoffurtherinvestigation.20

Landscapeandplace

Whydosomeplacesbecomesitesofpilgrimagesandothersdonot?

Complexandintriguingquestionssurroundtheissueofwhichsiteshavecometoberememberedandwhy.Clearly,though,itwasnotjustthesizeofthebattleorthenumberoffatalities.Forreasonsthatrangefromdomesticpoliticstoclimateandgeography,somesitesbecameplacesofpilgrimagewhereasothersdidnot(Scates2013,p.7).

StoneandSharpley(2008)makeausefuldistinctionbetween‘purposefullyconstructed

attractionsorexperiencesthatinterpretorrecreateeventsoractsassociatedwith

death’,andsitessuchascemeteriesormemorialsthatbecameattractions‘byaccident’

(p.577).ManyofthesitesvisitedbyFEPOWsandtheirfamiliesfallintooneorotherof

thesecategories.Forexample,theChangimuseuminSingapore21wasestablishedwith

aclearpurpose,whereas‘HellfirePass’wouldbeconsidered‘accidental’.22Butsome

sitesdonotfitsocomfortably.Onesuchisthe‘Irukuboys’memorialinKiwa-Cho,23

whosefocusislocal,specifictoaparticularvillageandgroupofFEPOWs,andisnotin

anysenseatouristattraction(MurakamiandMiddleton2006).Startinglifeasasmall

memorialgardenthatlocalvillagerscreatedtorecognizethesixteenPOWswhodiedin

20These‘circulatingreferences’reachoutfurtherstill,pullinginthegrandnarrativesofthehistoryofwarintheFarEast.ThefatherofJoanna’stravellingcompanionwasseriouslydebilitatedatthetimeofcaptureandspenttheentireperiodofhisincarcerationinChangihospital.Whilethere,hewasoneofthedraughtsmanresponsibleforpreparingthedrawingsfortheChangiLychgates20throughwhichpassedthebodiesofalmost600menontheirwaytothePOWburialground.Thegatesstooduntilthere-occupationofSingaporebytheAllies,whentheyweretakendownandstored.In1952,theywerere-erectedinSingapore,thendismantledagainin1971andtakentoBassingbournBarracksintheUK.In2003theyweremovedtotheentrancetotheFEPOWplotattheNationalMemorialArboretum.21http://www.changimuseum.sg/22HellfirePassisthelargestrailwaycuttingontheThai-Burmarailway,andthesiteofnumerousPOWdeaths.AlthoughnowanestablishedpartoftheFEPOW‘tourist’itinerary(Scates2014),selfevidentlyitwasnotconstructedwithmemorializationinmind-andthereforeis‘accidental’inStoneandSharpley’sterms(2008).Seehttp://hellfire-pass.commemoration.gov.au/remembering-the-railway/hellfire-pass-rediscovered.php23KnownasIrukaduringWorldWarTwo.

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thenearbycoppermine,itssignificancehasgrownovertheyears,tobecomeafocusof

pilgrimageformanyUKex-POWsandtheirfamilies.AsCollins-Kreiner(2009)declares,

‘Noplaceisintrinsicallysacred’butmustawaitsocialconstructionassacred,througha

processof‘sacralisation’(Eschebach2011,Schäuble2011).Pilgrimagesundertakenby

the‘Irukaboys’,overaperiodofalmosttwentyfiveyears,incollaborationwith

sympatheticJapanesepeoplefromthelocalarea,haveprogressivelyco-createdthis

placeassacred(MurakamiandMiddleton2006).24

Certainpilgrimagesiteshaverisentoprominencethroughsheerforceof

personality.Charismaticindividualsadoptedordevelopedspecificsitesastheirown

specialprojects,andoftenspentmanyyearsofarduousresearch(sometimesliterally

‘inthefield’),strugglingagainsttheoddstotrackdownthematerialminutiaeandthe

storiesofwartimecaptivity.SomearewidelyrecognizedintheFEPOWcommunity:Rod

Beattie,MBE25(ThaiBurmarailway),26JohnCooper(AdamsPark),27JamieFarrelland

hisdaughterAmanda(Sumatrarailway),28andKeikoHolmes,OBE.29(Kiwa-Cho).

TheworkofactivistslikeRodBeattiehasdonemorethansimplyrevealhistory-

inmanysensesithasextractedandconstructedhistoryfromamuchmodifiedandstill

changinglandscape.Bydevelopingmuseumsandinterpretivecentresalongside

excavations,historyisbothshapedandpreservedforthepilgrims,despitethepolitical

andfinancialconstraintsthatrestrictwhatisaccessibleorrecoverable.30

Theprecedingaccounthasbeenbasedverymuchonthephysicalityand

mechanicsofplace.ButaswesawfromJoanna’stestimony,memoryandconsciousness,

24Manysmallersitesarequitefragile,andsubjectto‘desacralization’intheinterestsoflocalandnationalvestedinterests.25http://www.kokoda.com.au/staff/rod-beattie/26http://www.tbrconline.com/27http://www.adamparkproject.com/28http://pakanbaroe.webs.com/29http://www.agapeworld.com/30Thepassingdecadeshavewitnessedpartialorcompletedisruptionofwhatexistedbetween1942and1945,forinstance‘traumascapes’overgrown(Scates2013),andshoppingcentresandsolarfarmsbuiltoverPOWcampsites.Inotherareas,POWcampsandworklocationshavechangedverylittle,whichismoreoftenthecaseinrurallandscapes.

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postmemoriesandfantasiesintersectatplacesoftrauma,givingriseata

phenomenologicalleveltosensationsof‘ghostlyhauntings’(Bell1997,Trigg2009),and

theurgetocarryoutactsofremembrance(Schramm2011).DylanTrigg’sstartingpoint

isthe‘tensionbetweenplaceandtrauma’(p.88)whichgivesrisetodisorientationin

thevisitor;atsitesoftrauma,weexperienceadisjunctionbetweenourpostmemories

andthe‘banalityofthedaylight’,andsensethatwehave‘cometoascenetoolate’

(p.98).Thematerialityoftheplaceresistsanddisruptsourimaginednarrativesofpast

eventsthattookplacehere-allthatisleftisa‘murmuroftheplacewherethatnarrative

onceexisted’(p.99).Thetraumaticevent,asTriggputsit,‘tremblesasan

incommensurablevoidisgivenavoicebetweentheviewerandtheplace’(p.99).In

otherwords,whatwaspreviouslyunreal(therealityofthetrauma,theunthinkable)is

nowfeltas‘becomingreal’.‘Thespectrebecomesvisibleasthesceneestablishesa

portalbetweenthepastandthepresent’(p.99).AccordingtoBell(1997),‘ghostsare

socialphenomena...andyetstillparticular’.Theresponsesofparticipantstositesof

traumaweremediatedbyexistingdiscourses,theirownlifehistories,andbytheir

psychicsingularities.Thecasestudiesthatfollowdemonstratehowparticipantscrafted

theirownindividualformsofpsychicresponse.

John...apilgrimagetoruralJapan

Threebrothers-tworesidentintheUK,oneinAustralia-agreedtovisittogetherthe

siteoftheirfather’sPOWcampinJapanwherehehadbeenforcedtoworkasacoal

miner.Intheevent,onlyonebrother-John,fromAustralia-madethejourney,in2015.

Theprocessofplanningthepilgrimagehadreactivatedunsettlingmemoriesfromtheir

sharedpast.IconductedmyinterviewwithJohnbyemail.

Terry,Iwilltrytoanswerallthequestions!LorraineandIvisitedOmineMachibyourselves....Theactualsiteisderelictandissurroundedbylowhills,Itookasmallpanoramicmovieofthearea.Asyoucanimagineitwasverymovingformetostandintheactualplacewhereallthemiseryoccurred.ThePOW'swalkedfromtherethrougha'gap'inthevalleytothemineentrance.Itallwassurrealespeciallythefactthattheentrancehasnotbeenaltered,blockedof

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coursesomewayin,andtheminebuildingsarealsomostlythesame(appeartobeverylargetinsheds!).Locallyverypoorandneglected,perhapswhyithasstayedsimilarforsomanyyears....Thepeoplewereverynice:Iwasintearswiththelovelyinterpreterlady,abuddhistwhoabhorswarandfeelsverysadabouttheJapanesewarmongering.Interestingthatherparentsranabrewery(Sake)andattheendsomeprisonerswenttothebreweryandhadafew.Liketothinkmydadwasinthat!.AllinallIamsogladwedidthetrip.Itcouldnothavehappenedearlierinmylifebecauseoftheobvioussensitivities.31ItgivesmealittlesatisfactionthatperhapsIhavehonouredmyfathersmemoryinsomesmallway. [textunalteredfromhisemail]

Beforevisitingthecampsite,Johnandhiswifehadbeenonaninedaywalkingtourin

Japanwithagroupoffriends.Later,enroutetothePOWcampsite,theyhadvisited

Hiroshima.32‘Whatasoberingexperiencetogototheactualbombsiteandtoseethe

manymemorialstochildren,themoundforthosedeadwhoareunknownetc.’

SoatlastwetraveltoOmineMachi,aplacethatIhavethoughtaboutforsolong.IhadspentsometimewritingandrewritingaspeechthatIthoughtmightbenecessaryaswewereadvisedbyMorio33thatwepossiblywouldbemetbylocaldignitariesandthepress....wetravelledwithMorioontheShinkensenbullettrainfromHiroshimatoAsaandthentookalocalJRtraintoMine.NicetripandtalkingtoKoshiwasinteresting.SuddenlyweareatthetinystationofMineandwearemetbytheasmallcontingentofthelocalpress,TV,schoolchildrenandthelocalmayororcouncillorMrYamamotoaswellasayoungBuddhistmanwhorunsalocalKindergarten,anotherelderlyBuddhistmanwhoIunderstandwasinstrumentalinestablishingthememorialatthePOWsite,andamanwhoworkedatthemineasadriverformanyyears,andaladyinterpreter.Inadditionanumberofyoungchildren,andabigsignwelcomingJohnandLorraineBirdfromAustralia.Howspecial.

Hisfirstwordssuggestedhehadundergonealengthypsychological‘approach’tothis

place(‘thatIhavethoughtaboutforsolong’).Andthephysicaljourneytothesiteonthe

dayalsocontainedelementsthatprovokedfurtherreflectiononhispart(‘talkingto

Morio,andbeingmetbyagroupfromthelocalcommunity).AlthoughJohnhadnot

givenanyindicationinhistestimonythatheviewedhislengthyandstrenuous‘walking

31Hisfatherhaddiedin2005,andhismotheronlyin2010.Thefamilysensitivitiesextendedtothesecondgeneration.Iinterviewedoneofhisbrothers,whowasunambivalentabouthisattitudetotheJapanese:‘I’mnotparticularlyproudofitbutit’sgivenmealifelongaversiontotheJapanese.’32MyinterpretationisthatweshouldseethisvisittoHiroshimaaspartofthe‘approach’tohispilgrimagesite.33Morio,aretiredengineerwhohadexcellentcontactsandoftenassistedwithorganizingvisitstotheOmineMachiarea,eventhoughhelivedsome250kmawayinFukuyama.

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tour’34asanythingotherthanaleisureactivity,Iwasstruckbyhisdecisiontointroduce

suchatraditionalpilgrimageactivityintohisvisit.Slavin(2003)writesof‘walking

reflexively’(p.5),andofhowtheactofwalkingcanengenderashiftfrom‘material

things’to‘spiritualthemes’(p.6),andachangefromafocusonthedestinationtothe

rhythmofthejourneyitself.

AlthoughJohnhadorganisedthistriphimself,albeitwithhelpfromJapanese

volunteers,35thelocalitineraryresembledthoseorganisedbyKeikoHolmesforher

groups.ChildrenoftenplayacrucialroleinthesepilgrimagevisitstoJapan,being

acceptedas‘innocents’byboth‘sides’.OnoneofKeikoHolmes’earlypilgrimages,an

incidentoccurredthatsubsequentlybecameaseminal‘circulatingreference’inthe

COFEPOWcommunity,andcontributedtoawidernarrativeofJapan’sfailuretoteach

theiryoungpeopleaboutthe‘realities’ofWorldWarTwo.36BeingpresentatOmine

madeitsimpactonJohn.Hebegantoidentifywiththelandscape,andtookanempathic

leaptoforgeemotionalconnectionswithanimaginedpastthat,forhim,atthattime,felt

immanent.Thesenseof‘disorientation’and‘coming...toolate’,thatTrigg(2009)writes

about,werealsoevidentinhistestimony.

Muchdiscussionandflowerpresentationsetcatthememorial.Iwalkedaroundabitbeingfilmedallthetime,veryemotionalformeactually.Thereisnothinglefttoindicatewhattranspiredhere.ItisanareaofflatlandsurroundedbyhillsandIimaginethattheprisonerswouldhavethoughttheywereinthemiddleofnowhereandcompletelydesertedbytheircompatriots.ThismemorialwasstatedasbeingthefirstforaPOWcampinJapanandtheolderBuddhistmanwhoIbelievemadeithappenshouldbecelebratedandapplauded.Standinginanareawheresomuchsufferingoccurredbringsmanytears.

34IlearnedlaterthattheyhadtakentheKumanoKodopilgrimagetrail,immersingthemselvesintraditionalJapaneseculture.Inhisnotesonthewalk,hewritesaboutthinkingofhisfather.35ThePOWResearchNetworkJapansupportsthe‘official’FEPOWgroupsfromUSAandAustralia,andwillofferhelptofamiliesofBritishPOWstravellingindependently.http://www.powresearch.jp/en/36 WhathappenedattheriversidechangedMrBlackler’slife."Ifeltalittlehandslideintomine.Ilookeddownandsawthesmilingfaceofoneofthedaughters—itwasseven-year-oldRika,"hetoldme."Inthatinstant,morethan50yearsofhatredvanished.Ifeltgreatwarmthflowthroughme.Ifeltsoatpeace."Hecontinued:"IthoughtthatIcouldn’tgoonwithsuchbitternessinmyheart.Thesearenotthepeoplewhotorturedus."https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2004/15-october/features/lessons-in-love

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Fromtherewetravelledbycartothemineentranceabout2-3kmsaway.OfcoursethePOW’swouldhavemarched,theoldroadsandahighwireusedfortransportingcoalarenowallgone.AlotoftheminebuildingsarestillthesameaccordingtoShizikowhoknowstheareaintimately.Theroadsthenweredirtwithwoodencartsfortransport.Weendeduptearyeyedtogetherasshestillfeelssobadaboutwar,treatmentofprisonersetc.Itriedtoconsoleherbystatingthatpeopledoverybadthingsonbothsidesinwarandthatwaristheproblemnotordinarypeople....Verystrangetostandthere,Ibelievethattheentranceisidenticalapartfrombeingabitovergrownasitwasallthoseyearsago.

Johngaveashortspeechatthesiteofthecamp.37Adeclarationofthankstoindividuals

andtothe‘Japanesepeople’;a‘fewwords’aboutthefather’spersonalbackground,then

rathermoreaboutthehardshipsheexperiencedasaPOW(conditions,incidentally,not

atallreflectedinthetextinscribedontheOminememorial).38Hestressedhisfather’s

resilience,aqualityguaranteedtoresonatewithJapanesenationalselfimage(e.g.their

responsestotsunamisandearthquakes).Atonepoint,hetookarisk.‘Hetoldmemany

storiesthatcannotberepeatedhere’,buttheambiguitysaveditfrombeingperceived

asconfrontationalordisrespectful(andofcoursemuchwoulddependonhowhis

wordsweretranslated).However,hequicklyshifteddirection-‘Buthedidovercome

andlivedaveryfruitfullife’.ManyfewerrelativesofFEPOWsnowvisitthisarea,and

thepositivetoneofJohn’sspeechmayhaveencouragedlocalpeopletoregisterthis

memorialasimportantwithintheircommunity,tocontinuetoprotectandmaintainits

fabric,andwelcomefuturevisitors(whoseregularpresencewouldhelptosustainthe

‘sacred’natureofthesite).Whatmighthaveseemedafleetingevent,withonlypersonal

consequences,hadwiderramificationsandneededtobemanagedwithcareand

discretion.

37ThefulltextisincludedinAppendix8,andsharesseveralfeatureswithspeechesgiveninsimilarcircumstancesbyotherchildrenofFEPOWs.38‘THEPRISONERSQUARTERS(Shiraiwa,Shinwa-Ryo)TRACE.InWorldWarII,184Britishsoldiersin1942and288Americanonesin1943weretakentoShiaiwaastheprisonersofwarandworkedasthecoalminers.WhenthewarendedonAugust15,1945,theyreturnedtotheirowncountries.Butsomeofthemdiedfromillness.Werecordthefacthere,wishingeternalpeacenevertorepeatsuchatragedyasthis.FromthewarexperiencewitnessesinMineandthecooperationofMineBoardofEducation.2,9,1996.’

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Narrativesofreturn

WhenthechildrenofFEPOWsdescribedtheirfirstvisittoapilgrimagesiteasa‘return’

(assomedid,explicitlyorimplicitly),itwasbydefinitionasymbolicreturn.Aplaceto

beimaginedthroughtheeyesofthefathers,andthroughthelayersofmemoriesandre-

memoriesthatarc39throughtheinterveningyears.Laterinthischapter,Idescribehow

Sallywasmadetofeel‘safe’onherpilgrimagetotheThai-Burmarailwaybyan

empathicprofessionalguidewhoofferedthetypeofhelpthat,inanyothercontext,

mightbeconsideredtherapy.

Pilgrimagegroupsmaysucceedorfailtothedegreetowhichtheirmemberscan

establishabedrockofmutuallysustainingrelationshipscapableofofferingreciprocal

support,basedonthekindofbonddescribedas‘communitas’byTurner(1974,p.75).

Shouldthechildrenmakereturnvisitstothesesites,theywillconfrontadoubleand

difficultmeaning:memoriesfromtheirownfirstvisitstothesite,interwovenwiththe

stillactive-thoughnowmodified-postmemoriesoftheirfathersthatwereactive

duringthefirstvisit.Sovisitsbythechildrento‘sacralized’sitesaremorethansimple,

straightforwardactsofmemorytourismasSturken(2011)suggests,andmaybebetter

conceptualizedaspartofelaborate,stage-managedcommemorativeorreconciliatory

processeschargedwithpersonal,culturalandpoliticalmeanings.Inthese

circumstances,thechildrenhadtosimultaneouslymanagethefragileinternalprocesses

thattiedthevisittotheirpersonalpastsandevolvingpostmemories,whilealso

acknowledgingthattheywereparticipantsinritualsshapedbygrandnarrativesofwar.

Inaddition,theyhadtonavigatethechoppywatersofFarEasthistoricaland

contemporarypoliticaldiscoursethatbreedsemotionalandmoralambivalenceamong

foreignvisitors.Iamreferringheretoprovocativeissuessuchasthe‘comfortwomen’,40

39Whenelectricityjumpsbetweentwoconductingelectrodes,suchastwoexposedpiecesofwire,orinthiscasemetaphoricallybetweentwolayersofmemory,itmakesan‘electricalarc’. 40Seethefollowingreporthttp://www.ibtimes.co.uk/comfort-women-japans-ww2-sex-slaves-tell-their-stories-demand-apology-photo-report-1515139

233

andattitudestowardsFEPOWsurvivalversustheapocalyptichorrorsoftheatomic

bomb.

Therelationshipbetweenpilgrimagesandtheideaof‘return’isaprominent

themeintheHolocaustliterature(Hoffman2004,Hirsch2012b,HirschandMiller

2011).Hirsch(2012b)explorestheideaofa‘narrativeofreturn’whichsheclaimshas

‘beenincreasinglyprevalentinrecentyears’,andlinksthistointergenerational

transmission(p.205).Thesenarrativesareessentiallymemoirsbythechildrenof

survivors,drivenbyadesireto“walkwheretheyoncewalked”’(p.205),andoften

‘punctuated’bysignificantimagesandartifacts.Butshealsoremindsusthattherecan

beanemotionaldownside,that‘embodiedjourneysofreturn,corporealencounters

withplace’havethepotentialto‘createsparksofconnectionthatactivateremembrance

andthusactivatethetraumaofloss’(p.212).Writingofthedilemmasthatdescendants

ofHolocaustsurvivorsfacewhentheyreturntotheirparents’placesoforigin.Hirsch

referstothe‘impossibilityofreturn’:

Theimpossibilityofreturnisintensifiedifdescendantswhowereneverthereearlierreturntothesitesoftrauma.Cantheyevenattempttoputthepiecestogether,tocreatethespark?Orarethepointofconnectionandthephysicalcontactwithobjectslostwiththesurvivorgeneration?

(Hirsch2012b,p.213)

Hirschcommentsthatdescendantsofsurvivorsexpressa‘yearningtofindaworld

beforethelosshasoccurred…fromaneedforanirrecoverablelostinnocence’(p.214).

Inresponse,IsuggestthatmanychildrenofFEPOWswhovisitthesitesof

campswereseekingnotsimplytoreimagineandidentifywiththeirfather’straumatic

experiencesintheirmaterialcontext(oratleastascloseascannowbeachieved),butto

gainabetterunderstandingoftheplacewheresignificanttransformationhadtaken

234

place.Inthisway,theysoughtabroaderanddeeperempathy(individual,socialand

cultural),withtheexperiencesthathadmadethefatherthepersontheyknew.41

Sally...apilgrimagetotheThai-Burmarailway

Sally’sfatherhaddiedsuddenlyandunexpectedlywhenshewasonlyfifteenyearsof

age.Hehadalwaysbeenaverydistant,‘absent’figureinherlife.Inherearlyforties,she

qualifiedasapsychotherapist,andestablishedherownprivatepracticefromhome.She

begantoinvestigateherfather’sPOWexperiencesinparallelwithundertaking

psychotherapytraining.Thetwoexperiencesbecameentwined:

...alotofmyanalysiswasdiscoveringmydad’sexperience.Icouldn’thavedonethatwithoutmyanalyst,becauseitwassopainful.Myownchoiceofgoingtoanalysiswasknowingthattherewasalotmoretodo,Ithink,andthatwasreallywhenIstarted,youknow.AndIwenttoKew,42andIreadthebooks…well,notallthebooksofcourse…butyouknowquitealot....And…erm…Ihadthatpictureframed[referringtoapaintingoftheChapelatChangi,whichhunginherconsultingroom]

Inthefollowingextract,Sallydiscussedherfeelingsaboutaforthcomingtripto

Thailand,itspurpose,herpreparations,andherexpectations:whatIrefertoasthe

emotional‘approach’.

Sally:…IthinkthatgoingtoSingaporeandThailand[in]August-Septemberthisyear,forme,willbetheculminationofit.Icouldn’thavedonethatyearsago…eitherbecauseitwouldn’thavemeantanything,youknow.I’dhavegone,‘oh,yeah,oh,thathappened…thathappenedtothemoverthere,y-youknow.Therewouldhavebeenno…[deepintakeofbreath]itwouldn’thavehadanyp-personalerm…connectionforme.Terry:So,whathasgivenitmeaningnow,inparticular?Sally:…Well,Iguessm-myanalysis,really.Y-youknowanddoingallthegroundwork...ofbeingabletosortofbearit.AsIsaidtoyouearlier,youknow,Iinvitedmybrotherandhesaid,‘No,it’stoosad,Ican’tdoit.’So…i-i,i-i-it’s…itisapilgrimageforme,t-togowheremydadwas,togotoChangi,togotoerm…erm…tothemuseumthere,andthentogouptherailroad.Imean,itgoingtobe…reallytoughthinkbuti-itisaerm…IamdoingitformeandI’mdoingitformydad.That’showIse-…I-I-IthinkIseeit.Sothatheexists,actually.Becausehewas…erm…hejusterm…hewasashell…Hewasa…hewasashellofaman.Andthissortofflesheshimoutandgiveshimlife,so…Yeah,that’sthewayIamlookingatit.

41ThiswasthemotivationbehindJacqui’sreturnstoherfather’sCanadianbirthplacementionedinChapter6.42TheNationalArchives.

235

Beforetravelling,SallyhadmadecontactwithRodBeattiewhosentherinformation

aboutherfather’stimeontherailway,butshehadfounditdifficulttotakeitallin.As

farasshewasable,Sallywantedtoexperiencethepilgrimagewithoutunnecessary

emotionaldemandsordistractions,andsosherefusedherhusband’sofferto

accompanyher.Butdidwantherdaughteralongside;asthegranddaughterofaFEPOW,

shewasa‘legitimatepilgrim’inherownright(‘she’lldoitwithme’):

…myhusbandsaidhewouldcomewithme.IsaidIdidn’twanthimto.Ihave…Ihavetobeabletojustdothis....Ididn’twanttohaveto…thinkabouthim,youknow,areyouallright?Whatdoyouthi-?Ijust…Idon’twannahaveto…think…aboutanybodyelse.Andmy…mydaughter,she’sveryerm…erm…sensitive-that’snottosaymyhusbandisn’t-butshewilljust,shewon’t…shew-…Iwon’thaveto…thinkabouther.Y-youknow,she’lldoitwithme…And,andit’shergranddadtoo....Erm…we’lltakealotoftissues,Iguess.Iguessthat’showwe’llgetthroughit.Erm…IcanonlydoasmuchasIcanreally.

IwantedtofindouthowSallyfeltaboutherfathernowthatshehadcommittedherself

tovisitingtherailway.

Sally:Yeah.……Idon’tknow.Idon’tknow……He-he’sbeenhuge…er…hisexperiencesasaprisonerofwarhasbeenhugeinmylife.ButIhadn’tknownit.Erm…andit’sbygoingtodothisnow...It’snotoutofidlecuriosityorevenun-idlecuriosity.It’saboutgoingbecause…thismanthatIknewforfifteenyears…andthenwasn’tthereforalongtime,issohugeinmylife,youknow,[subduedlaugh]It’s…verystrange.So……I’msad,it’s…it’sasadthingwhathappened.…ButI’vedonemybestto…torepair…whatIcanforhim,Ithink.So,it’spartof…er...er…youknow,thisisasmuchforhimasforme.Notthathe’llknow,Idon’tsuppose.Terry:And…lookingaheadtowhenthisisover…Sally:Whatthen?Terry:Whatdoyouexpect…?Yeah.Sally:Idon’tknow.…Idon’tknow.Ican’tseemyselfbecomingasortofflagwaver.Ithinkthat…Ihope…whatI’dliketogois,‘I’vedonethatnow’.Lethimrestinpeacereally.Hm.……Yeah,I…i-…youknow,Idon’t…Idon’thave…youknow,I’mnotthinkinghe’swatchingand…wantsme…Idon’t,youknow,Idon’ts-seeitassortof…a-a…Itisforme.ButitistorepairthedadthatIhadinsideofme,Ithink.Hm.

Theexpressionsofreparationtowardsherfatherareexplicitinheraccountand,Iinfer,

areassociatedwithboththeearlylossofherfatherand,perhapsmostsignificantly,her

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mother’sdecisiontoeffectively‘disown’himafterhisdeath(Itouchedonthisin

ChapterFive).

AfterherreturnfromThailand,IcontactedSallyagain.Theseextractsarefrom

ouremailexchanges.Hertestimonyrevealedhowthepilgrimagehadmetmanyofher

expectations:theimportanceofacquiringhistoricalfacts,thepsychicsignificanceof

place,theembodiedqualityofthejourney,thesensitivereceptionoftheguides(‘made

mefeelsafe’),andheracuteawarenessofthefather‘insideofme’.

Well,Ithinkthebiggestimpactwasthattheexperiencesofthoseontherailwayweretalkedabout–therewassomuchknowledge,andallthethingsthatIhadwantedtoaskhadanswers....Iunderstandnowhowtherailwaywasbuilt,andhowitjoinedupalongtheway,thetrainridetoBanPong,andwhattheprisonerswouldhaveseenandmaybefeltwhentheygotoffthetrain.Thejungle,therain,butformydad,survivingit,atsomecosttohimselfofcourse.Someofthetripwasveryemotional,particularlywhenIstoodonabridgeneartheBurmaborderandRodpointedoutthecamp,andwherethebridgethattheprisonersbuilt,andwherethecookhousewasandthemen’squarters.Mydadhadspent8plusmonthsaspartofFforceinwhatwasconsideredtheworstcamp,andthefurthestmarch.

Weliterallyfollowedmyfather’sfootstepsatsomepoints,andwhathadalwaysbeenanunmentionablenightmarebecamesomethingdifferenttothat–itbecamemuchmorereal,andawful,butsurvivable.OneofthefirstthingsthatTerryandAndrew43saidtomewas‘youdon’thavetotellus,weknow’.Thatmadeabigimpression,andmademefeelsafe.Ihavedonethetripnow,andhavedoneitformydad–whetherheknowsornot,Ican’tknow.Butthefatherinsideofmeknows,andthatgivesmealotofpeace.IamgoingtoBurmanextFebruaryandonthewaywilltakemyhusbandtoKanchanabriandmaybemysontoo,andIwillbeabletoshowthemsomeofthethingsIsaw,withoutfearingbeingoverwhelmed.

TransformationheldadominantplaceinSally’stestimony(‘thefatherinsideofme

knows,andthatgivesmealotofpeace’).Atthattime,worriesoverherson’shealth

weighedheavilyonherbecauseoftheimminentprospectoftransplantsurgery.Were

thetripstoThailandandtheotheraspectsofherresearchameansof‘clearingthe

decks’sothatshecouldofferherselfmorefullytohersonandhisfutureneeds?Ifso,

43StaffmembersattheThailand-BurmaRailwayCentre,createdbyRodBeattie,allAustralianslivinginThailand.

237

thatistestimonybothtohercommitmenttoherson’swelfare,andtothedepthofher

selfawareness:thatsheneededtoresolvetheissueswithherfatherfirst.Sally’s

personaltherapywasatthecoreofthislengthyprocess,butthevisitstoThailand

enabledhertotakeherpsychicworktoadeeperlevel.Shewasableto‘embody’and

historicizethememoriesandfantasiessurroundingherfather,andtoexternalizeand

workthroughthetraumaticaspectsofhispsychicpresence,thusenablingwhat

remainedinternallytobeamorebenignandbalancedinfluence.

Kim...apilgrimagetoAmbon

Kimisactiveonthenationalstage,providingpracticalandsocialsupportforFEPOWs

andtheirfamilies.AgunnerintheRoyalArtillery,herfatherspentmostofhistimeasa

POWinJavaandinAmbon,oneoftheSpiceIslandsintheMoluccanarchipelago.‘...they

weremakingairfields,outofcoral.Erm…whichwasprettyhorrendous.’44Hediedin

1989whenshewastwentysix.

In2012,KimtravelledouttoAmbon,inasmallpartythatincludedanex-

FEPOW.‘Iwashonoured…IwentbacktoAmbon...IwentovertoAmbon.I’vealways

wantedtogo.EversinceIlearntaboutit’.Likesomeotherparticipants,Kiminitially

framedhervisitintermsofa‘return’,butthenquickly‘corrected’her‘error’.Herwords

tellofasymbolicreturnaswellasaphysicaljourneytothesitewhereherfatherwas

heldprisoner.Throughherslipofthetongue,sheunconsciouslyrevealedtheintrusive

influenceofpostmemory.Thepsychicpresenceofthefatherwasneverfarfromthe

surfaceinhertestimonyand,asshedescribedherexperiences,thedeepconnections

betweenherphysicalpilgrimageandherpsychicjourneyemergedmoreclearly.

Andwewentbackwithoneguy…withoneFEPOWwhowasactuallyonAmbonaswell.Andhewasfabulousbecausehe’dstoptheminibusandhe’dsay,oh,stop-stop-stop!Andhe’dtrytostartdemonstratinghowtheyusedtoclimbthecoconuttrees....Butitwasaveryemotionaltour…Whenwegottotheircamp

44Robsonetal(2009):AfinalproblemlocalizedtothecoralbeachesofsomeoftheSoutheastAsianbeaches,wherePOWsweresettoworkconstructingaircraftrunways,waspainfulblepharospasmandblepharitis,lacrimationandphotophobia.Probablyanalogoustosnowblindness,itbecameknownas‘coralblindness’.

238

site,wefoundtheairfieldthattheybuilt.Becauseobviouslybeingoncoral,there’snotmuchgrownthere.Andyoucouldseewherethetreeshadbeencutaway.They’dhadtocutawaythepalmtrees.Andthenbuildit,soyoucouldseethelineofpalmtreesfromwherethey’dcutthemaway.Andtherewasverylittlegrownup,evenin70oddyears,onthesite,andwewalkedaroundandwemanagedtofindwherethey…Idon’tknowwhattheofficialtermwasbutwherethey’derm…builtuptohideplanes-littledugoutsIthink....Sothatwasquitemagical.

Sacredsitespresentinmanyforms,andinvaryingstatesofvisibilityanddisrepair:in

thiscase,anairfieldemergedlikeapalimpsest,itspresenceknownonlytothosewith

thenecessaryknowledge,insight,andpersistence.Kim’sdriveanddeterminationin

organizingthistrip-andherresponsestoit-beggedquestionsoverheremotional

investmentandthepsychicoriginsofthatinvestment.Hertwobrothershadnointerest

intheirfather’sFEPOWhistory.Didherfatherunconsciouslytransmitsomethingtohis

onlydaughter-somepartofhimself,perhaps,oraneedthatrequiredorinviteda

response?Kimtoldastoryabouthermum(whowasstillalive)andherdad:

……She’sjustacow.No,mydad’ssortofveryjovialandeasygoing,butquiteunassuminginotherways.Hedidn’treallyhavemuchconfidence,Ithinkbecausehe…hewasoutofhiscomfortzone.Ithinkmymumusedtoputhimdownabit,soheneverfeltreallygoodenough.Therewasastoryshetoldmequiterecently,erm…whentheywenttosomesortofdinneranddance.And,whentheywereonthetablehepickedupabottleofwine,andstartedpouringit,andsomeonehadagoathimandsaid,here,that’smywine.Anddaddidn’treallyknowthatyougotothesethingsandthenyou’llbuyabottle,andbla-bla-bla.Hejustpresumeditwasintheticketprice.Erm…andhefeltveryembarrassedbythat.Andratherthan…Iwouldturnroundandsay,well,I’mreallysorryIdidn’tknow.Hejustwentveryquietandapparentlyheleftearly.Whichis…quitesadreally.Very,verysad.

Duringtheinterview,thesharpnessofheropeningstatementhadsurprisedme(‘She’s

justacow’),becauseherearlierwordshaddepictedawarmifblandfamilylife.Kim’s

strongandconfidentpersonasuggestedthatheridentificationwithherfather’ssenseof

humiliation-rootedinhisexperiencesasaFEPOW-hadtriggeredanunconscious

reactionformation,andadisplaceddesirenottoallowsuchhumiliationstobe

perpetuatedinthelivesofotherex-FEPOWs.Thismayalsohelpexplaintheforce

behindtheexpressednegativitytowardshermother.Theevidentpsychological

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rewardsshehasobtainedfromherdaytodayworkwithex-FEPOWsandtheirfamilies

servetoreinforceherpsychicposition.

Terry:Sowhatwereyouexpectingfrom[thetrip],beforeyouwent?Kim:Erm……IwentbecauseIwantedtoseewheremydadwasandIwantedtohonourhisfriendsthatdidn’tcomeback.Erm…Idon’tknowwhatIexpected.Iknewitwouldbelikethat.Butyoudon’tknowuntilyou’reactuallythere.Howyou’regoingtofeel,howyouexperienceit.ButIrememberwhenwestoppedthe…wheretherunwayis,is200yardsfromthebeach,soweallstrippedoffandranintothesea.AndIknowtheFEPOWswhentheywereluckywerea-…able…abletobathethere.AndyouknowIwentinandIlookedaroundandthought,mygoodness,mydadactuallysawthesesites,thatI’mseeing.Thatwouldn’thavechangedinseventyyears.Youknow,liketheislandoverthere.Erm…andthingslikethat,andthecolourofthesea,anditwasvery,very,verymagical,andverybeautiful.45

Kim’swordscreatedavividandintense-almostmystical-impressionthatprompteda

rangeofassociationsinmymind:thephysicalimmersioninthesea,thepsychological

andspiritualsymbolism,theevocationofbaptismthatmightpointtopsychic

regenerationorpurification,amomentofepiphanicawareness,andashifttoadeeper

levelofempathicunderstanding.

...whenwewenttoJakarta,wewenttowherealotoftheguyswhoreturnedfromtheMoluccas[went].ThereallyilloneswenttoStVincentiushospital.Andit’snowa…anorphanage.Andwewalkedinandyouknewitwasidenticaltoseventyyearsago.Ithadn’tchanged.Inonehundredyears.AndI..IwalkedinandIgotveryemotionalbecauseitwaslike,mygoodness,mydadactuallyprobablystoodinthisspot,throughthefrontdoor.Andyouknow,walkingaroundandseeingtheerm…balustradesandeverythingthathewould…a-andwalkingalongthepathwaysthathewouldhavewalkeddown.Thatwasvery,veryemotional.Andofcoursethenitwassolovelybecauseitwassadandemotionalinoneway,butitwasalsofabulousbecauseyouknewthatthatplacesavedalotoflives,oftheguyswhocamebackfromtheMoluccas.

Shecontinuedtheredemptivetheme.…andalsoitwasdoinggoodnowfrombeinganorphanage.Andthechildrenweresoexcitedtoseeus,anditwasstilldoinggoodnow,soitwas…i-i-really…strange.Onemomentyou’relaughingandthenextminuteyou’recrying,andthenitwasreally…WealsomanagedtoseethewindowsthatweremadebytheFEPOWsinTandjongPriok,theactualoriginalwindowswhicharenowinachurchinJakarta.Andthatwasverymagicalaswell.

45TheFEPOWsthemselveswerenotimmunetothebeautyoftheirnaturalsurroundings,e.g.Chalker(2007).However,asanartstudent,JackChalkermighthavebeenexpectedtobemoreresponsivetotheirvisualattributes.

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Herrelationshipwiththeex-FEPOWsbecamecentraltohersenseofself-‘I’vespoken

tosomanyFEPOWs-ormyboysasIliketocallthem.’Kimhasnochildrenofherown.

Duringtheinterview,shesatatthediningroomtableperusingvariousdocumentsand

photoslaidoutinfrontofher.

Terry:Haveyougotchildren?Kim:No.No.[Sheavertedmygazeandansweredinanuncharacteristicallylowandbreathyvoice.]Terry:No,okay[Imirroredhertoneofvoice,andgotthestrongimpressionshewantedtoproceedasifIhadnotaskedheraboutchildren.]

Thisbriefexchangewasinaverydifferentregisterfromtherestoftheinterviewwhich

proceededasifthetopicofchildrenhadneverbeenraised.Theobviousinterpretation-

thatshemightbedisplacing(sublimating)hermaternaldriveintoherworkwiththe

FEPOWs-wassoclichédthatitsverypresenceseemedtoblockmefromthinkingit

throughfurther.SensingthisblockageinmyownthinkingIbegantowonderwhether

hertransference(andmycountertransference)mighthavescreenedoffsomeother

areaofpsychicsignificance.

TowardtheendofheraccountofthetriptoAmbon,shemadeatentative

connectionbetweenherchildhoodandthepilgrimage.

Well,amagicalthingwhich…Ioftenwondered[about].Imeanmymumpoo-poosit-buterm…wenevermovedverymuch.WewereinahousebetweenwhenIwastwotowhenIlefthome[at]twenty-one.Andinthathouse,Isupposemaybeitwasthefashioninthosedays,inthe60sand70s,buthehadamuralonthewallwhichwasabeachscene,withpalmtreessideways,anditwassortofthethingthatyouseeallthewayover…all…everywhereintheFarEast.ButIoftenwonderifhehadthatandheusedtolookatandthinkofhisfriends....AndthefactthatwhenwewenttoAmbon,that’sexactlywhatitlookedlike,really,reallytouchedme.Inhisownway,heprobablyhonouredhisfriendsbydoingthat.Buthewas…hewasthetypewhowouldhavehonouredthemquietly,andnot…hedidn’tjoinanyclubs,oranythinglikethat.

Whiletranscribingthissectionoftherecording,Iwastaken(a)backtomyown

childhood.Mycounter-transferencetriggeredapersonalmemory,connectingKim’s

memorieswithmine.Myfatheralsohadalargemuralonthewallofour‘frontroom’,

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theroomwherehespentsomuchtimeonhisown,listeningtomusic.Ourmural

representedahillyscene-IthinkitwasprobablyScotland,wherewetooknearlyall

ourholidays.AsIdiscoveredin2010,myfather’sPOWcampwasinjustsuchahilly,

ruralenvironment.Werethesewaysinwhichourfathersunconsciouslytriedto

reclaim,tameordomesticate,thelandscapepreviouslyassociatedwithhumiliationand

hunger;toestablish‘mastery’overdistressingevents(Freud2015,p.10)?

ConclusionInthischapter,Ihaveaddressedthenatureandpurposeofpilgrimage,includingthe

problematicrelationshipbetweentourism,so-called‘darktourism’,andpilgrimage

itself,andalsobetweenpilgrimageasjourneyandasdestination(‘place’).Fromthis,I

identifiedanumberofkeythemes,mostparticularlyliminalityandreflexivityaspartof

the‘approach’totheplaceoftrauma,thepotentialofsharedexperienceinapilgrimage

group,andtheparadoxicalnatureof‘return’.

Attheempiricalcoreofthechapterwerethetestimoniesoffourparticipants,

forwhompilgrimagewasapivotal,multifacetedandtransformativememorypractice,

acatharticphaseattheculminationoflengthypsychicjourneyswiththeirbiographical

rootsinchildhood,andtheirpsychicrootsinthePOWexperiencesoftheirfathers.

Thetensionsembeddedinvisitstositesoftraumacouldbeconfusingtoparticipants

butbyadoptingaphenomenologicalperspectivethesecomplexexperiencesof‘place’

wererenderedalittlemorecomprehensible.

IntheIntroductiontothischapter,Iclaimedthatthefourparticipantsfeatured

inthischapter‘revealednuancedemotionalassociationswiththepast’.Thesenuances

challengedwhatcouldotherwiseberatherhomogenizednarrativesofFEPOW-related

pilgrimages,andfurtherdemonstratedhowparticipantsweresubjecttothepresenceof

unconsciousyetactiveinfluencesderivedfrompastrelationshipswiththeirfathers.

Iconcludethisfinalsubstantivechapterofthethesiswithabriefobservationon

methodology.Pilgrimageisacomplexandmulti-layeredmemorypracticewhichinvited

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amethodologicalapproachthatwouldnotneedlesslyorundulyinterferewitha

participant’sstory-telling.Theyneededtobefreetomakeconnectionsbetweenpast

andpresent,microandmacro,localandglobal,andtomakewide-evenwild-

associationswithoutfeelingthattheyweretakingtheinterview‘offcourse’.Ifoundthat

thepsychosocialapproachmetthisneed,andsuitedthepilgrimageexperience

particularlywell,bothmethodologicallyandepistemologically.Becausepilgrimagedoes

representsomethingofaculmination,aplacetointegratemanypsychosociallevels,I

alsotooktheopportunityinthischaptertoallowmyownreflexivityfreerrein.

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SUMMARYANDCONCLUSIONS

In‘RootsofRemembrance’Ihaveinvestigatedthedifferentwaysinwhichthememory

practicesofthechildrenofFarEastprisonersofwarhavetheirpsychosocialrootsin

thecaptivityexperiencesoftheirfathers.Teasingouttheconnectionswascomplex,and

theresultswerealwaysuniquetoeachfamily.InthecaseofJoanna,wesawhowher

father’scaptivitytraumaswerebrutallyre-enactedduringherchildhood.Yet,duringa

pilgrimagetoSingapore,shewasabletorecontextualiseandreconstructher

relationshipwithhiminordertolivealongsidehertraumaticmemories.Bycontrast,

Derek’schildhoodwasimpoverishedbyhisfather’schronicill-health,inresponseto

whichDerekhasstriventokeephisfather’smemoryandhistoryalivebyregularly

contributingoldfamilyphotographsanddocumentscanstoCOFEPOWsocialmedia

sites.Throughthisresearch,Iwasabletouncovernotonlytheintricatemodalities

entailedinthetransmissionofemotionsandmemoriesbetweenfatherandchild,but

alsotheassociationsbetweenthis‘micro’(family)leveloftransmissionandthe‘macro’

levelsthatconnectedparticipantstowidercultural,geopoliticalandethicalcontexts.

Beforediscussingthefindingsoftheresearch,Ishallsummarizethecoreofmy

argument,followedbyachapter-by-chapteroutlineofkeypoints.Captivityhada

profoundandinescapableimpactonallFarEastprisonersofwar,withpsychological,

behavioural,social,andhealthconsequences.Theseconsequencespenetratedthe

domesticspace,andinfluencedthepsychological,socialandmateriallivesoftheir

children,viaarangeoftransmissionprocesses(withorwithoutthephysicalpresence

ofthefather),1bothduringchildhoodandthroughlateryears.Theexpressionsofthe

father’straumaswithinthefamilycouldbeimplicit,orexplicit,andweresometimes

characterizedbyaggressionandviolence.Asaresultsomechildrenwereunableto

1Therewereconsequencesforthechildrenevenwhentheyhadnevermetthefatherbecauseofhisdeathincaptivity.

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formsecureattachmentswiththeirfathers,whichcouldleavethemwithunfulfilled

psychicneedsandenduringpsychicscars.Thechildren’sattemptstomakesenseof

theirfathers’experienceswerefrustratedbecausesofewmenspokeopenlyoftheir

timeincaptivity,leavingthechildrenwithyawninggapsintheirknowledgeand

understanding.Thechildren’slifestoriesrevealedthetracesofthesecomplex,and

oftenambivalent,earlyrelationshipswiththeirfathers,withinwhichdefensivepsychic

processesfiguredprominently.Throughthelifecourse,thechildrenevolvedoradopted

memorypracticestorespondtotheirindividualpsychicneeds.Thesepracticesincluded

researchingtheirfathers’timeincaptivity,memorializationinthehome(includingtheir

relationshipwithartifactsandimages),involvementincommemorativeevents(formal

orinformal,stateorcommunityorganized),settinguponlineindividualtributeand

remembrancesites,engagingwithactivistorganisations,pilgrimagestoFEPOWsites,

reconciliationactivities...evenparticipationinresearchinterviews.Throughthese

memorypractices,thechildrenreviewedandrevisitedtheirrelationshipswiththeir

fathers(consciously,unconsciouslyorboth),andwiththeirown,youngerselves.Asa

result,somewereableto‘reconstruct’theirfatherspsychically,re-identifywithaspects

ofthe‘new’fatherand,insodoing,holdouttheprospectofgreaterpsychiccomposure.

TheIntroductionoutlinedthehistoricalandtheoreticalbackgroundtotheresearch.

ChapterOneexplainedtheprocessbywhichIreachedaparticularmixof

methodologies,highlightedthedecisiveroleplayedbythefieldworkexperience,and

thendiscussedtheimplementationoftheresearchdesign.ChapterTwofocusedonthe

natureoftraumaandhowtheexperiencesandmemoriesoftheFEPOWsinfluencedthe

livesoftheirchildren,andalsopresentedtheargumentforthelinkbetweentraumaand

attachmentproblemsinchildhood.InChapterThree,Iexaminedhowthepsychicand

physicalconditionsofcaptivityaffectedthemen’ssenseofself-includingthenotionof

‘body-self-andheraldedthechallengestheyfacedontheirreturntocivilianandfamily

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life.Successfulreintegrationwasrepeatedlycompromisedbystateinadequacies,andby

socialandculturalcircumstancesthatfailedtorecognisehowincarcerationcouldinflict

longtermdamage.Inmanyways,ChapterFourwastheplacewhereparticipants’

memoriesofchildhoodcamemostclearlytothefore.Therangeofwaysinwhichwar

wasbroughtintothehomewasextraordinarilydiverseandidiosyncratic.I

concentratedonthetopicofmemoryinChapterFive,andexaminedconceptssuchas

postmemory,memoryscape,andcollective,communicativeandculturalmemories.The

chapterconcludedwithsectionsondomesticmemorialization,anunder-researched

aspectofPOWstudies,andmemoryactivism.ChapterSixactedasabridge,anda

vantagepoint,thatbuiltonChapterFive,connectingthe‘rawmaterial’ofchildhood

memories(ChapterFour)tothememorypracticesoftheadultchildren.Itexploredthe

conceptofmemorypractices,andproposedanumberofkeyconceptswithwhichto

analyseparticipants’engagementwithmemorypractices;theseincludedgenerativity,

reparation,andturningpoints,whichwerethenappliedtothreecasestudies.Ialso

proposedaheuristicframeworktoassistthinkingabouttherelationshipbetween

motivations,needsandmemorypractices.InChaptersSevenandEight,twogenresof

memorypractice-‘militaryfamilyhistory’,and‘pilgrimage’-wereshowntofunctionas

psychosocialmilieuxwithinwhichparticipantswereabletorevisit,reviewand

reconstructchildhoodexperiencesandrelationships.

Myfirstfindingconcernsthevalueofattachmenttheoryinexplainingthelinkbetween

thefathers’captivityexperiencesandtheimpactontheirchildren.Mostfamilies

acknowledgedthatreturningPOWsfromtheFarEastwerechangedmen,both

physicallyandmentally.Thesechangeswereshapedbywhatthemenhadexperienced

orwitnessedincaptivity:theeffectsofchronichumiliation,degradation,anxietyand

fear,frequentlypunctuatedbyepisodesofunvarnishedviolence-allofwhichcould

leadtowhatSteinetal(2015)describesas‘attachmentinjuries’.Forsome,theinitial

246

traumaevolvedintowhathas,sincethe1980s,beenconceivedofasposttraumatic

stressdisorder.Ontheirreturn,theex-FEPOWswereencouraged-andindeedwanted-

togetonwiththeirlives,withtheresultthattheysuppressedorunconsciously

repressedtheirtraumaticmemoriesandemotions.However,theseunconscious

emotionscontinuedtoanimatethefather’sbehaviourindifferentways,asChapter4

showed.Whenrecallingtheirchildhoods,participantsfrequentlydescribedthe

relationshipwiththeirfathersas‘distant’,orascharacterizedbya‘senseofabsence’.

Prevailingemotionalcodescouldonlyaccountforsomeoftheirfathers’‘emotional

restraint’.Fortheparticipantsmostaffectedbythistypeofrelationship,thepsychic

consequencescouldinterferewiththedevelopmentofpositiveidentificationsand

attachmentswiththefathers.AsIexploredinChapterTwo,thechildreninthese

situationsoftenfeltunsettled,withoutasecureemotionalbase;thissenseofuneaseand

dissatisfactiongeneratedthedesiretogetclosertothefather,tosymbolicallyrepair

pastrelationshipsthroughengagingwithmemorypractices.Thisemphasisonthe

importanceofpaternalattachmentcontrastswithconventionalattachmenttheoryin

whichthefocusisheavilyonthechild’srelationshipwiththemother(e.g.Bowlby

1982).AswesawfromChapterThree,thegovernmenthadclearexpectationsofthe

wives’placeasprimarycaretakersofthereturningFEPOWs.Wemightspeculatethat

duringthisperiodthefathercametoholdamorepivotalroleinthefamilyandinthe

psychiclivesofthechildren,ashiftthatmighthaveincreasedthesignificanceofthe

father-childrelationshipseeninthisresearch.

ThesecondfindingchallengeswhatIhavecometoseeasanoverrelianceinthe

academicliteratureonpsychologicalexplanationsofintergenerationaltransmissionof

trauma,attheexpenseofanyphysicalorcorporealdimension.Whatemergedstrongly

fromthetestimonieswasthefather’sbody,forexamplehisappearance,gait,andthe

specificconsequencesofPOW-relatedill-health,andhowthesehadanimpactonthe

children’semotionsandtheeverydaylifeofthefamily.Beforebeginningthefieldwork,I

247

hadnotanticipatedjusthowsignificantaparttheseembodiedrealitieswouldplay.Two

aspectsaroseinparticular.Firstly,therearetheparticipants’directmemoriesofthe

father’sappearance,suchasDerek’sshockatseeingthestriationsonhisfather’sback

causedbytheStrongyloidesparasite,orSelena’smemoriesofherfather‘bleedinginto

thesink’.2Andsecondlypostmemoriescouldbeembeddedin,andconveyedthrough,

familystoriesthatregularlyincorporatedpoignantimagesofthefather,suchashowa

wifespokeofnotrecognizingherhusbandontherailwayplatform.Postmemory

accountsare,ofcourse,readilyembellishedbyfamilymembers,andcomplicatedbythe

influenceofprevailingtropesanddiscourses.3Evenso,theyaddfurthercredencetothe

fundamentalplaceofphysicalpresenceandembodiment.

Thethirdfindingmakesacontributiontothedebateonthenatureand

ramificationsoftraumatransmission,andconcernsthemulti-layeredandoften

cumulativenatureoftraumaticexperienceasexpressedinparticipants’lifestories.

WhilethetraumaderivingfromcaptivityintheFarEastwascentraltoalltestimonies,it

wasrarelyifeverthesinglesourceoftraumainthefamily,andcouldnotonitsown

formthebasisofparticipants’subsequentresponsesandbehaviour.Inanutshell,

FEPOWincarcerationwas‘necessarybutnotsufficient’.AsBar-On(1995)assertswith

respecttotheHolocaust:‘ItisalmostimpossibletoisolatetheHolocaustasa

componentinattemptingtoinvestigateitsmultigenerationaleffect’(p.31,italicsinthe

original).

AsIbegantoexaminethesourcesoffather-childtraumatransmission,four

interrelatinglevelsoftraumabegantoemerge:historictrauma,traumaincaptivity,

traumainchildhood,andtraumathroughthelifecourse.Firstly,thehistoric,which

itselfhasseveralvariations.Someparticipantsreferredtotheirfathers’highly

2Inbothcases,seeChapter4.3AlimitedrangeofFEPOWimageryisusedbythemassmedia.However,sometimesthiscanbringunexpectedresults.Inaveryunusualandhighlyemotionalinstance,GwendescribedseeingherfatherinaTVdocumentarybroadcastinthe1980s.HertestimonywasusedtoopentheIntroductiontothisthesis.

248

traumaticpre-captivitywarexperiences,suchasescapingfromDunkirk,orsurviving

thesinkingofthe‘hellships’.Participantsalsoreferredtomoredistantandparlous

familycircumstances,andintroducedtraumaticlegaciesfrompreviousgenerations.

Theseincludedseriousdeprivationsufferedbythefatherwhenachild(forexample,

familiessplittingupduetopoverty,andsiblingsbeingraisedinseparateBarnardo’s

homes);andthedevastatingimpactoftheFirstWorldWaronfamilies.‘Traumain

captivity’referstothefather’sexperienceswhilstaPOW,thetopicIexaminedindetail

inChapterThree.

By‘traumainchildhood’Irefertothoseeventsoccurringinchildhoodthat

variedbetweenimplicitlytransmittedtrauma,andphysicalorseriouspsychological

harmtothechild.Anaddedcomplicationinthemoreabusiveformsoftraumawasthat

ayoungchildwouldhaveunderstoodlittleaboutthewaratthetime,sotheabuse

wouldbeexperiencedasanew‘primarytrauma’.However,asthechildgrewup,the

abusegraduallybecamelinkedtothefather’scaptivity,mediatedthroughthemother’s

rationalizations(aswesawinDeirdre’sfamily).Withthismediatedawareness,the

child’sresponsescouldbecamecolouredbyshameandguilt,leadingtoemotional

ambivalencetowardsthefather(again,Deirdre’slifestoryexemplifiesthis).Theimpact

ofthe‘traumathroughthelifecourse’couldbeseenintheeffectsoflongtermhealth

problems(includingPTSD)andhowitmouldedeverydayfamilylife(asinDerek’s

family).Italsoembracedepisodesofre-enactmentinwhichrepressedforcesderiving

fromcaptivityweresuddenlyreleasedanderuptedintocontemporarylife(asinthe

caseofJoanna).

InChapterThree,IarguedthecaseforthedistinctivenessoftheFEPOW

experience,oneelementofwhichwastheroleofCOFEPOWorganisations.Thefourth

findingfromthisresearchconcernsthecommitmentmostparticipantsfelttowards

theiridentityaschildrenofFarEastPOWs.Thismightappearself-evident,giventhatI

recruitedlargelyviaanonlineFEPOW-relatedgroup,butthatwouldbeanover-

249

simplisticandinaccuratejudgement.AsurprisingfeatureoftheonlineFEPOWgroups

wastheirvariedcomposition.This,Isuggest,iscloselyrelatedtochangesin

communicationtechnology,enablingwebsitestobefoundviaGoogle,andmembership

ofclosedgroupstobeachievedviacomputerormobilephone.Theresultwasamixof

people,ofverydifferentbackgrounds,somewhowereregularcontributorswithalong-

termcommitmenttotheonline(andoffline)community,otherswhohadbeenmembers

forsomewhilebutwhostayedonthemargins,andyetotherswhohadjoinedrecently.

Manyreturningprisonersofwarwerenotmembersofanyex-FEPOW

association,eitherbecausetheychosenottojoinor,aswehaveseenfromsome

testimonies(forexample,Gwen’s),becausetheywereunawareoftheirexistence.So,a

participant’sdecisionaboutwhethertojoinCOFEPOWgroupsortoparticipatein

specificremembrancepracticeswasoftenunrelatedtoanyfamilytraditions:thefather

orotherfamilymembersmightormightnothavebeenmembersofex-FEPOW

associations.Therefore,aparticipant’spursuitoftheirfather’sPOWhistorywasnot

simplyamatterofsocializationwithinthefamilybutcouldpointtodeeperpsychic

roots.4Forsome,theirovertinterestbeganinlaterlife,andoftenonlyafterthefather’s

death.Itwasasifabreak(afinal‘detachment’)wasnecessarybeforealessencumbered

viewofpastrelationshipscouldemerge.

EngagingwithotherCOFEPOWsalsoprovidedthepotentialfor‘communitas’to

develop(Turner1974,p.75),anorderofexperienceinwhichindividualscouldenjoya

degreeoffreedomfromeverydayrolesandstatuses.WesawfromChapterFivethat

rankandsocialclasspermeatedcertaintypesofmemorypractices,suchaspublicstate

sponsoredevents,whereasinothersmallerandmoreinformalcontexts,socio-

economicdifferenceswerelessvisible.Onlinecommunitieswererelativelyfreefrom

concernsoversocioeconomicbackground,anditwasraretoencounterany

4Weneedalsotorecognisethepossibleinfluenceofthe‘memorialculture’thathasemergedinrecentdecades.

250

contributionsinwhichthisfeaturedprominently,unlessfordescriptivepurposes,e.g.

whererankwasneededtoidentifyaparticularperson.

Myfifthfindingconcernsthepowerofmemorypractices.Mycontentionisthat

throughthecreativeuseofparticulargenresofmemorypractice,participantscould

bothlearnmoreabouttheirfather’sFEPOWexperiences,andbegintorevisitand

reviewtheirrelationshipswiththefathers.Igaveexamplesofthisinthecasestudies

discussedinChapterSix,whereIalsoproposedaheuristicframeworkforexploringthe

mixofmotivationsthatmightunderpinthesepractices.Memorypracticescouldbe

quitediffuseorcouldcrystalliseintorecognizableanddefinablegenres.InChapters

SevenandEight,Iexploredtwospecificgenres-thepracticeofmilitaryfamilyhistory,

andplaceandpilgrimagerespectively.However,inadditiontothese,andmore

pervasive,werepracticesassociatedwithdomesticmemorialization,5whichIraisedin

ChapterFive.EvenifparticipantshadnoconnectionsatallwithCOFEPOWmemorial

culture(offoronline),almostwithoutexceptiontheyconveyedemotionalconnections

withpersonalartifactsandimagesassociatedwiththefathers’captivity.Theeveryday

natureofdomesticmemorializationmeantthatitfiguredprominentlyduringthe

fieldwork,oftenastheliteralbackdroptotheinterviews,orasanelaborationofthem:

severalparticipantshadcarefully‘curated’preciousartifactsandimagesreadyformy

arrival.Bygivinggreaterexposuretotheseintimatepractices,Ibelievewecan

counterbalancethefocusonnational,statesponsoredrituals,andmonumentalartifacts

thatpresentlydominatesthewarmemoryscape.

Ishallmaketwofinalpointsaboutthepowerofmemorypractices.Chapter7

showedhowthefather’scaptivitycouldbecomea‘masternarrative’inthelivesofsome

participants,andahubaroundwhichsomeforgednewidentitiesandroles(e.g.

becomingdisseminatorsofvaluableinformationandachievingthestatusof‘expert’

amongsttheirpeers).Thepursuitofhistoricalknowledgewassometimescontentious,5Iincludedigitalandonlinemediawhencreated(e.g.thegrowthof‘tribute’websites),oractivelyexploited(e.g.existingFEPOWFacebookgrouppages).

251

andcouldfuelangerandresentment,forinstanceasparticipantscametorealisehow

thepopularmediaprivilegedsomeFEPOWnarrativesoverothers(especiallytheso-

called‘notorious’Changi,6andtheThai-Burmarailway).Thisawarenessconverted

participantsintostrongadvocatesfortheirfathers’stories,andthissurfaced

occasionallyininterviews.7ThetestimoniesinChapterEightrevealedpilgrimagestobe

highlycomplex,multifacetedandsimultaneouslyembodiedandpsychicexperiences;

theywerepotentiallytransformative,andoccasionallytranscendentalintheirimpact,

aswesawfromthetestimoniesofJoanna,KimandSally.Theresearchshowedthat

transformationcouldoccurattheindividualpsychiclevel,butwasoftendeepenedby

the‘communitas’expressedinpilgrimagegroups.

Iturnfinallytolessonsarisingfromthemethodology,andaddresstwoaspects:

themixofmethodologies,andtheforceandcomplexityoftheresearchrelationship.

Whilethepsychosocialapproachsuccessfullyprovidedthebroadframeworkformy

methodology,fieldworkexperiencehighlightedthefactthatparticipantswere

embroiledinintricateanddynamicexperientialnetworksthatinvolvedvarious

artifactsandimagesaswellasotherpeople.Mygrowingawarenessofthiswider

contextdrewmetowardsactornetworktheory(ANT)inordertoaccommodatethe

extracomplexity.Intheirtestimonies,participantspulledtogetherimages,phantasies,

memories,objects,emotionsandcorporealexperiencesintofluidpsychic‘shapes’that

resistedsatisfactoryconceptualizationsolelywithinapsychosocialframework.

Althoughthepsychosocialapproachembraces‘sceniccomposition’(e.g.Froggettetal

2014),itdoesnotcomfortablyregisterthepartplayedbyspecificartifactsandimages.

Certainobjectshavesignificantmeaningforparticularindividuals(asin‘transitional

6Havers(2003)challengesthewidespreadassumptionthatChangiPOWcampwasparticularlyharsh,aviewconfirmedbytheAustralianWarMemorial:https://www.awm.gov.au/encyclopedia/pow/changi/7Participantssometimesneededtotelltheirfather’sFEPOWstorybeforetheycouldconcentrateontheirown.

252

objects’),8buttheymayalsoextendtheirrelevancebeyondtheindividualasdynamic

elementsinpsychicandmaterialnetworksthathaveglobalandhistoricalassociations.9

ThepsychosocialapproachandANTarebothresponsestoadissatisfactionwithwhat

LisaBlackman(2016)describesas‘staticorsovereignmodelsofthebiological,

psychologicalorsocial’.Inresponse,shearguesthatweneed‘morecomplex,processual

models’(p.258)whichiswhat,throughmyparticularmethodology,Ihavetriedto

achieve.

Byadoptingthepsychosocialapproach,Iwasconfirmingmypersonal

commitmenttothesignificanceoftherelationshipbetweenmeandtheparticipants,the

peoplewhohadtrustedmewiththeirtestimonies.Aclearlessonfromthisresearchwas

that,althoughconsistentlydemandingandoftenprovocative,thepsychosocial

approachenabledmetoaccessareasofsubjectivityandintersubjectivitythatmight

otherwisehaveremainedintheshadows.10And,byaccommodatingthe

countertransference,anddeployingfreeassociationandreflexivity,notonlyaspartof

theinterviewsbutthroughoutallstagesoftheresearch,Ibecameengagedvery

personallywiththeprocess.Interviewsconjuredimages,whichinturnfedreflexivity

and‘reverie’-the‘contemplativeopennessofthepsyche’(Parsons2014,p.157)-thus

puttingcreativeimaginationattheserviceoftheresearchprocess.Poeticandvisual

imagery-oftentrauma-related-reverberatedpowerfullythroughthelivesofmany

participants.

8Winnicott’s(1991)termtodescribeobjectsthatsubstituteforinterpersonalrelationswithakeypersoninthelifeofachildoradult.SeealsoParkin(1999)whoexploresmementoesastransitionalobjects.9Derek’sJapaneseflaghadglobal,historicalandpsychicassociations,connectingtwofamiliesacrosstimeanddistance(Chapter5).AndLouiseproducedartworksthatincorporatedfragmentsofherfather’sartifacts;inthiswayshewasconsciouslysharingandcontextualizingcomplexemotionsmuchofwhoseforceemanatedfromtheartifacts.10InChapter4IexploredmyinterviewwithBrendaandshowedhowthepsychosocialapproachallowedmeaccesstothememoryofherfather’sregularretreatsinto‘thefrontroom’;inaddition,thecountertransferencegavemeagreaterdegreeofinsightintoheremotionsduringchildhood.

253

InChapter1,Ireferredtothecognitiveandemotionalchallengesof‘handling

time’duringinterviews.Iwishfinallytoreflectonafurthertemporaland

intersubjectivedimension.Interviewswithverypowerfulemotionalcontenthadthe

abilitytocloudthe‘crucialdistinctionbetweenthenandnow’(LaCapra1999,p.699).

Inmostinterviews,rememberingwas‘undisturbed’,testimoniesbeingcomposed

throughthe‘reflexiverationalizationsofexperience’(PickeringandKeightley2009,

p.10).However,theaccountsbyJoanna,DeirdreandLornaresistedeasyrationalization,

remainedemotionallytroublingintheimmediacyoftheinterviews,andincluded

episodesofenactmentduringwhichIfeltmyselfbeingdrawnintotheirpsychicworlds.

Workingthroughthisastheinterviewercouldhaveitsownrewardsforboth

participantandresearcher.AlthoughDeirdrehadentertaineddoubtsaboutbeing

interviewed,Isucceededinofferinghera‘containing’relationshipfromfirstcontact

throughtointerview,aprocessaidedIbelievebymybeingan‘insider’.AsaresultIwas

abletowitnesswith‘respect-nottoupset,nottotrespass’(Laub1992b,p.61)howshe

createdforherself‘apresentandafuturethroughthedistancingactofnarrating[her]

past’(Tresize2013,p.8):

Youknow…likethismorning,Iwasgettingquiteanxious.So,Ihadn’tmetyou-obviously…andI’mthinking,amIdoingtherightthing?Youknow,amI…amIopeningdoorsthatyouknowhavebeenshutalongtime?DoIneedtobereminded?…What’sitgonnadotome?AllthesethingsI’mthinking.Butanyway,I…Icansaytoyou,inallhonesty,thatI-I,Ifeelfine.…andtobetruthful,itsactuallynicetotalktosomebodyand…rememberthingsandgetthemoffyourchest,...But,youknow,tomethisisenoughformenow.So,youknow,Icanputittorest,ifyoulike,and,youknow,getonwithmylife.11

‘RootsofRemembrance’beganwithmy‘personaltroubles’,troublesthathadtheir

originsinthemundanenessofmypostwarchildhoodhome.Fromthere,theresearch

ledmetowardsspectacular‘publicissues’(Mills2000,p.8)ofglobalhistorical

significanceandthetangledlegaciesofworldwar:theunendingconflictsbetween

nations,persistentquestionsovernationalguiltandreconciliation,andthesocial11Klempner(2006)characterizesthetraumanarratorasalmostalwaystrying‘tofindclosure’-aformof‘resolutionwhichallowstheeventtobecomeintegratedintothepsyche’(p.200).

254

divisionscrystallizedinstateremembranceevents.Thisresearchhasrevealedthe

proximityofthepsychicandthesocial,andcelebratedthewaysinwhichparticipants

workedwiththeirmemoriesthroughtheirlifetimes,steeringafragileandindividual

coursebetweenwhatnovelistTimO’Brienreferstoas‘storytruth’(emotionaltruth)

and‘happeningtruth’(thefacts)(O’Brien1990,p.157).

255

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