The role of mentoring in the learning development of the novice entrepreneur

The role of mentoring in the learning developmentof the novice entrepreneur

Etienne St-Jean & Josée Audet

# Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009

Abstract It has been recognized that learning outcomes can be divided into threegeneral categories: Cognitive, skill-based, and affective learning. Moreover, publicorganizations offer mentoring-inspired support programs to novice entrepreneursstarting a business. This study explores entrepreneurial learning through mentoring.We have coded 53 learning outcomes acquired by novice entrepreneurs through theirmentoring relationship. These learning outcomes were analysed using the three generalcategories and linked with the mentor’s way of promoting learning. Cognitive learningaccounts for 62% of total learning outcomes and affective learning makes up 35.9%,which leaves skill-based learning in a marginal position. In addition, methods used bythe mentor to ensurementee learning affect learning content. Mentees were also asked todescribe the benefits of their mentoring relationship through discussion groups. From acognitive learning standpoint, benefits reported by entrepreneurs include an increase inmanagement knowledge and skills, improved vision for their business venture andidentifying new opportunities. Benefits resulting from affective learning include agreater sense of self-efficacy, validation of one’s entrepreneurial self-image and alowered sense of solitude, all factors that could ultimately influence entrepreneurresilience. These results reveal the scope and limitations of mentoring as means tosupport learning.

Keywords Entrepreneur . Learning .Mentoring . Training

Int Entrep Manag JDOI 10.1007/s11365-009-0130-7

E. St-Jean (*)Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, Institut de Recherche sur les PME,Pavillon Desjardins-Hydro-Québec, bur. 1426, Trois-Rivières, QC, Canadae-mail: [email protected]

J. AudetFaculté des Sciences de l’Administration, Université Laval (Québec), Pavillon Palasis-Prince,bur. 1640, G1V 0A6 Quebec City, QC, Canadae-mail: [email protected]

Introduction

One of the main causes leading to the failure of start-up businesses is the lack ofexperience and competency on the part of new entrepreneurs, as evidenced by theirlack of vision and their difficulty or inability to find a profitable niche for theirbusiness (Baldwin et al. 1997; Festervand and Forrest 1991; Gaskill et al. 1993).Moreover, it appears that an overall increase in an entrepreneur’s skills andknowledge within the first years of a company’s life is a determining factor in itseventual survival (Gartner et al. 1999). Some authors even claim that entrepreneuriallearning can influence business growth (Deakins and Freel 1998; Priyanto andSandjojo 2005). For anyone concerned about increasing the probability of survivalfor new businesses, these observations would suggest that proper support of businessskills learning and development is essential. However, the training needs of newentrepreneurs do not appear to be adequately considered in the design of theirsupport programs. Many complain that the training they receive is not tailored totheir needs, suggesting that a more personalized learning process may be moreappropriate (Dokou 2001; Morrison and Bergin-Seers 2002). Research suggests thatmentoring is sufficiently personalized to help a novice entrepreneur develop businessmanagement skills (Bisk 2002; Sullivan 2000). In a situation where there is notenough time for training, interaction with a mentor could facilitate a quick andefficient transfer of experience into learning. Despite the paucity of studies that haveexplored the learning outcomes of this particular form of entrepreneurial support,there is an obvious interest in further investigating the subject.

It is with this perspective in mind that we will attempt to shed light on thedifferent types of learning outcomes that occur as a result of a mentoringrelationship, as well as the means used by the mentor to achieve them. First, theliterature pertaining to learning will be presented. Mentoring as a means ofsupporting an individual, and more specifically, the benefits that occur as a resultwill be discussed. The methodology used will then be presented, as well as the mainfeatures of the mentoring program under consideration: The program implementedby the Fondation de l’entrepreneurship. Results and comments will follow, whichwill lead to conclusion.

Entrepreneurial learning

According to Knowles et al. (2005: 10), several researchers agree to the definition ofBoyd and Apps (1980: 100-101) that ≪Learning is the act or process by whichbehavioral change, knowledge, skills, and attitudes are acquired≫. However,Legendre (1993: 67), in his Dictionnaire actuel de l’éducation, makes reference toboth the product of learning and the process through which it is achieved. The firstdeals with learning content. An entrepreneur’s increasing ability to manage hisbusiness is a product of learning just as improved efficiency in completing certaintasks, or even improved self-confidence. The learning process, for its part, deals withlearner transformation, or the way in which learning is developed. This dichotomy,previously discussed by Easterby-Smith and Lyles (2003), has led Politis (2005) todistinguish between entrepreneurial learning (process) and entrepreneurial knowl-

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edge (content). Taking this dual reality into account, research on the learning processwill first be presented followed by content-oriented research.

For some, entrepreneurship is a learning process in itself (Minniti and Bygrave2001: 7). Entrepreneurial learning relates to the entrepreneur’s development of newinterpretations through a process of seeking and recognizing opportunities, and tothe way he manages and organizes his business (Rae and Carswell 2001). Deakinsand Freel (1998) suggest that entrepreneurial learning is seldom planned, but theresult of a set of reactions to critical events, where one learns to process information,adjust strategies, and make decisions. In other words, the novice entrepreneur learnsin the trenches, by acquiring experience through a process of trial and error. Copeand Watts (2000) suggest that critical events, or even critical “periods” are especiallyconducive to the development of higher-level learning, as described by Fiol andLyles (1985), or double-loop learning according to Argyris and Schön (1978). It alsoappears that learning in the trenches is much more effective when the entrepreneurtakes the time to think about his actions. In certain cases, involved discussions aboutcritical events with members of the entrepreneur’s network can facilitate andstimulate his thinking and learning (Cope 2003: 445). These discussions enable self-transformation and overall improved ability to manage a business. An entrepreneur’snetwork is also a potential source of learning (Gibb 1997: 19). As mentioned byGibb, entrepreneurial learning relates to the ability of the entrepreneur to learn andto adapt to key agents with whom he interacts (customers, suppliers, bankers,accountants, etc.). When the entrepreneur is faced with a decision, several individuals,both from within and outside the SME, attempt to influence his decision, which leads tosome learning from them through a process of negotiation (Taylor and Thorpe 2004).This interaction would enable various levels of learning, particularly for those thatinvolve a transformation of individual beliefs (Warren 2004). With regard to thecontext within which learning occurs, Florén (2003) identifies three factors thatcharacterize and limit a SME owner-manager’s learning process. First, the lack of timeand resources to explore and reflect on experience constitutes a serious limitation tolearning. Next, the fact that a SME manager often operates in the absence of colleaguesobviously reduces the possibility of learning from others. Lastly, the entrepreneur oftenhas precedence in interpreting events and is considered “omniscient”, and runs a risk oflosing face if a mistake is made. The author suggests that in the long term, an owner-manager’s network helps develop confidence, creates opportunities for reflection, andhelps provide different expert opinions and viewpoints that foster increased knowledge.

In a thorough review of literature on learning, Cope (2005: 380) concludes thatrelatively little is known about “content” as opposed to processes. This authorfurther describes five main entrepreneurial learning areas: “Learning about oneself,learning about the business, learning about the environment and entrepreneurialnetworks, learning about small business management, and learning about the natureand management of relationships”. Johannisson (1991: 71) has also proposed aclassification of learning: “Know-why” pertains to attitudes, values and motivation;“know-how”, relates to vocational skills; “know-who” involves social skills; “know-when”, refers to experience and intuition; and “know-what”, refers to encyclopaedicknowledge. Unfortunately, as with Cope, this system is based on a thorough reviewof literature rather than empirical evidence. From an analysis of life stories pertaining toentrepreneurial learning, Rae (2000: 154) lists a number of categories drawn from his

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sample: “Confidence, self-belief and self-efficacy, personal values and motivation toachieve, setting and achieving ambitious goals, personal theories derived fromexperience, known capabilities – existing skills and knowledge, relationships throughwhich social learning occurred, and active learning: the ability to learn through anduse learning in action”. However, these categories are not mutually exclusive, nor aretheir content systematically detailed. In a later publication, the author and a colleagueprovided content details, but the creation of certain categories remains debatable (i.e.not mutually exclusive) (Rae and Carswell 2001). The author describes an “interaction”and “coordination” among these themes through which respondents navigate back andforth (Rae 2000: 154). All in all, it appears evident that consideration of learning“content” has largely been ignored in favour of the learning process.

Mentoring as entrepreneurial support

The term mentor originates from Homer’s Odyssey, where Odysseus placed Mentorin charge of his son Telemachus while away on his voyage (Homère 2001). Mentorwas to see to Telemachus’ education and the development of his identity in the adultworld. Similarly, in modern times, this term has come to denote a person with certainqualities, or who is in a position of authority that watches benevolently over ayounger person, who benefits from counsel and support from the mentor. Mentoringdiffers from other similar forms of individual support, such as coaching, in that thementor places the interests of the individual to whom he is providing support as anabsolute priority, and not as part of a set of priorities (Gibson 2005). Mentoring canbe practiced in a variety of contexts, such as providing help to troubled youth.Similarly, many mentoring programs have been developed within large organiza-tions. The main goals of these programs are to promote hierarchical ascension andwage increases for the protégé,1 while developing a better overall understanding ofthe organizational culture (for example, see studies by Chao (1997), Allen et al.(2004) or Wanberg et al. (2006)). As the mentor is often in a position of authority, hecan ensure increased visibility, promote his protégé, and advise him regardingopportunities for advancement and so forth.

With regards to entrepreneurial mentoring, the small number of studies makes itdifficult to find a generally agreed upon definition. Generally speaking, however,entrepreneurial mentoring involves a support relationship between an experiencedentrepreneur (the mentor), and a novice entrepreneur (the mentee), in order to fosterthe latter’s personal development. Moreover, the form of accompaniment can alsovary. We are currently witnessing the emergence of a number of remote mentoringprograms, where participants conduct virtual meetings in what is known as e-mentoring (for more details, a number of examples are reported by Perren (2003)). Anumber of initiatives also pair novice entrepreneurs among themselves, such as withsupport groups (see Mitchell (1999). We have chosen to exclusively investigate pair

1 The term “protégé” appears in literature pertaining to mentoring within large organizations in referenceto sponsorship mentoring. In the context of mentoring for an entrepreneur, the term “mentee” is normallyused. This term is preferred by entrepreneurs as it does not evoke the need for protection implied by theterms “protégé” or even “sponsor”. Therefore, “mentee” will be used in reference to mentoring with anentrepreneur.

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mentoring with a single experienced mentor since studies indicate that exclusiveonline entrepreneur programs would be difficult, if not impossible, to implement andshould only be considered complimentary to “face-to-face” assistance (Evans andVolery 2001).

Few researchers have conducted in-depth studies of the benefits of entrepreneurialmentoring through mentee interviews. Benefits reported in the reviewed literatureappear rather disparate. Deakins et al. (1998) are among the first to underscore thebenefits of working with a mentor. They cite an increase in the ability to manage, toachieve goals, to learn, as well as transformations with the business itself, such as anincrease in turnover figures, jobs, and profits. In the second part of this longitudinalstudy, Sullivan (2000) unfortunately does not go any further as the benefit categorieshad been set in the first part of the study. McGregor and Tweed (2002) subsequentlystudied the activities of mentors with a group of businesswomen. When paired witha mentor, they received advice, suggestions for solutions, help in a variety of areas(marketing, finance, etc.) and access to a contact network. At the psychologicallevel, reported benefits pertained to motivation, confidence, coming out of isolation,and obtaining feedback. All of this support also fosters increased turnover figures.Other research confirms the significance of these support elements with regardsto business management (Bisk 2002; Cull 2006; Kent et al. 2003), psychologicalsupport (Nandram 2003; Waters et al. 2002), or both (Gravells 2006; Miettinen 2003;Wikholm et al. 2005).

Although learning is clearly illustrated in some studies, such as with Deakins et al.(1998) or Wikholm et al. (2005), it remains implicit in all other studies. For example,when Gravells (2006) discusses mentor contributions to marketing, financial planningor access to information, this help implies mentee learning as the mentor’s advice andsuggestions are implemented, although it is not explicitly mentioned by the author.Others have underlined that learning or the development of competencies could act as“moderators” between the mentoring relationship and growth or increase in profits(Priyanto and Sandjojo 2005). In fact, even results stemming from outside adviceprovided by support organizations are not immediately apparent and discernable,considering the overall effect of many other changes and decisions made by the SMEover time, as suggested by Ramsden and Bennett (2005: p. 229). However, one mustkeep in mind that any mentoring impact on a business is necessarily due to theentrepreneur, since the business itself is not a stakeholder in the mentoring relationshipand cannot provoke any outcomes without mentee involvement. It would appearrelevant to consider learning as first level outcomes of a mentoring relationship, orwhat Wanberg et al. (2003) refers to as proximal outcomes.

Literature pertaining to mentoring in other sectors, such as large organizations andeducation, suggests that knowledge about the learning that occurs as a result ofmentoring is somewhat more prevalent. Without going into too much detail, thework of Dymock (1999: 316) reports increased understanding of business operations,specific work-related knowledge, networking opportunities as well as the ability tosolve management issues with the protégé. Bard and Moore (2000: 258) list the mainprotégé learning outcomes: “The possibility of resolving problems with a person otherthan their line manager; gaining a wider knowledge of the company, particularlyoutside their own business areas; receiving general advice on working practices,interpersonal skills, appropriate people to approach with questions, etc; increasing

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their own confidence; and faster integration into the company”. More recently, Hezlett(2005) has pointed out that the mentoring relationship allows for an increase of allthree of Kraiger et al.’s (1993) taxonomy of learning outcomes: Cognitive learning,affective learning, and skill-based learning.

As illustrated above, not only does research on entrepreneurial learning focusessentially on the learning process, but the few studies conducted within a mentoringcontext have merely cast a superficial glance over the issue of learning. In otherwords, little is known about how the novice entrepreneur learns from his mentor, andeven less about what is learned. Despite the call from many to consider mentoring insupport of novice entrepreneur training, there does not appear to be any research thatillustrates the learning that occurs through this process. This paper attempts toanswer the following questions: What specific learning occurs within a noviceentrepreneur mentoring relationship? Is there a relationship between learningoutcomes and the methods used by the mentor to achieve learning?

Methodology

Program selected for consideration

In order to find answers to our research questions, we surveyed participants in theFondation de l’entrepreneurship’s mentoring program. This program was created in2000 and is offered to novice entrepreneurs through around sixty mentoring cellslocated throughout Québec. These cells are usually set up by organizations that offersupport services to businesses, such as the Centre locaux de développement (CLD),Sociétés d’aide au développement des Collectivités (SADC) and local boards oftrade. These organizations see to the development of the program at the local level,while following the mentoring support model developed by the Fondation.Specifically, local cell coordinators are responsible for recruiting mentors, organizingmentor training sessions, promoting the program to novice entrepreneurs, pairingparticipants, and supervision. Novice entrepreneurs can enjoy the benefits of mentorsupport for a minimal cost, typically a mere few hundred dollars per year. Thementor and mentee agree to an initial meeting to see if there is any “chemistry”between them, and if necessary, another mentor is selected. The mentee is then askedto voice his expectations, and with his mentor, agree to the specifics of theirrelationships and set goals to be achieved. The mentoring relationship ends whengoals have been met, or at the request of either party.

Research plan

This study was conducted in two parts. First, discussion groups were set up in orderto better understand the themes related to learning outcomes, as well as theinteraction between a novice entrepreneur and his mentor. Data collected duringthese discussion groups was used to verify the relevance of Kraiger et al’s taxonomyof learning outcomes (1993) in the context of a study on mentoring and also toprepare an online questionnaire for further investigation. Secondly, this onlinequestionnaire was submitted to a selected sample of mentoring program participants.

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Discussion groups

Two discussion groups, for a total of 11 mentees, were set up: One in Montréal, andthe other in Québec City. Participants were randomly selected from a list of 821Fondation de l’entrepreneurship mentoring program participants. In order to beeligible, they were required to reside within 100 kilometres of one of the meetinglocations. Out of the 11 mentees, seven were men whereas four were women. Onlyone female mentor was involved in all the studied relationship, and she was pairedwith a female mentee. This is due to the predominance of male mentors involved inthe Fondation de l’entrepreneurship program. On average, mentoring relationshipslasted 26.81 months, from a minimum of 12 months to a maximum of 48. Ratedfrom 1 to 5, where 1=very low and 5=very high, confidence in mentor rates averageto 4.36 (minimum 4 and maximum 5) and post-mentoring satisfaction rates averageto 3.64 (minimum 3 and maximum 5). Overall, these relationships do not appear tohave suffered from any major issues and were carried out according to the usualprocess as determined by the Fondation de l’entrepreneurship.

During the meeting, they were asked to engage in a group discussion about thebenefits of a mentoring relationship for a novice entrepreneur, as well as severalother factors that could influence the emergence of these benefits. In order to supportthese results, data collected from discussion groups held during the Fondation’smentoring program evaluation in 2005 were used as secondary data. A specializedfirm had then been mandated to organize discussion groups to assess menteesatisfaction with the Fondation’s program. Mentee benefits were the subject of onequestion put to these groups. A total of 40 novice entrepreneurs participated inthese discussions. Since these participants could not be randomly selected, no resultsexclusively drawn from these meetings are presented. It should nevertheless be notedthat no additional information was added during the coding process of thesecomplimentary data, which suggests a convergence of collected information and asomewhat representative sample.

Measures and coding

Kraiger et al’s. (1993) taxonomy of learning outcomes was used as an analyticalframework to code open questions about learning for several reasons. To begin with,it was intended specifically for use in training program evaluations, with the explicitpurpose of analyzing learning outcomes of these programs. These authors base theirproposal on the major taxonomies used in the field of Education (i.e., Bloom (1956),Krathwohl et al. (1964) and Gagné (1984)), adding credibility and relevance to thisapplication. Recent use of this taxonomy in a mentoring context (see Hezlett (2005))suggests it is adequate for this purpose. With regards to cognitive learning, Kraigeret al. (1993) include three aspects: Declarative knowledge, knowledge organization,and cognitive strategies. The ability to produce statements about knowledge involvesdeclarative knowledge whereas the ability to link together various areas of knowledgeinvolves knowledge organization. This last aspect relates to mental schemas orprocedural knowledge. Cognitive strategies relate to metacognition and an individual’smetacognitive strategies. The second category, skill-based learning, includes technicaland motor skills. The authors go on to discuss skill compilation, or the ability to perform

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a motor task in a controlled manner, and automaticity, which represents the next level,where the technical skill becomes automatic, almost reflex-like. Lastly, affectivelearning involves attitudes and values, as well as motivation, which also includes self-efficacy and goal-setting.

Next, relevant excerpts from discussion groups with the 11 mentees wereclassified according to Kraiger et al. (1993) learning categories (i.e. cognitive, skill-based learning, and affective). Then, another reading of this material revealed anumber of themes pertaining to each category. The same procedure was then appliedto secondary data drawn from the 2005 discussion groups (n=40). No informationstemming from these groups suggested the addition of themes other than thosepreviously determined while listening to the preceding groups (n=11), which suggeststhat selected respondents had covered the main thematic areas.

Questionnaire survey

The online questionnaire was submitted to a selected sample of mentoring programparticipants. A total of 92 individuals were randomly chosen from a list of participants tocomplete the questionnaire. From this number, 64 individuals had a valid email addressor telephone number. Once contacted, 14 respondents were disqualified from the surveysince their mentoring relationship was not long enough to allow learning (one singlefruitless meeting), or no mentoring had taken place. In total, 25 novice entrepreneurs outof 50 eligible candidates accepted to participate in the survey, for a 50% participationrate. Data from the population under consideration can be compared with the sample.Less than 57% of the total population included in the database is 35 years old or less,compared to 50% in the sample. Since the database was compiled in 2005, it is likelythat some of these entrepreneurs have gotten older, and when the survey was conducted2 years later, these individuals would have been part of the 35 and over group,effectively increasing the proportion of this category in our sample. With regards to thenumber of employees, the population average is 4.18, with a standard deviation of 8.42,and the sample average is 4.88 with a standard deviation of 11.04. Despite the relativelysmall sample size, the high response rate and similarity to the database populationsuggest that the sample is representative.

Out of the 12 male mentees, ten were paired with men whereas two were pairedwith women. For the 13 female mentees, nine were paired with men, whereas fourwere teamed up with women. Again, this is due to the predominance of malementors involved in the Fondation de l’entrepreneurship program. Nevertheless, allpairing possibilities are represented. On average, mentoring relationships lasted21.21 months (standard deviation of 11.35). Average meeting frequency is onceevery 6 weeks, with an average duration of 90.42 min (standard deviation of 33.94).Rated from 1 to 5, where 1=very low and 5=very high, confidence in mentor ratesaverage to 4.46 (standard deviation of 0.66 and minimum 3) and post-mentoringsatisfaction rates average to 3.92 (standard deviation of 0.78 and minimum 3).Overall, as for the selected participants for the focus groups, these relationships donot appear to have suffered from any major issues and were carried out according tothe usual process as determined by the Fondation de l’entrepreneurship.

For the open questions on the online questionnaire, respondents were presentedwith a definition of learning and a few examples: “Learning is defined as an act or

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process by which a change in behaviour, knowledge, skills, or attitudes isachieved2”. Examples of learning included, among others, “learning how to drivea car”, “learning to effectively communicate with others”, and “learning the namesof Prime Ministers”. They were then instructed to indicate the learning outcomes aswell as the methods used to learn from the mentor. Learning outcomes were thenindependently coded by two researchers who also used Kraiger et al.’s taxonomy(1993). At initial coding, 95% of learning outcomes and 88% of methods could becoded, the remaining responses being too ambiguous. Learning outcomes obtained acorrelation of 0.857 (sig. – 0.000) whereas methods correlated at 0.607 (sig. – 0.000).Considering the scope of learning outcomes and methods, these results indicate con-siderable coding convergence. Divergence issues were settled through discussions.

Results

Learning results

In total, mentees identified 57 learning outcomes, although only 53 could be coded.This represents an average of about two and a half learning outcomes per entrepreneur(M=2.42, Standard deviation=1.47), and the number of coded learning outcomesvaries from 1 to 6 for each of them. Table 1 reveals that main learning outcomesinvolve cognitive learning, which includes verbal knowledge (22.6%), knowledgeorganization (24.5%) and cognitive strategies (15.1%). Next in order of importance isaffective learning, which includes attitudinal changes (15.1%), increase in motivation(15.1%) improved ability to set goals (5.7%). Lastly, skill-based learning was marginal(1.9%).

The mentor’s role in learning development

Ways to promote mentee learning are quite varied (see Table 2). Verbal exchangesare dominant (50.0%), but several other means are used, such as explanations(16.0%), maieutic questioning and letting the mentee speak (10.0%), modeling(10.0%), working together (8.0%), or encouragement (6.0%).

We attempted to find out if there was a relationship between learning outcomesand methods used to achieve them. The χ2 test reveals a significant relationship atp=0,034. Lambda coefficients were used to determine whether either variable couldbe used to predict the other. These coefficients revealed that methods used can predictlearning outcomes (λ=0,229, p=0,024), but not the reverse (λ=0,120, p=0,436).Results are also similar when outcomes are placed into the three learning categories(cognitive, skill-based and affective). Thus, methods can predict learning categories(λ=0,300, p=0,026), but the learning outcome cannot predict the method used (λ=0,040, p=0,312). In other words, learning outcomes are dependant on the method usedto achieve them, but the method does not depend on the learning outcome.

2 The study was conducted in French with the following definition: On définit l’apprentissage commeétant un acte ou un processus par lequel un changement de comportement, des savoirs, des habiletés oudes attitudes sont intégrés

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As illustrated in Table 3, cognitive learning occurs mainly through verbal exchanges,explanations, questioning, and through the mentor and mentee working together.This last learning process appears to be the most appropriate method for skill-basedlearning. Affective learning occurs through verbal exchanges, but distinguishes itselffrom cognitive learning in that mentor modeling, and encouragements directed to thementee are significantly more important in the learning process.

We have also observed that in addition to the importance of the methods used bythe mentor to achieve learning, certain mentor characteristics could influence thelearning process. When the mentor is from the same line of business as the mentee,

Table 2 Summary of mentee learning methods

Verbal Exchanges Through our discussions 25 50.0%

Verbal exchanges during meetings

Sharing of knowledge

Explanations He suggested places [...] 8 16.0%

He offered his comments

By following his advice

Questioning He listened to me a lot 5 10.0%

By talking at length about myself

Role Model Was mostly inspired by his background 5 10.0%

He shared his experiences with me

Working Together Through calculation exercises 4 8.0%

Through practice

Encouragement Through encouragement 3 6.0%

Table 1 Summary of mentee learning outcomes

Cognitive

Verbal knowledge Learn business transfer procedures 12 22.6%

Suggestions of ways to find new suppliers

Knowledge organization Know how to assess a relationship with an associate 13 24.5%

Know how financial backers think

Cognitive strategies Learn to gather adequate information before acting 8 15.1%

Learn to put ideas into action

Skill-based

Compilation and Automaticity Learn how to wrap presents 1 1.9%

Affective

Attitude Learn to avoid keeping problems to myself 8 15.1%

Learn to assert myself. to be more strict in business

Motivation Trust myself 8 15.1%

Learn to persevere

Goal setting Learn to separate work and family 3 5.7%

Learn to manage my goals

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he will teach him the same thing as if he were from another sector, but in a differentmanner. In fact, χ2 tests do not reveal any difference between these two groups withregards to learning (p=0,935), but that the methods used are different (p=0,007).Mentors from the same business sector as their mentees will focus exclusively onverbal exchanges, but those from different backgrounds will use a combination ofmethods to achieve learning, including explanations (21.6%), verbal exchanges(34.2%), encouragement (7.9%), working together (10.5%), questioning (13.3%),and modeling (13.2%).

Learning outcomes: emerging themes

Although the questionnaires allowed us to shed light on the essential learningoutcome categories, the various themes that emerged from the discussion groupsshall be presented in order to provide details regarding their content.

Cognitive learning

With regards to cognitive learning, mentees appear to have gained verbal knowledgeabout management. Since mentors have already been in business, or at least heldmanagement positions, they are in a great position to share information aboutvarious themes according to their area of expertise. In some cases, this knowledge isof a general nature. For instance, one mentee states: “he really helped me understandfinancial statements”. This lack of management knowledge is occasionally the resultof deficient mentee training. Rather than seeking proper training, they takeadvantage of the mentoring relationship to make up for their shortcomings.

“Two of us are in business and my associate has never studied business, hedoesn’t know anything. We sometimes wonder about issues, and I’m the onlyone with answers [...] We have employees to manage, financing to secure [...].[It’s important] to be able to ask [the mentor] questions, and he can sometimeshelp enlighten us about certain points”.

Such information fosters the development of certain management competences.Some mentees recall working on very specific skills pertaining to the management oftheir business with their mentor. For instance, entrepreneurs are regularly involved in

Table 3 Relationship between mentee learning and learning process

Explanations Verbalexchanges

Encouragement Workingtogether

Questioning Modeling

Cognitive 6 14 0 3 3 1

Skill-based 0 0 0 1 0 0

Affective 2 8 3 0 2 4

a Bold-faced numbers indicate significantly higher values

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financial management, which requires not only knowledge but competences as well.One mentee, in mentioning “homework” he had received, recalls the following:

“ [My mentor] helped me calculate a cost price. He helped me a lot withmanaging finances and many other things. [My mentor] was very present. Hedid a great job”.

Another recalls this experience: “He specifically helped me prepare forecastedfinancial statements [...] My mentor is a specialist in this area, and this is why Irequested him”. Yet another tells of how his mentor helped him develop his productpromotion competences:

“[My mentor] is an accountant, has an MBA, and is great in marketing. This iswhat I was looking for since those are my weaknesses. I had never had topromote anything [...]. I knew I would have to do it eventually, so I figured Ishould learn how before I actually had to do it [...]. He gives me homeworkevery time we meet [I tell him where I’m at] [...]. This helps me a great deal”.

Discussions with a mentor have helped many develop a clearer business vision,which involves knowledge reorganization. Several mentees have no shortage ofideas, but have difficulty sorting out the best ones, or those which best match theirlife goals. One mentee states: “I have so many ideas and things I want to get going[...] he helped me focus, to channel my energy towards what is currently going well,and spread out later on”. Through discussions with a mentor, a mentee takes the timeto figure out which direction to take. For instance, as one mentee declared: “I had theopportunity to take a step back with my mentor, and that was brilliant” It thusappears that mentoring provides the novice entrepreneur with some special timewhen he is not constantly summoned by day-to-day operations, giving him thenecessary space to define and shape his business projects with an experiencedentrepreneur or manager.

Taking this time for reflection not only helps clarify but also develop one’s visionand to find new avenues to explore. One mentee offers this observation: “[Thementor] has opened new horizons. Here we are, the two of us [associates], we haveall these ideas, we presented them to him, and he opened doors we hadn’t evenseen”. In this case, the mentor suggests new avenues for the mentee’s business. Thementor can provide information about certain clients and specific markets: “I pulledout our list of prospects, and my mentor kept saying: ‘I know them, don’t bothergoing to see them, things aren’t going well over there. I’d go see these peopleinstead. You won’t have any problems getting in, and things will go much better”.Lastly, discussions with a mentor allow an entrepreneur to develop his ability toselect the best problem-solving strategy, as stated by one of the participants: “Ilearned to focus on the important things. I used to go see just about any client. I wasnot focused on the essentials”.

Skill-based learning

Results from our analysis of discussion group respondents reveal that the mentoringrelationship produced no skill-based learning. This type of learning relates to technical

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and motor skills which involve physical movement or a motion. Learning how to drive acar is a good example of this type of learning. Considering that the mentor is above all ageneralist, not a technical specialist, it should come as no surprise to see that no suchlearning had occurred. In fact, learning outcomes indicated by the questionnaires revealmarginal results (1.9% of cases) which relate to one specific instance where a mentorhelped his mentee sharpen his gift-wrapping skills, at which the mentor was particularlyadept. In this single case, the skill was developed as a result of working together, whichwould seem to represent the most appropriate mean.

Affective learning

One affective learning element that relates to attitude is the development of selfimage. Through discussions about various aspects of his life with a mentor, a menteecan become aware of what he is and what he wants to become. For instance, oneparticipant stated: “I learned about myself through my relationship with my mentor”.By being paired with another entrepreneur, a mentee can find common character-istics with his mentor thereby validating his own status as an entrepreneur. Thiscould become an important factor for novice entrepreneurs without familyentrepreneurial role models, as indicated by this participant:

“I’m really the oddball in my family [...] I’ve never had much contact withentrepreneurs. When I decided to go into business, I immediately asked for amentor. I had been holding back my entrepreneurial drive for a long time. . [...][It just wasn’t highly valued] by the people around me. The fact that I had nosupport is an influence on me. Now, I can see myself, I’ve gotten to know myself[better]. I have things in common [with my mentor] and that’s important”.

Other mentees look to specific mentor qualities for inspiration, as illustrated bythe following comment: “[My mentor] has human qualities that I lack. My intention[...] is to draw from him those qualities I want to develop”. The mentor can thus actas a mirror for the novice entrepreneur, allowing him to become aware of hisstrengths and weaknesses by providing feedback and modeling, thereby contributingto his personal development.

The first years in business can also be difficult to bear for a novice entrepreneur.In addition to the many start-up-related problems, the new entrepreneur often feelsalone with no one with whom he can share his problems. For instance, oneparticipant mentions that: “The hardest thing when you’re in business is the feelingof being alone” [...] Mentoring can help ease this sense of isolation. Another menteeadds the following:

“[My mentor] gave me moral support. To freefall into nothing, to have nomoney coming in... I was alone at home, alone in the business, no colleagues,with so many things to do. You have no release from the pressures, and withthe bills coming in... [...] Every time I’d see him, he’d say: ‘Calm down”’. [...][So, mentoring helps you] breathe, to calm down”

The mentor lends an attentive ear to the novice entrepreneur and provides supportduring difficult times. For some mentees, he is the ideal person with whom to share

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their problems, as this participant explains: “He knows everything about my business.So, instead of bothering all my friends with my ‘business’ issues, I just talk to him”.

Moreover, a mentor can help reassure a novice entrepreneur about his ability tosucceed in his business venture. One mentee states: “Even as you gain experience,it’s good to ask him if you are going in the right direction from time to time. It helpsto be reassured sometimes”. Another adds: “My mentor gave me confidence in myideas [...]. This helps us believe in ourselves and our products”. This self-confidence,which develops under the watchful eye of the mentor, inspires perseverance, as thefollowing example suggests: “When you start a new company with a new invention,you have to be a little arrogant to say you’re going to knock down walls and take itout there [...], and the mentor gives you confidence. It helps you go further”. Thisconfidence, along with the reassuring effect of the mentoring relationship, plays onmotivation, which enhances perseverance in difficult times. One mentee is quiteexplicit: “At some point, you stop moving forward [...]. He is encouraging, you’re ina difficult phase, but he tells you that in time, things will move forward”. Anotheradds: “As for me, I received a huge shot of energy [...]. He was a real motivator”. Inshort, the presence of a mentor appears to increase entrepreneur resilience by helpingto maintain or increase motivation when times are tough.

Discussion

Using Kraiger et al’s. (1993) taxonomy of learning outcomes, this research hasdemonstrated that only two of the three learning categories can be achieved in amentoring context: Cognitive and affective learning. Considering the fact that skill-based learning relates to motor skills, which involves developing specific move-ments, it is not surprising that only one such learning outcome was observed, andthat it is strongly dependent on the mentor’s skills. Thus, in this context, mentors arenot selected on the basis of their technical skills, but rather their business experience.For example, if a mentee wishes to learn how to weld, a cell coordinator will directhim to an appropriate school, not a mentor. Consequently, this type of learning willremain marginal. This is congruent with Paul (2004) who asserted that, contrary tocoaching or tutoring, mentoring is more oriented toward sense making thantechnique. Surely, skill-based learning may possibly have occurred within the dyad,even though they were asked by coordinators to concentrate on cognitive andaffective learning. However, in taking this path, the relationship will take on anotherdirection and transform into another type of accompaniment which will requirespecific skills from the mentor. This type of specific need should be stated bymentees before being joined in order to ensure that mentors with appropriate skillsare appointed to them. If it’s not possible, local coordinator should lead them towardother schemes.

Other learning outcomes have nevertheless been achieved, particularly withregards to cognitive learning. We have observed that a novice entrepreneur coulddevelop management knowledge through contact with his mentor. The scope andspecificity of this knowledge, however, is dependent upon the mentor’s expertise.For instance, a mentor with a lifetime career in banking will be able to shareknowledge about financial issues or tacit knowledge about the banking world. This

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supports the notion that a mentor is a source of advice and know-how on operating abusiness, as suggested by Cull (2006). Moreover, other studies indicate that most ofthe information novice entrepreneurs wish to obtain from their mentors is of ageneral nature (Bisk 2002) and that the mentor is considered the most useful sourceof general advice for the novice entrepreneur (Deakins et al. 1998). For Wikholmet al. (2005), sharing experiences and knowledge represent the main benefits ofentrepreneur mentoring, and assistance programs that enable novice entrepreneurs toacquire explicit and tacit knowledge appear to give their business a competitive edge(Chrisman and McMullan 2000). In addition, some mentees also developed a numberof management competences. In some cases, mentors assigned homework to theirmentees, even going so far as working with them and helping them learn how toprepare forecasted financial statements, for instance. As mentioned above with regardsto verbal knowledge, the extent to which this type of learning will occur is largelydependent upon mentor competences. It is possible, however, that a mentee developcompetences through his own transformation of verbal knowledge acquired from amentor. Other studies report similar observations that suggest that mentoring can helpthe development of management competences (Deakins et al. 1998; Lane 2003).

However, too much of a focus on teaching knowledge and skills could nudge therelationship closer to a tutorial or coaching relationship, as opposed to mentoring(D’abate et al. 2003). Although not a problem in itself, this could lead to someconfusion about the nature of a mentor’s role. A mentee could thus be disappointed todiscover that his mentor does not have the critical knowledge he expects to gain. This iswhy Nandram (2003) suggests that an entrepreneur could work with a team of mentorswho, together, would offer a broader range of expertise, as do some entrepreneurmentoring programs (for example, see the case illustrated by Silver (2004)).

In addition to declarative knowledge, discussions with a mentor enable thedevelopment of new mental models and the reorganization of previously acquiredknowledge. For instance, mentees can develop a new hierarchy of ideas. Sinceexperts do not share the same mental schemas and thoughts as novices, the presenceof a mentor considered an “expert” allows the novice entrepreneur to develop hisown mental models by copying or comparing his own with those of his mentor(Barnett 1995). This can lead to two main outcomes for the novice entrepreneur: Aclearer business vision and the ability to recognize new opportunities. In the firstcase, the mentor helps the novice entrepreneur identify activities that will help himachieve his goals more quickly. In so doing, the entrepreneur sharpens his businessvision and makes decisions that will help him achieve his goals. The mentor alsobrings a different perspective to the novice entrepreneur by highlighting new relevantbusiness opportunities, thereby helping him learn to better recognize such opportunities.Thementee then develops the ability to see things from a different angle, thus generatingnew options through the mentoring process, as suggested by Gravells (2006). Ozgenand Baron (2007) have also demonstrated how a mentor can help an entrepreneuridentify new business opportunities.

With regards to affective learning, it appears that mentoring fosters thedevelopment of self image. As was mentioned above, the mentor acts as a kind of“objective” mirror by providing feedback to the novice entrepreneur (Cull 2006).This process enhances self-knowledge, and in some cases, self-transformation andvalidation of his status as an entrepreneur. However, some maintain that becoming

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an entrepreneur is not the result of innate conditions but rather the outcome ofexperience and learning, and is influenced by family members and role models withwhom the aspiring entrepreneur is in contact (Morris 1998; Wagner and Sternberg2004). In addition, encouragement from family and friends, and especially proximityto business people and a strong business network, not only help the start up processfollow its course, but can also help secure a first sale (Davidsson and Honig 2003).From this perspective, mentoring enables a transfer of an entrepreneurial culture byproviding the novice entrepreneur with validation regarding his status throughmentor encouragement and his actions as a role model.

Moreover, mentoring appears to help develop entrepreneur resilience in differentways. First, the mentor provides the mentee with comfort and reassurance, helpinghim feeling more secure during difficult times. Since entrepreneurs are often alonerunning their business, they generally have no one to confide in and share theirproblems and concerns and obtain reassurance. Valéau (2006) has in fact raised theimportance of accompanying a novice entrepreneur through times of uncertaintyduring which he might be tempted to give up. Second, mentoring would increase thesense of self-efficacy, an observation shared by others (Nandram 2003; Waters et al.2002). Johannisson (1991) also suggests the presence of mentors or role modelscould have a positive impact on the feeling of self-efficacy. In addition, self-efficacycould also affect relationship outcomes as suggested by Noe (1988: p. 475). Self-efficacy in fact refers to an individual’s belief in his ability to achieve specific tasksto be undertaken (Bandura 1997). Self-efficacy also factors into manager performanceevaluation (Robertson and Sadri 1993). In a mentoring relationship, a protégé could begiven tasks or challenges by his mentor (See example by Cull (2006)) in order toimprove his competences. An entrepreneur with a high level of self-efficacy will bemore inclined to believe in his ability to meet a challenge or accomplish tasks givenby his mentor, and achieve success, thereby generating additional outcomes. Inaddition, a more confident entrepreneur could be more inclined to believe in his abilityto meet adversity, which may help him avoid giving up along the way. In short, self-efficacy, mentor motivation, and the reassurance he provides to the novice entrepreneurcould influence perseverance.

Results support mentoring’s singular qualities as a learning method. Whereasdeclarative knowledge about the business world can easily be obtained throughliterature or training, cognitive learning as observed in this study, as well as affectivelearning, are not easily achieved through these channels. For example, encouragementand modeling are two methods used to achieve affective learning, including trustingoneself, setting goals, or perseverance. Pairing with an experienced entrepreneur is acontributing factor to this type of learning as the novice entrepreneur does not share thesame mental schemas as the experienced executive (Baron and Ensley 2006). Pairingallows the mentee to benefit from the mentor’s expertise and can help him improve hisown mental schemas.

This study also demonstrates the relationship between learning methods andlearning content, confirming efforts conducted in the area of mentoring in largeorganizations (Hezlett 2005). Certain mentor behaviours appear to be conducive tothe development of specific learning content. For example, encouragement andmodeling help the mentee develop affective learning, just as verbal exchanges,discussions, maieutic questioning, and working together favour cognitive learning.

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These results underscore the importance that mentors not limit their actions todiscussions and verbal exchanges, but to provide encouragement and modeling so asto ensure adequate affective learning.

However, mentors from similar business sectors, even if they focus only ondiscussions, end up teaching the same things as mentors from other business sectors.One can wonder why mentors from the same sector limit themselves to discussionsas opposed to using a broader palette of learning strategies. Two hypotheses could beput forward. First, a mentor – mentee team from the same line of business willpossibly tend to engage in industry-themed discussions. The mentor would thus spendless time providing encouragement to his mentee. The latter would nevertheless developaffective learning, such as self-confidence and optimism about success due to industry-related information obtained by his mentor. Secondly, a mentor may be less likely toperceive encouragement from his mentor, as he may primarily consider him a current orpotential competitor.

By highlighting the learning that can occur through mentoring, one could be ledto believe that this learning can occur in all mentoring relationships. Thus, it must benoted that not all mentoring relationships lead to high numbers of learning outcomes,as entrepreneurs report having learned between one and six new things. It is alsopossible that some mentoring relationships lead to no learning at all, or at leastanything of substance that could be reported by a novice entrepreneur. For example,as mentioned above, transfer of knowledge can, in some cases, be contingent uponwhat the mentor knows. In addition, among other factors pertaining to mentoringmentioned in the literature, a mentor’s ability appears to contribute to a successfulrelationship (Deakins et al. 1998). We have also noticed that encouragement andmodeling were particularly useful to the development of affective learning. Theawareness that mentors from the same business sector as their mentees are less likelyto use these methods could be tremendously helpful in improving pairing strategiesand increasing the likelihood of success.

It should be mentioned that the mentee plays a role in the success of a mentoringrelationship in that he must contribute to his own learning. As discussed by Shea(1994), openness to feedback, openness and sincerity about one’s needs andweaknesses, setting realistic expectations with the mentor, the ability to clearlycommunicate problems, initiating frequent contact, willingness to discuss failure aswell as success, recognition of the importance of mutual respect, confidence, openness,and readiness to do all that is possible and appropriate to develop a solid relationship areall factors that can influence a mentoring relationship and its outcomes. It would appearthat novice entrepreneurs are less likely to commit to a mentoring relationship if theyare not all that familiar with potential outcomes (Fortin and Simard 2007; Kent et al.2003). One could assume that such “sceptical” entrepreneurs may unconsciouslyadopt attitudes and behaviours that prevent them from fully benefiting from thisopportunity. It is essential that an entrepreneur express a desire for change andopenness toward new experiences in order for the relationship to be successful(Engstrom 2004). It is just as essential that he become totally and unreservedlyinvolved in the mentoring process (Clutterbuck 2004).

In addition, a protégé’s learning goal orientations, defined as the level of motivationtowards skills development and in the selection of tasks that accompany learning(Dweck 1986), influence the scope and depth of mentor function, as well as mentoring

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outcomes (Godshalk and Sosik 2003). Egan (2005) reports similar results from aformal mentoring program and adds that even when a mentor’s learning goalorientations are greater that the protégé’s, he will nevertheless reap positive outcomesfrom the relationship as the mentor will provide stimulation to learn by issuingchallenges. An individual with high learning goal orientations will undertake a taskwith the intention of learning something new or improving his competence (Buttonet al. 1996).

One important limitation to this study should be mentioned: No objective learningmeasurement was conducted. Content rests entirely on the entrepreneur’s perceptionof his learning through the mentoring relationship. It was not possible to verify, forexample, the extent to which a reported increased ability to produce a provisionalbudget could be substantiated, nor the number or relevance of new businessopportunities discovered with the mentor’s help. Such information would require adifferent methodology and, for the time being, remains unknown. Moreover, itmust be noted that this study was conducted in the context of the mentoringprogram developed by the Fondation de l’entrepreneurship. Obviously, anotherprogram could lead to different results, depending on instructions given to mentorsconcerning their roles and responsibilities. Finally, we should stress that althoughthe method used to link “learning content” to “learning process” was helpful tounderstand parts of the dyad’s interaction, our small sample may reduce the scope ofour findings. As a matter of fact, only 53 “learning contents” were coded and usablefrom 25 distinct mentees. It’s impossible to claim that we looked at all the possibilitiesthat may come from a mentoring relationship. Thus, research should be carriedout with larger samples to grasp the richness and the breadth of learning with anexperienced mentor.

Conclusion

We have observed that mentoring offers an opportunity for novice entrepreneurs tomainly develop cognitive and affective learning. In a context where he may experiencesome difficulty in obtaining proper training, particularly due to a lack of time andresources, which are often a by-product of starting up a business, this type of supportmay help him meet some of his needs. Mentoring is particularly helpful in allowing atransfer of knowledge about the business world, and developing a competence set thatwill be useful to the entrepreneur, within the limits of what the mentor can offer.Moreover, we have observed that some entrepreneurs had developed an improvedvision for their business and others had identified new business opportunities to pursue.Mentoring can also help improve various affective learning aspects including selfimage, self-efficacy and resilience in the face of difficulties.

Mentors, by their approach to the mentoring relationship, can contribute to thedevelopment of certain types of learning. Where discussions, explanations, questioning,and working together are especially useful to the development of cognitive learning,encouragement and modeling foster the development of affective learning. Mentorsshould therefore be sensitized as to the specifics of their role and adapt their approachaccording to the needs expressed by the novice entrepreneur in order to facilitate desiredlearning outcomes.

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This learning can help correct a number of problems and difficulties experiencedby novice entrepreneurs. Mentoring therefore constitutes an adaptable and versatileform of support that can be of tremendous benefit to the novice entrepreneur.Obviously, not all mentoring relationships can lead to all these learning outcomes, oreven a single one, for that matter. Further research is required to clarify other issues.For example, learning outcomes could have a medium to long-term effect onturnover figures or profits, as suggested by Priyanto and Sandjojo (2005). Thesementoring-related outcomes remain to be defined, and the links connecting them tolearning have yet to be demonstrated. By the same token, mentor roles, mentoringfrequency and duration, as well as the psychological characteristics of the participantsare all likely to influence learning. Better knowledge of these aspects would help explainthe ways in which they develop, and contribute to the improvement of mentor training aswell as formal entrepreneur mentoring programs. Further insight into these issues wouldallow for a better understanding of the role mentoring plays in the life of a noviceentrepreneur.

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