The role of melting dead ice on landscape transformation in the early Holocene in Tuchola Pinewoods, North Poland

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Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e12

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The role of melting dead ice on landscape transformation in the earlyHolocene in Tuchola Pinewoods, North Poland

Michał Słowi�nski a, b, *, Mirosław Błaszkiewicz a, Achim Brauer b, Bo _zena Nory�skiewicz c,Florian Ott b, Sebastian Tyszkowski a

a Department of Environmental Resources and Geohazards, Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kopernika 19,87-100 Toru�n, Polandb GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Section 5.2 e Climate Dynamics and Landscape Evolution, Telegrafenberg, D-14473 Potsdam, Germanyc Institute of Geography, Nicholas Copernicus University, ul. Lwowska 1, 87-100 Toru�n, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online xxx

Keywords:PreborealMacrofossilsPollenBuried ice blockWater level changesNorth Poland

* Corresponding author. Department of Environmhazards, Institute of Geography and Spatial Organizaences, Kopernika 19, 87-100 Toru�n, Poland.

E-mail address: [email protected]

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.06.0181040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights

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a b s t r a c t

On the basis of macrofossil and pollen analyses, AMS 14C-dating, and geomorphological investigations,we reconstructed the development of hydrological changes during the Lateglacial to early Holocenetransition in Tuchola Pinewoods (Bory Tucholskie) in northern Poland. In this region, the Wda Riverflows in polygenetic valleys, typical for the young glacial landscape of the northern central Europeanlowlands. The middle section of this river provides a suitable setting to demonstrate the environ-mental and hydrological changes in the Late Glacial and early Holocene, because (1) it is a small andwell-defined area and (2) the existence of a morphologically preserved river valley from late glacialperiod. In this study, we focused on a short terrestrial sediment core (48 cm) that represents fourphases of landscape evolution during the early Holocene: telmatic, lacustrine, lacustrine-fluvial andalluvial. Abrupt changes in lithology and sediment structures exhibit rapid changes and thresholdprocesses in environmental conditions. The AMS 14C dating of terrestrial plant remains revealed an agefor the basal sediments of 11 223 ± 23 cal BP and thus falls within the Preboreal biozone. Plantmacrofossil indicators provide evidence of water level and edaphic changes in the basin. The results ofour study demonstrate a strong influence of melting buried ice blocks on the geomorphologicaldevelopment, hydrological changes in the catchment, and the biotic environment in the earlyHolocene.

© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The transition from the last glacial into the present interglacialis characterized by a series of short-term and rapid climate fluc-tuations (NGRIP, 2004; Brauer et al., 2008; Bakke et al., 2009).After the retreat of the Fennoscandian ice sheet some 16e18 000calendar years ago (Marks, 2002) a new landscape began to formin the lowlands of the southern Baltic region. The early phases oflandscape evolution in this region were influenced by stronglycoupled processes acting on longer, centennial to millennial timescales (e.g. soil formation and vegetation development) super-imposed by repeatedly recurring climate fluctuations on decadal

ental Resources and Geo-tion, Polish Academy of Sci-

(M. Słowi�nski).

reserved.

M., et al., The role of melting dational (2014), http://dx.doi

scales (Goslar et al., 1995; Brauer et al., 2008; Bakke et al., 2009;Lauterbach et al., 2011a,b). Another, often underestimated butcrucial factor controlling early landscape evolution, are the re-mains of the ice sheet formed during glacial times in the land-scape, namely isolated buried ice blocks and permafrost. Little isknown on how these remains of preceding landscapes and climatesuperimpose on landscape responses to later climate changes. Aparticular lack of knowledge concerns the time scales at whichthese memory effects in the landscape continue to affect itsevolution.

In the northern central European lowlands, melting of buriedice blocks covered with fluvioglacial sediments was an importantfactor, especially for the development of the regional hydrology.Dead ice melting on the one hand influenced the formation oflakes and river systems and, on the other hand, was itselfcontrolled by local geomorphology and hydrology, soil and vege-tation development, permafrost and, last but not least, climate.

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The interaction and coupling of these different processes still re-mains elusive. The complexity of dead ice melting is nicelydemonstrated by the recently found large variations in the timingof the melting of ice blocks at different localities (Błaszkiewicz,2011). Final melting of buried ice blocks apparently occurred innorthern Poland during a rather long time span of >3000 yearsfrom the early Lateglacial interstadial (ca 14 600 cal BP) until theearly Holocene. The young postglacial landscapes of northernPoland (Kondracki, 2001) are characterized by a dense network ofinterconnected lakes and river valleys, often forming complexhydrographic systems (Koutaniemi and Rachocki, 1981; Florek,1991; Błaszkiewicz, 2005). The Tuchola Pinewoods are character-ized by thick deposits of sand and gravel sandur deposits. Inoutwash plains, local depressions including kettle holes and smalllakes indicate the existence of buried ice blocks in fluvioglacialsediments during the period of early landscape formation. Thisphenomenon has been termed “hole sandur” (Galon, 1953). In thelast decade, a great interest in Tuchola Pinewoods arose due to thelimited human impact in the region. They provide opportunitiesfor reconstruction of the history of environmental and climatechange (Miotk-Szpiganowicz, 1992; Milecka and Szeroczynska,2005; Lamentowicz et al., 2008; Szeroczynska and Zawisza,2011). Biogenic sediments, such as peat and gyttja, are wellsuited for reconstruction of the past environment, plant succes-sion, human activity, and climate change (Sayer et al., 1999; Birks,2000; Bos et al., 2005; Latałowa and Bor�owka, 2006). In this paper,we present macrofossil and pollen analyses combined with loss onignition (LOI) analysis in order to reconstruct Lateglacial to earlyHolocene environmental changes in the middle section of the Wdariver in northern Poland. The main focus was on: (1) abruptchanges in lithologies and their causes; (2) local and regionalvegetation development; and (3) the effects of melting dead ice onpalaeohydrology and landscape change.

Fig. 1. A Location of the study area and limits of the last glaciation (Vistulian) in Poland (LGeomorphological map of the study area, showing the location of coring transect 1510e15

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2. Material and methods

2.1. Study site

The middle section of the Wda river is located in northernPoland (Fig. 1) in the region of Tuchola Pinewoods (BoryTucholskie), on the outwash plain formed during the Pomeranianphase (16 200 BP) of the last (Vistulian) glacial period (Kozarski,1995; Błaszkiewicz, 2005). The Wda river is 198 km long and thecatchment area of the river comprises 2325 km2. The source of theWda river is located at Kra _zno Lake near Byt�ow, and it dischargesinto the Wisła river in �Swiecie (Choi�nski, 2002). The late Vistulianice sheet retreat from the study area is dated to 15 200 14C BP(Marks, 2002). The Wda river has a typical polygenetic valley inyoung glacial areas (Andrzejewski, 1994; Błaszkiewicz, 2005) and issurrounded by a Pinus sylvestris-dominated forest. Characteristicspecies of the Wda river are Carex lasiocarpa, Menyanthes trifoliata,Nuphar luteum, Typha latifolia and Phragmites australis (vascularplants) and many bryophytes such as Calliergon giganteum, Drepa-nocladus aduncus, Climacium dendroides, and Sphagnum squarro-sum. In Tuchola Pinewoods, the average annual rainfall in theperiod 1981e1998 was about 600 mm (W�ojcik and Marciniak,1993). The average annual temperature was 7 �C, with meanJanuary and July temperatures of �3 �C and þ17 �C, respectively(Kozłowska-Szczesna, 1993).

2.2. Coring, dating and loss-on-ignition

Sediment cores were retrieved in the Wda valley using avibrocoring device (diameter 25 mm). The 1513/A core wascollected in summer 2009 (Fig. 2). Age control was provided bythree radiocarbon dates. Terrestrial macrofossils were dated byaccelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon analysis in the

-Leszno phase ¼ LGM, Pz-Pozna�n phase, Pm-Pomeranian phase, Ga-Gardno phase). B13.

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Fig. 2. Geological cross-section 1510e1513 of the Wda river valley.

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Pozna�n Radiocarbon Laboratory (Table 1). The dates were cali-brated using the OxCal v4.2 program (Bronk Ramsey, 1995, 2001).Organic matter and CaCO3 contents of the sediment were deter-mined using loss-on-ignition (LOI) analysis at 550 �C and 900 �C,respectively (Heiri et al., 2001).

Table 1Radiocarbon dates from core 1513/A-1512/A. The radiocarbon ages were calibrated using OxCal v. 4.2 (Bronk Ramsey, 2001).

Lab. No. Depth (cm) Dated material (terrestrial material) Age BP Cal years BP Dates from core

Poz-26781 480 Pinus bud scale, Betula fruits 9800 ± 50 BP 11231 ± 79 1513/APoz-26782 485 Pinus bud scale and needles, Betula fruits 9780 ± 50 BP 11188 ± 81 1512/APoz-26783 488 Pinus bud scale and needles 9700 ± 50 BP 11016 ± 216 1512/A

2.3. Plant and animal macrofossil analysis

Twenty-four samples (25e30 cm3 in volume each) from the1513/A core were taken in consecutive 2-cm thick intervals. Sam-ples were washed over sieves with a 125 mm mesh size and ana-lysed according to the method described by Birks (2007). Allmacrofossil counts were standardized as numbers of fossils per50 cm3 and the resulting concentrations were plotted strati-graphically (Fig. 4) using C2 version 1.5 software (Juggins, 2007).Identification of both fossil remains was based on the literature(Katz et al., 1977; Birks, 2007; Velichkevich and Zastawniak, 2008)and a reference collection of the Institute of Geography, PolishAcademy of Sciences.

2.4. Pollen analysis

Twenty-four samples from the same levels as those for macro-fossil analyses were prepared for pollen analysis using standardchemical methods (Fægri and Iversen, 1975), including HF, HCl,acetolysis, and addition of Lycopodium tablets (Stockmarr, 1971) forestimation of pollen concentrations (grains/cm3). The sample vol-ume was 1 cm3 taken at 2 cm resolution and a minimum sum of1000 arboreal pollen (AP) grains were counted for each sample(Fig. 5). Pollen diagrams were drawn with C2 version 1.5 software(Juggins, 2007).

2.5. Numerical analyses

Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) was performed usingCANOCO 4.5 (Ter Braak and �Smilauer, 2003) with detrending by

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segments, downweighting of rare taxa, and all other settingsdefault (Fig. 3). DCA shows temporal patterns in plant macrofossildata and major vegetation (pollen) changes in the profile (based onthe sample scores on DCA axis 1).

3. Results and interpretation

3.1. Lithostratigraphy and chronology

The analysed core is divided into four distinct lithostratigraphicunits (Fig. 3). Unit I (489e485 cm) is formed directly on basal sandsand is composed of a dark brown, in-situ formed peat-like layerwith abundant terrestrial detritus. The organic matter contentsvary between 45 and 90%, and non-carbonate mineral contentsbetween 10 and 55%. Unit II (485e470 cm) is composed of a graycalcareous gyttja (CaCO3 10e80%, organic content ~10%, siliciclasticmineral matter ~10%). Unit III (470e447 cm) consists of dark graygyttja (CaCO3 30%, organic contents ~10% and siliciclastic mineralmatter ~60%). Unit IV (447e440 cm) comprised of yellowish alluvialsediments (CaCO3 5e20%, organic contents 3e5%, siliciclasticmineral matter 60e90%).

The chronology of the studied sediments is based three on AMS14C dates from plant macro remains found in lithological unit I(Table 1) and on pollen stratigraphical ages adopted from correla-tion with well-dated isopollen maps of Poland (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa et al., 2004). The three radiocarbon ages revealedages between 11 200 and 11100 cal BP, placing the onset of organicsediment formation in the middle Preboreal. For the younger partof the core, we used the increase in hazel (Corylus) and elm (Ulmus)at the beginning of the PinuseCorylus phase (Table 2) as a timemarker horizon. We adopted the age of 9500 ± 100 14C BP(10 845 ± 321 cal BP) from published dates of the isopollenmaps forPoland (Miotk-Szpiganowicz et al., 2004; Zachowicz et al., 2004).As we did not find the increase in Corylus reported after 9000 14C BP(10 201 ± 19 cal BP) (Mangerud et al., 1974; Zagwijn, 1997; Miotk-

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Fig. 3. Lithology, loss-on-ignition (LOI) of the 1513/A profil, charcoal concentration, and local macrofossil and pollen assemblage zones (LMAZ and LPAZ).

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Szpiganowicz et al., 2004) in our record, sedimentation must haveceased before 10 201 ± 19 cal BP. (Table 3).

Table 2Four local macrofossil assemblage zones (LMAZ) of the Wda valley (profile 1513/A) (Fig. 4).

LMAZ Depth (cm) Basic characteristics of local macrofossils assemblage zones (LMAZ)

Zone 1 490e486 Rich in plant remains (Phragmites australis, Carex sp., Thelypteris sp., Filipendula ulmaria, Juncus sp., Potentilla erecta)and Bryales (leafless stems).

Zone 2 486e470 Abrupt changes in lithology and macrofossil, showing rapid environmental change (telmatic to limnic conditions).Aquatic macrophytes (Chara sp., Nymphaea alba, Najas marina) and invertebrates (Cladocera, Chironomidae, Daphnia,Mollusca). Telmatic plants (Typha sp., Carex sp., Eupatorium cannabinum, Stachys palustris) with mosses(Sphagnum and Bryales) at lake shores.

Zone 3 470e448 Decline of Chara oospores. Ceratophyllum demersum and abundant aquatic animal remains (Chironomidae, Cladocera,fish, Mollusca).

Zone 4 450e442 Occasional plant remains (Ceratopyllum demersum, Typha sp., Sphagnum sp., Pinus sylvestris), frequent fossil animals(Mollusca, fish, Chironomidae, Cladocera).

Table 3Three statistically significant local pollen assemblage zones (LPAZ) for the Wda valley (profile 1513/A) (Fig. 5).

LPAZ Depth (cm) Basic characteristics of local pollen assemblage zones (LPAZ)

Pinus-Betula-Poaceae 490e482 Arboreal pollen (AP) 54.5e89.0%, principally Pinus (32.4e63.8%) and Betula (19.5e22.8%). Salix up to 1.7%, Corylusand Ulmus present continuously but infrequent, 0.1e0.6%. The contribution of total herbaceous pollen (NAP), with a peakof 45.5% in the lowermost sample, gradually declines (45.5e11.0%). Also the contribution of Poaceae is the highest in thelowermost sample and declines in upper parts (44.7e10.0%). Herbaceous plants regularly represented by Cyperaceae,Filipendula, and spores of Polypodiaceae (max. 5.0%). High concentration of AP þ NAP (157 864 grains/cm3), probablyresulting from high compression of studied peat. Border between zones designated by a decrease in herbaceous plants,including Poaceae.

Pinus-Betula 482e474 AP contribution throughout this zone higher than 92.0% (max. 97.0%). Dominant species: pine (78.7%), accompaniedby birch (max. 33.9%). Salix and Ulmus present continuously but infrequent (less than 0.4%). Corylus in upper partsincreasing from 0.3 to 1.1%. Total pollen concentration declining: AP at least 2-fold, while NAP several-fold, as comparedwith previous zone. Border designated by Corylus and Ulmus.

Pinus-Corylus 474e442 AP contribution 86.0e95.0%, including Pinus 67.5e79.7%. Remarkable increase in Corylus (max. 5.3%) and Ulmus(max. 1.0%). Among herbaceous plants, higher values for Cyperaceae, Artemisia, Asteroideae undiff., and Filipendula.Coenobia of Pediastrum present continuously (0.7e8%). Total concentration of sporomorphs up to 35 000 grains/cm3.

3.2. Macrofossil and pollen data

Macrofossil and pollen are the main proxies that were used toreconstruct palaeohydrological changes as well as local andregional vegetation (Figs. 4 and 5; Tables 2 and 3). Four plant

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macrofossil zones (LMAZ) and three pollen zones (LPAZ) have beendistinguished. The differences in the number of zones and the

boundaries between them are due to the type of information pro-vided and the respective proxy sensitivity. Whereas macrofossildata reflect more local signals and thus might be more sensitivetowards local palaeohydrology, pollen reflects mainly regional-scale signals.

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3.3. Preboreal landscape transformation

Based on macrofossil data as well as lithological changes, weclearly distinguished four phases of the development of the localenvironment in the early Holocene: (1) telmatic, (2) lacustrine, (3)lacustrine-fluvial, and (4) alluvial.

3.3.1. Telmatic phase (494e484 cm)At the bottom of the core, the most prominent shift in sedi-

mentation in the entire profile (from fluvio-glacial sand to organicsediment) reflects the shift from a terrestrial to a telmatic envi-ronment. This shift occurred during the dominance of pine andbirch forest and a succession of littoral plant communities. The localpresence of pine and birch on the wetland and its surroundings isindicated by the presence of abundant terrestrial macrofossils, forexample, of P. sylvestris (needles, bud scales, mycorrhizal roots,bark, cone fragments), Betula sp. (bark, fruits), fern spores, andtelmatic plant remains. Poaceae are frequently represented,including P. australis (seeds and epidermis). Its presence suggeststhat the depression likelywas surrounded by reeds. The presence ofT. latifolia pollen and Typha sp. seeds as well as of some Cyperaceae(Carex rostratamacrofossils and pollen or seeds, Carex sp. seeds androots), Equisetum, and Filipendula indicates high plant diversity inthe littoral zone. Since the onset of sedimentation, spores of thefamily Polypodiaceae, likely deriving from Thelypteris sp. (macro-fossil), were present. Places with high groundwater levels weredominated by willow (Salix sp.). Cenococcum sclerotia, present be-tween 488 and 484 cm (Fig. 4), most likely originated from Cen-ococcum geophilum, an ectomycorrhizal fungus living in the surfacesoil (Thormann et al., 1999; Wurzburger et al., 2004), thus indi-cating physiological stress due to erosion and in-wash from thecatchment (Wick et al., 2003; Tinner et al., 2008). We interpret thebasal organic sediments formed above fluvio-glacial sands as ashort lived peat-like development with abundant flux of terrestrialdetritus, which was deposited on the still sand-covered ice-bock(Watts and Winter, 1966; Yansa and Basinger, 1999; Wright, 2004).Therefore, we associate the telmatic phase with the beginning ofthe melting of the buried ice blocks and resulting formation of aninitial depression in Preboreal at ca 11 200 cal BP. The melting ofburied blocks of ice wetted the top layer of the ground andconsequently facilitated the development of wetland vegetation (P.australis, C. rostrata, Potentilla erecta, Juncus sp., Thelypteris sp., andtrue mosses). Indicator plants such as Filipendula ulmaria and Typhasp. suggest that minimum mean July temperatures during thisphase were 8e13 �C (Isarin and Renssen, 1999). Vegetation recor-ded in this phase indicates a moderately poor trophic state ofdepression. The occurrence of charcoal particles indicate fires nearthe study site, probably during times of a more open habitat assuggested by the coincidence of charcoal concentrations andincreased frequency of light-demanding species such as Artemisiaand Poaceae (Figs. 4 and 5).

3.3.2. Lacustrine phase (485e470 cm)At the lithological boundary between the organic layer and the

overlying gyttja, LOI values exhibit a sharp increase to a maximumof 75% (Fig. 3). This shift is related to an abrupt water level increaseafter the initial melting of the buried ice block, causing deepeningof the ground and rapid development of a depression. The earlyHolocene forests were increasingly dominated by trees and shrubswith higher climatic and edaphic requirements. The warm climateenabled migration of the thermophilous taxa Corylus into northernPoland. During the preceding telmatic phase, hazel pollen valueswere still below 1% and were probably transported from otherareas, although hazel can occur locally even with pollen percent-ages below 2% (Miotk-Szpiganowicz et al., 2004). Values higher

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than 2% (472 cm depth) suggest that hazel was present in the studyarea from that point onward (Huntley and Birks, 1983). The warmerclimate is further marked by the expansion of Ulmus in thePinuseCorylus phase (hazel 1.0e5.5%). Ulmus slowly extended intothe pine-dominated forest at this site. The presence of its pollenfrom the beginning of organic sediments (Ulmus pollen percentagesbelow 1%) indicates that elm already was close to the research site.According to Miotk-Szpiganowicz et al. (2004), pollen percentagesabove 1% may indicate its occurrence in diverse forest commu-nities, whereas higher pollen values (more than 2%) indicate thepresence of elm within the local vegetation (Huntley and Birks,1983).

In the first part of the lake phase, the water body was colonizedby stoneworts (Chara sp.) as the earliest pioneer plants colonizingfreshwaters (Haas, 1994). They currently form submerged stone-wort meadows at the bottom of oligo- and mesotrophic waterbodies. The presence of stoneworts indicates clear water with highconductivity (Mortensen et al., 2011). Characean algae are able todecompose calcium bicarbonate and absorb CO2 ions from it. Thisability has enabled the species to flourish in postglacial lakes rich incarbonate ions HCO3

� (Warner, 1989). In the second part of thisphase, the lake was dominated by Najas marina (submerged spe-cies) and Nymphaea alba (floating leaves species). The presence ofNuphar lutea and N. alba suggests that patches of the communityNupharoeNymphaeetum albae developed in shallower (up to 4 mdeep) parts of the lake. These plants currently grow mainly instanding or slow-flowing waters (Matuszkiewicz, 2007).

3.3.3. Lacustrine-fluvial phase (470e446 cm)This phase is associated with an abrupt transformation from the

shallow lake ecosystem into a lake-river system. The formation ofdepressions resulting from dead ice melting in the river networkwas rapid as shown by the formation of delta deposits (Gilbertdelta) coinciding with the accumulation of lake sediments (Figs. 2and 6). This phase is characterized by a sharp increase of non-carbonate mineral matter from 15% to 57% in correspondencewith changes in structure of the vegetation (Fig. 3). The changefrom a lake to a lake-river environment likely occurred graduallyand is indicated by an increase of mineral content and changes inthe biotic environment. N. marina appeared at the beginning of thisphase. This species prefers standing, shallow mesotrophic waterbodies with a pH > 7 (Zarzycki et al., 2002; Gaillard and Birks, 2007)and is sensitive to water pollution. The river-lake system at thattime was dominated by Ceratophyllum demersum. This hydrophytemay form very dense patches, which prevent the access of sunlightto the lake bottom and development of other plants (Kłosowski andKłosowski, 2001). The dense patch of C. demersum created favour-able conditions for bryozoans including Plumatella and Cristatella.The presence of temperature-sensitive Cristatella mucedo suggestsrelatively warm climatic conditions (Økland and Økland, 2000). Anincrease was also observed in head capsules of Chironomidae,skeletons of Cladocera, and ephippia of Simocephalus. Since thebeginning of the lake-river phase (470 cm), we recorded exo-skeletons of Oribatida, Mollusca, and fish remains (bones andscales). In the littoral zone, a floating peat mat was composed oftrue mosses (Bryales) and Sphagnum mosses.

3.3.4. Alluvial phase (446e440 cm)The alluvial phase is associated with silting of the lake basin by

the delta deposits. These changes are reflected by declining con-centrations of organic matter and carbonate to a few percent, whilenon-carbonate mineral matter contents rise to ~90%. Predomi-nantly sandy sediments with some gravel indicate a higher ener-getic depositional environment due to increased river flowvelocities. This in turn impacted the vegetation which was adapted

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to quiet water bodies, resulting in a decrease or even completedisappearance of various plants and animal species such as C.demersum, Typha sp., and Sphagnum mosses and Bryales. Macro-fossils of P. sylvestris and Carex sp. and F. ulmariawere still present.Remains of Mollusca, and wood charcoal as an indicator for localfires, might be re-deposited by river transport.

4. Discussion

4.1. Formation of the lake basin e timing of the final disappearanceof buried dead ice in the Vistulian belt (Central European Lowland)

Climate warming at the end of the last glaciation initiated thedevelopment of new landscapes, especially in areas that werecovered and morphologically re-shaped by major glacial advances.In the shaping of these new landscapes and ecosystems, a numberof strongly coupled biological, geological, and hydrological pro-cesses were involved, including soil formation and the migration ofvegetation and fauna. These processes did not take place uniformlybut were rather heterogeneous in time and space, due to differ-ences in the local conditions of pre-existing environments. Oneexpression of such memory effects in the landscape are dead iceblocks buried in fluvio-glacial sediments that remained in theground for centuries or even millennia.

In most lake basins in the Vistulian belt in the Central EuropeanLowland, the time difference between the creation of depressionsandtheappearanceof lakeswasabout5000years.During research inlake basins,manygeomorphological and sedimentological datawerecollected, indicating that the time difference was mostly due toconservation of the depressions by buried dead ice (Wieckowski,1966; Florek, 1991; B€ose, 1995; Błaszkiewicz, 2010, 2011).

Investigation of the initial phase of lake sedimentation in de-pressions shows that the major period of melting of dead ice wasthe Bølling-Allerød interstadial. At that time, most lakes werecreated in the Central European Lowland (Wieckowski, 1966; Nitz,1984; Niewiarowski, 2003; Novik et al., 2010; Błaszkiewicz, 2011;Kaiser et al., 2012; Veski et al., 2012; van Asch et al., 2012; vanLoon et al., 2012). However, both in Poland (Florek, 1991; _Zureket al., 2002; Błaszkiewicz, 2005, 2011; Słowi�nski, 2010; Starkelet al., 2012; Drzymulska et al., 2013; Michczynska et al., 2013)and in neighbouring countries e Germany (Kaiser, 2001; Homannet al., 2002; Gaudig et al., 2006; Kaiser et al., 2012), Belarus(Novik et al., 2010), Lithuania (�Seirien _e et al., 2009) and Latvia(Terasmaa et al., 2013) e there are documented cases of survival ofburied chunks of dead ice until the early Holocene. The major pieceof evidence supporting this thesis, according to the cited authors, isthe presence of a peaty layer at great depths under the lake sedi-ments, even up to 30m below the current water level (Wieckowski,1966; Nitz, 1984; Nowaczyk, 1994a; Błaszkiewicz, 2005, 2011;Kaiser et al., 2012; Błaszkiewicz et al., in preparation). In the pro-file of biogenic sediments analysed in the present study, this layer isat the depth of 7e9m. In other cores collected in the lake basin, thislayer was at depths to 16 m. Irrespective of depth, it is of Preborealage (Błaszkiewicz et al., in preparation). In all the analysed profiles,the peaty layer is found within the mineral sediments of lake ba-sins. The presence of the peaty layer of the same age at variousdepths in the lake bottom indicates unambiguously that it wasinitially accumulated at the same level, above a layer of dead ice,which survived there until the early Preboreal.

4.2. What were the reasons for extended conservation of dead iceblocks?

The large disparities observed in the timing of the melting ofburied ice blocks and the contemporaneous formation of new

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depressions and related consequences for the regional hydrologicalsystem (Nitz, 1984; Strahl and Keding, 1996; Helbig, 1999; Kaiser,2001; Niewiarowski, 2003; Błaszkiewicz, 2005) commonly hasbeen explained by the variable thickness of the sediment layercovering the buried ice (Nowaczyk, 1994b; B€ose, 1995). However, atcontinental scales other factors including climate likely played arole as well. Whereas in the Netherlands, no permafrost and deadice existed at the beginning of the Holocene (Bos, 1998; Hoek et al.,1999; Hoek and Bohncke, 2002) due to the proximity of the NorthAtlantic and the maritime climate the situation was quite differentin central Europe and especially in northern Poland. In addition tothe generally more continental climate with cold winters in thisregion, the relative proximity to the remaining Fennoscandian icesheet resulted in regionally delayed warming at the onset of theHolocene due to the prevailing cold northeasterly winds(Wohlfarth et al., 2007; Lauterbach et al., 2011b).

Several other geomorphological and hydrological factorscontribute to the timing of the melting of buried ice blocks atregional scales in heterogeneous landscapes including (1) thethickness and type of the sediment cover (Galon, 1953;Niewiarowski, 1989; Nowaczyk, 1994a; B€ose, 1995; Schomacker,2008) and the biogenic sediments that were formed in ephem-eral wetlands (Hoek et al., 1999; Błaszkiewicz, 2005; Słowi�nski,2010), (2) the saturation of moraine sediments with water, (3) thesize and shape of buried ice blocks, and (4) the drainage conditions(Błaszkiewicz, 2005). It makes a difference if a dead ice body isconnected to a drainage system or if it exists as isolated block. Incase of an isolated block truncated from drainage, as in the presentexample, seasonal meltwater cannot be transported and remains incontact with the ice block. The resulting thermal effects due to thelonger water retention times in turn led to accelerated melting ofthe ice block (Homann et al., 2002; Błaszkiewicz, 2005).

In the lake basin analysed in this study, local conditions of sur-face drainage were the major factor allowing survival of chunks ofdead ice until the Preboreal. In the Late Glacial period, river waterwas flowing in the currently dry section of the Wda valley. Theanalysed section of the tunnel valley was very close to the Wdavalley and could have been drained by the river dissecting it. As aresult of the rapid warming in the Preboreal, after a short period ofdevelopment of wetlands, dead ice quickly melted, leading to lakeformation and change of the direction of river flow.

4.3. Biotic and abiotic evolution of the newly formed depression

Hydrological conditions of the depression forming above themelting dead ice determined the type of vegetation that formedduring the development of the depression. The first sediment layerthat was deposited in the depression was composed of needles,cone and wood fragments (of pine or spruce), macrofossils of Dryasoctopetala, Betula nana, and Arctostaphylos uva-ursi as well asbrown mosses, indicating that a shrub vegetation was graduallyreplaced by a swamp vegetation. When the depression successivelydeepened as a result of ice degradation, it began to fill with water.This caused major changes in local hydrological and edaphic re-lations from a telmatic to a limnic environment.

The shift from a telmatic to a limnic environment occurredabruptly, as indicated from the sharp boundary between the basalorganic layer and the calcitic gyttja (Fig. 3), indicating rapid deep-ening of the depression due to rapid ice melting. The high con-centration in carbonates is associatedwith vegetation development(aquatic species i.e. Chara sp.) and intensive leaching of catchmentsoils and substrate during permafrost thaw in the catchment,leading to a release of calcium and bicarbonate ions (Bukowska-Jania, 2003; Apolinarska et al., 2011). These subsurface fluxes ofcalcium and bicarbonate ions in turn favoured an increase of

ead ice on landscape transformation in the early Holocene in Tuchola.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.06.018

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Fig. 6. Schematic model of the early environmental, hydrological and geomorphological evolution of the study area during the early Holocene.

M. Słowi�nski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e12 9

Please cite this article in press as: Słowi�nski, M., et al., The role of melting dead ice on landscape transformation in the early Holocene in TucholaPinewoods, North Poland, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.06.018

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M. Słowi�nski et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2014) 1e1210

autogenic calcite production in the lake (Warner, 1989). The changein sedimentation coincides well with a major change in plant andanimal macrofossils. The number of telmatic species toleratingshallow waters (e.g. P. australis and C. rostrata) decreased whileaquatic pioneer plants like stoneworts (Chara) and animals(Daphnia) suddenly appeared. Sudden hydrological changes arealso reflected by Cladocera assemblages changing from shallowwater species to taxa that live in deeper water bodies whichappeared in the gyttja deposits.

Our results suggest major and very rapid changes of the localenvironment, in particular during the melting phase of the dead iceand subsequent formation of a depression. The speed of thesechanges is related to the relatively late melting of the ice block inthe warm early Holocene as well as to local drainage conditions ofthe ice-filled depression. This underlines that under certain con-ditions, threshold effects in landscape transformation are a com-mon phenomenon that awaits more detailed investigation anddiscussion in future.

4.4. Occurrence of wildfires

The appearance of charcoal (microscopic >10 mm and macro-scopic >125mm)mainly in the lower part between 488 and 478 cmof the studied sediment record indicates an increased frequency ofnatural wildfires during the middle of the Preboreal biozone at ca9800 ± 50 14C BP (11 231 ± 79 cal BP). This coincides with the so-called Preboreal climate oscillation which was characterized bycool and dry climate conditions (Bj€orck et al., 1997). A dry climatemight have favoured wildfires, but this effect likely was enhancedby a rapid decrease in groundwater level due to the ice blockmelting causing locally dry edaphic conditions in the catchment(Schuur et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2010).

5. Conclusions

Existence of buried ice blocks in northern Poland at the onset ofthe Holocene provides indirect evidence that local discontinuouspermafrost was present at that time. Most likely, this was due to thecontinental climate in this region, and probably regional influencesfrom the remaining parts of the Fennoscandian ice sheet in relativeproximity. As a result, the process of permafrost degradation andconsequently interglacial landscape evolution was delayed in thisregion. The changes observed in the central Wda valley were dy-namic and extreme, as indicated by abrupt changes in lithology andmacrofossils. This indicates a vulnerable and unstable landscape, aswell as the presence of threshold effects in the environmentaltransformation. The “peaty layer” formed at the base of sedimentsconfirms melt depressions in the Wda valley.

Our work shows that a combination of macrofossil and paly-nological analysis has high potential for reconstructing regionallandscape transformation. The work complements current knowl-edge of palaeoecological changes in the Lateglacial and early Ho-locene. Our results might provide clues to global climate changemodelling, which should take into account local factors such aspermafrost thawing which likely impacted global changes throughCO2 and CH4 emissions.

Acknowledgments

The research was supported by the The National Science Centre,Poland (grants No. NN 306085037 and NCN 2011/01/B/ST10/07367). This study is a contribution to the Virtual Institute of In-tegrated Climate and Landscape Evolution (ICLEA) of the HelmholtzAssociation. We would like to thank Wim Hoek (editor) andanonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions to the

Please cite this article in press as: Słowi�nski, M., et al., The role of melting dPinewoods, North Poland, Quaternary International (2014), http://dx.doi

manuscript. We also thank Sylwia Ufnalska and Nadine Dr€ager forimproving the English manuscript, and Jarosław Kordowski forinvaluable help in the field work. Financial support by the COSTAction ES0907 INTIMATE is gratefully acknowledged.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.06.018.

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