THE ROLE OF ANTHROPOGENIC DISTURBANCE IN THE CREATION OF A SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE

CREATION OF A SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTERS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Abstract
The aim of this thesis is to examine the role of anthropogenic disturbance in the
creation of a socio-ecologicallandscape. Three key questions were answered: what
impact has past anthropogenic disturbance had on present vegetative characteristics;
what value did this disturbed landscape have to local people; how did the local
peoples' worldviews and eco-cosmologies influence how they perceived, valued and
managed their landscape?
Research was based in a rural, predominantly amaXhosa village in the Kat River
valley, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Four major landscape components characterised
the environment, namely dense forests, former grazing lands, abandoned fields and
old settlements. A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods were adopted,
consisting of a vegetation and soil survey and social science methods including semi­
structured interviews, focus groups, transect walks and participant observation.
The key finding was that anthropogenic disturbance is necessary to enhance the
potential of the area to support human habitation. However, anthropogenic
disturbance can have positive or negative effects for both local people and the
environment. An intermediate level of disturbance is a key factor leading to a resilient
socio-ecological system.
Various anthropogenic disturbances have had significant affects on vegetation
characteristics in terms of species richness, and a change in vegetation composition
and species heights. Of the three anthropogenic landscapes examined, former grazing
lands were the least intensively disturbed. They were also more species rich and
structurally diverse than areas that were under agricultural production or used as a
settlement. Dense forests, although the least desirable landscape to local people were,
together with sacred pools, sources of ecosystem renewal and played a critical role
during times of disturbance. Anthropogenic disturbance has added value to local
people' s livelihoods; this disturbance has resulted in a patchy landscape that supplies
a wide variety of resources to local people.
Local people are dependent on their environment for their basic needs; this has
encouraged sustainable management practices. The local AmaXhosa still retain many
elements of their traditional worldview, which has many characteristics of Animism.
The environment is an integral component of their belief system and certain sites and
species have significant cultural value and are protected.
Table of contents
/. / Socio·ecological systems ....................... .... ............ ......... .. ................. .. ......... .... ......................................... I 1.2. Characteristics a/this complex socio·ecoiogical system ....................................... .. ........... ............. ...... .. 2 1.3 Biodiversity, anthropogenic disturbance and ecosystem/unctions ........................ ....... ..... . , ....... ....... ...... . 3
1.3.1 Positive anthropogenic effects ....................... , .................................................................................................... 4 1.3.2 Negative anthropogenic effects ........................................................................... .............................................. 11
/.5 Aim and Key Objectives .. ... ..... .............. ................... ............................................................................... 14
1.6 Structure of my thesis .................. .................................. .................. ....... .................... ....................... ..... . 15
CHAPTER 2: STUDY AREA .............................. ...................... ........... .............................................. .... ......... ... ..... 16
2.1 Geographical location ...................... ............... ......... .... ................................................. ... .. ..... .......... ..... 16
2.1.2 Cathcartvale ........ ...... .................................................................... ...... .. ............................................................ 16
2.2 Biophysical information ....................... ........................... ........................ .. ....... ...... ... .............................. 19 2.2.1 The Kat River Valley ............................................................ ................................................................. .. ......... 19 2.2.2 Cathcartvale ......... ................................................................................................................................ ............. 20
2.3 History ............................................... .................................... ....... ... ................................................ ........ 21
2.4 Socio·economic demography ............................................................................................................ ...... 24
2.4.1 The Kat River Valley ............................. ............................................... .... ............ .. ............................. .. ........... 24
2.4.2 Cathcartvale ........................................ ............................................................................................................. 25 2.4.2. 1 Community Committee ...................................................................................... .... ........... ...... 26
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK ..................... .. ......................... .. ................................. .... ... 28
3. / Introduction ........................................ ... .... ... ... .... ..... .......... ....... ..... ................ ..... .............. ... ...... ............. 28
3.2 Methodologicalframeworks .............................. ....................... ....... ............................. ............ ........ .. ..... 29 3.3 Goal·setting in research .............................................. ..... ..... ........................ .... .......................... ... ...... ... 30 3.4 Reality orientation ... ........ ................ ..... ........... ........ ........................................ ............................. .... ....... 31
3.5 Research Methods ... ......... .. ..................................... ..................... ........... ................................................ 31
3.5.1 Qualitative approach ........................................................................................................................................ 32 3.5.1.1 Ethics/How the community was approached ......... .... ........ ............ .......................................... 33
3.5.1.2 Participant obscrvation ........ ........ ............ ............ .. ....... ........................................................... 34
3.5 . 1.3 Interviews ....... ........ ................... ................................................................................. ..... .... .... 35
3.5.2 Quantitative Approach ...................................................................................................................................... 36
3.5.2.1 Quantitative methods employed .......................................... .......... ........ .................................. 37 CHAPTER FOUR: THE EFFECT OF PAST ANTHROPOGENIC DISTURBANCE ON VEGETATION CHARACTERISTICS ..... 39
4. / Introduction ..... .................................................... ........................................ ........ .. .................................. 39
4.2 Methods .................. ... ............ .... .......... ... ............................ ........................ ........................................ ..... 43
4.2.1 Mapping of past land uses ....................................................................................... .. ...................................... 43 4.2.2 Vegetation and soil surveys .................. ....... ............................................................................ . ........ . 45 4.2.3 Soil sampling and analysis ....... ....... ........ ........... ........ .................... ....... ....... .................................................. 47 4.2.4 Statistical analysis ........................................................................................................................................... 47
4.2.4 . 1 Kruskal·Wallis and Mann-Whitney U Test ................................... ...... ......... .... ...................... .47 4.2.4.2 Chi squared test ..... ............... ..... ........ ...... ...... ... ... .. ........... ............................................ .... ....... 48
4.3. ReSlllts .... ....... ........................ .......................................................................... .. ...... ...... ......... .. .. ............ 49 4.3.1 The association between anthropogenic landscapes and soil properties ........................................................... .49 4.3.2 The relationship between past anthropogenic landscapes and vegetation characterislics ................................. .49
4.3.2.1 A comparison of species richness, plant abundances and percentage cover between anlhropogenic landscapes .................... .. ................. .. ... ..... ......... .......................................................... 49 4.3.2.2 The affect of past anthropogenic landscapes, texture, pH and gravel content on species richness ........... ... ... ................ .. .............. ... ................. .......... ... ......... ......... ..... ....................................... 50 ................ ....... ... ...... .. ..... ............ ............ .. ............ .. ........ .. .. ... ....... ... .......... ... ..... .... ... ...... ...................... 51
4.3.2.3 A comparison of plant heights between past anthropogenic landscapes ........ ....................... .. 52 4.3.3 The relationship between sacred pools and the river section in terms of vegetation characteristics .................. 53
4.3.3.1 A comparison of species richness, plant abundances and percentage cover between sacred pools and the river section ................................................................................................................... 53 4.3.3.2 A comparison ofplanl heights between sacred pools and the river section ............................. 53
4.3.4. Vegetation composition ............................................... ... ... ..... .......... .............................................. 54 4.3.4.1 The relationship between land use sites and vegetation composition ...................................... 54 4.3.4.2. The relationship between sacred pools and the river section in terms of vegetation composition ................... ...... ..... ........... , ... ........ ... ...... ............ .............. , ..... , ....... ....... ............................ 59
4.4 Discussion .......... .. ................................. ... ........ ............... .. .......................... ....... .. ........ .......... ... ... ........ ... 60 CHAPTER F IVE: THE IMPORTANCE OF ANTHROPOGENIC DISTURBANCE TO LOCAL PEOPLE'S LIVELIHOODS ........ 64
5.1 Introduction ............................................... ...................................................................... ........................ 64 5.2. Methods ............... .......................... ............ ................... ..... .... ....................... .......................................... 66
5.2.1 Household survey of resource use .......................................... ", ...... , ............................... .............. ................... . 66 5.2.2 Focus groups ..................................................................................................................................................... 67 5.2.3 Transect walks .................................................................................................................................................. 68 5.2.4 Semi-structured interviews ................... " ...... .... ................ ..... ................................... ...... ................................... 70 5.2.5 Data analysis ..................................................................................................................................................... 71
5.2.5.1 Descriptive analysis ............................. .. .................................................................................. 71 5.2.5.2 Statistical analysis .................................................................................................................... 72
5. 3. Results .. ................................................... ..... ... ....... ........................ ......................... .. ............................ 73 5.3.1 Basic needs and the natural environment .................. ............................................................................ ......... ... 73
5.3.1.1 Benefits obtained from the local landscape ............................................................................. 77 5.3.2 Management or the environment ..................... " ............. ............ ......... . " ...... " ................................................... 84 5.3.3 The role of anthropogenic disturbance in local people's livelihoods ........................................................... ..... 87
5.3.3.1. The effect of disturbance from a people's perspective ........................................................... 87 5.3.3.2 The relationship between anthropogenic disturbance and resources ....................................... 89
5.4 Discussion ... ......... ......... ...... ................... ............................. ..... .................................. ....... ...................... 99 CHAPTER 6: THE PREDOMINANT WORLDVIEW AND ECO-COSMOLOGY HELD BY THE PEOPLE OF CATHCARTVALE,
TIDBUR Y, NTLINI AND FAIRBAIRN AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH THE LOCAL LANDSCAPE
... ........................... .................................................................................................................. ......................... 106 6. 1 Introduction .................................. ..... .... ... ..................................................... ....... ................................. 106
6. 1.1 Animist beliefs among the Xhosa speaking groups in the Katberg .......................... ...... .............. .... .............. 110 6.1.1.1 The importance of cattle in Xhosa life ................................................................................... 113
6.2 Methods ................................. ............... .......... ............. ... .. ........... .... ...... ................................................ 115 6.2.1 Cathcartvale ................................................................................................................................................... 115 6.2.2 Tidbury, Fairbairn and Ntlini ......................................................................................................................... 118
6.3. Results ............... ........................................................................................ ... ......... .. ............................. 121 6.3. 1 The significance of traditional practices/rituals ..... ......... ....... ........ .............. ........ ............... ........ ..... ............ ... 121 6.3.2. Sites of cultural value .................................................................................................................................... 123
6.3.2.1 Sacred Pools .......................................................................................................................... 124 6.3.3 Plant and an imal species of cultural value ..................................................................................................... 129
6.3 .3.1 Plant species .......................................................................................................................... 129 6.3.3.2 Animals ........... ................. ..................... .................. .. ............................................................. 137
6.3.4 The value placed on the local landscape as a whole ....................................................................................... 138 6.3.4.1 Continuity to place ................................................................................................................. 138 6.3.4.2. Relationship between the ancestors and a healthy ecosystem .............................................. 142
6.4 Discussion ............................................... .............................................................................................. 145 6.5 Limitations ................................................................................................ ...... ....... .. .... ... ...................... 151
CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION ........ ................................... ............ ............................................................... ............ 152 7.1. Anthropogenic disturbance ........................ ........................ .................. ............... ....... .. .......... ......... 12152 7.2. The role of dense vegetation in ecosystem resilience .......................... .. ........................................... 12154 7.3. Anthropogenic disturbance and the factors leading to a resilien.t socio-ecological system and a degraded socia-ecological system ........................................................ ................................... ......... ... ........ 156
7.3.1. The process that leads to a resilient socio-ecological system as a consequence of anthropogenic disturbance .......................................................................................................................................................................... 123157
7.3.1.1 The Kat River Valley as a case study .................................................................................... 161
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7.3.2 The process that leads to a degraded socia-ecological system as a consequence of anthropogenic disturbance . ....................................................................... .............. ........................................................................................... 161
7.3.2.1 The Kat River Valley as a case study ................... .. .. ........ ...... ............................................... 161 6. J Conclusion ............... ........ .. ................... ............................ ... .......... ..................................................... 1068
REFERENCES ... .... ... ............ .... ........................................................................................................................... 171 ApPENDICES ............ ... .. ........................................ .......... .... ....... ... . ..... ..... ...... ... .......... ............. ... ...................... 187
Appendix J: Observed and expected values for chi squared test ...... .......................................................... 187 Appendix 2: Species names and their position ............................................................................................ 190 Appendix 3: Household survey of resource use ....................... ...... ... .. ........................................................ 191 Appendix 4 Species and their benefits (Voucher specimens identified Dold. A.P. at the Selmar Schon/and Herbarium) .... ........ ............................... .. ... .... .................... .... .... ................ ................................................. 194 Appendix 5: Two semi-structured interviews conducted with villagers of Tidbury. Ntlini and Fairbairn .. 197 5.1 First interview structure ........ ..................................... .......................................................... .. ........ ..... .. 197 5.2 Second interview structure ... .. .. ....... ...... .... ....................... ..... ............ ....... ........ .... ........... ..... ................. 199
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Tables
Table 2.1: Main source of income per household . ............................... ............................................................ 26 Table 4.1 Species richness, abundance and percentage cover of former land uses ........................................ 50 Table 4.2 Species heights of past land uses (Kruskal Wallis, values are probabilities) ................................... 52 Table 4.3 Species richness, plant abundance and percentage cover of sacred pools and the river section ...... 53 Table 4.4 Species heights for sacred pools and the river section ............................ ......... ............... .... ........... .. 54 Table 4.5 A comparison between species abundant in dense forests and the landscape as a whole . ......... ..... . 57 Table 5.1 Summary of gender and age groups of household and resource use interviewees .... ...... ..... .... ... .... 66 Table 5.2 Summary of gender and age groups of interviewees .. ..... .. ......... ... .... ... ...... .. ....... ......... ................... 70 Table 5.3 Local people's feelings about their environment. ... ................ ..... ..................... .. ........ ....... .............. 74 Table 5.4 The importance of the natural environment to local people .......... ..... ........................ .. ............... .... 74 Table 5.5 Reasons for the environment's importance as stated by informants ...................................... .......... 74 Table 5.6 The resulting problems of a degraded environment. ............................................... ........................ 75 Table 5.7 When the environment was at its healthies!... ........... ........... ........ ............ ........ ...... .......... ..... .... ...... . 76 Table 5.8 Environmental change since white and coloured land management. .............................................. 76 Table 5.9 Ranking of resource types ..................... ..... ...... ....... .... ........ ................ ......................................... ... 77 Table 5.10 The six most favourite species of the local people .. .... .................................................................. 78 Table 5.11 Fuel wood species (results from household resource use survey) ................................................. 80 Table 5.12 Medicinal plants (results from household resource use survey) .................................................... 81 Table 5.13 Cultural species (results from household resource use survey) ..................................................... 82 Table 5.14 Building materials (results from household resource use survey) ............... ....... .......... ................. 83 Table 5. 15 Environmental Rules and informants' understanding of the reasons for each particular rule .. ..... 84 Table 5.16 Reasons for the environmental rules ..... ... .... ..... ................... .. ............................................... .... ..... 85 Table 5.1 7 People's attitudes towards the environmental rules and their reasons ....................................... .... 85 Table 5.18 Adherence to environmental rules ..... .... .. ... ....................... ............... .... ................. ................... .... . 86 Table 5.19 Environmental change ................................................................................................................... 86 Table 5.20 Land uses and activities having a positive effect on their local environment.. .... ...... .......... .. ...... " 87 Table 5.21 Land uses and activities having a negative effect on the natural environment .............................. 88 Table 5.22 The main resource patches: their benefits and problems ........... ................................ .................... 92 Table 5.23 Negative aspects of dense forests ..................................................................... ............................. 93 Table 5.24 A comparison of species richness and abundance of different resource types, between past
anthropogenic landscapes, including dense forests ......................... .......... ..................................... . 94 Table 5.25: A summary depicting which past anthropogenic landscapes sites are significantly different to each
other in terms of the species richness and abundance of resources ................ ..... ....... ........ .. .. ........ 96 Table 6.1: Summary of the gender and age groups of interviewees ..................... .. ............................ ......... .. 117 Table 6.2: Gender and age groups of key informants ................ ........................................................... ...... ... 120 Table 6.3: The importance of traditional rituals to Xhosa identity ....................... ................................ .. ....... 121 Table 6.4 Plant species of cultural value to the amaXhosa in Tidbury, Fairbairn, Ntlini and Cathcart vale .. 132 Table 6.5 The average ranks of resources from ten focus groups in Cathcartvale ............. ............. ....... ....... . 133 Table 6.6 The ranking of species of cultural and use value in Tidbury, Fairbairn and Ntlini ........................ 135 Table 6.7 Medicinal plant uses ..................... ............................. .......................... ...... ........................... ......... 136 Table 6.8 Medicinal plant use in Cathcart vale ........ ............ ..................... ....... ............. ... .................... ..... ..... 136 Table 6.9 Animal species of cultural value ........................ ............................... .................. ........................... 138 Table 6.10 Questions that examine attachment to place .......................... .................. ............. ..... .. ................ 139
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Figures
Figure 2.1 The geographical location of the Kat River valley ................................ .......................... .. ............. 17 Figure 2.2 The Geographical position of Cathcart vale, Fairbairn, Tidbury, and Ntlini ................................... 17 Figure 2.3 The boundaries of Cathcartvale as well as a portion of Mzilini's farm which was harvested by local
people ... ............................................ ......... .................................................... 18 Figure 4.1 Past Anthropogenic landscapes mapped and sampled .................................................................... 44 Figure 4.2 Comparison of the abundance of different species between anthropogenic landscapes, including dense
forest. ...................... .. ..................................................................... .. .............. 55 Figure 4.3 Curve comparing the concentration of species of past anthropogenic landscapes , including dense
forests ............................................ ...... ... ........ .............................. .. .............................................. 566 Figure 4.4 The percentage abundance of the five dominant species in each landscape, relative to the abundance of
the remaining species. The unknown species in old settlements could not be identified because of the poor voucher specimen ................... ............... "." .... , ........ .. ..................................... ... ..................... 57
Figure 4.5 Comparison of the abundance of different species between sacred pools and the river section .... 59 Figure 4.6 The percentage abundance of the five dominant species in sacred pools and the river section, relative
to the abundance of the remaining species .. ... ................................................................................ 59 Figure 7.1 The process that leads to a resilient socio-ecological system as a consequence of anthropogenic
disturbance . .. .. .... .................................................. ........ .................................. 162 Figure 7.2 The process that leads to a degraded socio-ecological system as a consequence of anthropogenic
disturbance ........ ..... . .. ................................................................................................ 165
Plates
Plate 2.1 Cathcart vale village ............... .... ...................................... . .................... .. .. . .......... 18 Plate 4.1 Searching for medicinal plants in a quadrant. .................................................. . ..... . ....... .44 Plate 4.2 Comparison in species density between a former grazing land and an abandoned
ficld ............ ..... .. ......... .................................................... ..... .............. . ........... 51 Plate 4.3 An abandoned field . .. ....... ................................................ .... ............ . .. . ................. 51 Plate 4.4 Vegetation characteristics of former grazing lands ............... .•. . .. ....... ... .................. . ........ 5 I Plate 4.5 The dominance of Acacia karroo in an abandoned field ...................... . ...... ... . .. . ..... . . ....... ... .58 Plate 4.6 A mix of species in a former grazing land ............................. . .... . .. . .. . ................ . ............. 58 Plate 5.1 Erosion occurring on an abandoned field .............................. . ... . ................................ .... 90 Plate 5.2 The formation of gullies on former roads ..................................................... . .. . ............. ... 90 Plate 5.3 The abundance of Acacia karroa in an abandoned field ............ . ........... . .. . .. . . ........... . ........ 98 Plate 5.4 Cattle in two old settlements ........................................•...........•.. •................................ .... 98 Plate 6.1 An important sacred pool in the Kat River valley .... . .... . . ...... •.....•.... . .. .. . . .. . ..•.....•....•....... 127 Plate 6.2 Salix eapensis growing next to a sacred pool. ................ . ..... .. .. .. . ..... . .............. . ............. 127 Plate 6.3 Olea europaea subsp africana ....... ........................•.....•.............. . .. . ....... . ................. 131 Plate 6.4 A group of Salix capensis ... .. . .... ... .. . ......... .... •..•............•..... . ..... . .......... . ..... . ........... 131
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Acknowledgements
This thesis has been coloured and shaped by many people to whom lowe so much. Firstly
I would like to thank two key people who have made essential contributions to my thesis.
Professor Christo Fabricius, as my main supervisor, thank you for your dedication to my
thesis, your creative insights, generous heart, sacrifices, support and the many hours you
spent directing me, sharing your knowledge, and reading through multiple draft copies.
Mrs Penny Bernard, as my co-supervisor you have contributed in many ways to this thesis;
from my undergraduate years where you excited my interest in the dynamics between
culture and nature, to providing financial support through the National Research
Foundation grant, and your critical feedback, especially in terms of the cultural aspects of
our relationship to nature. You have never failed to give me your support, valuable time
and help where possible.
Professor Kate Rowntree, you have played an integral role in this thesis, from your
unfailing support, to your assistance with the GIS maps and sharing your extensive
knowledge and understanding of the Kat Valley. Thank you!!
Mike Ntwanambi lowe you a debt of gratitude. Your mUltiple skills were invaluable, from
your skill as a translator, to your knowledge of plants, particularly their Xhosa names, to
your thoroughness and attitude, which was incredible. Thank you for your willingness to
work long hours and trek up mountains and through dense thorny vegetation, for many
kilometres over-laden with heavy equipment. The fact that you never complained is
testimony to your character.
The villagers of Cathcartvale - I couldn ' t have chosen a better village to conduct my
research. You welcomed me in, made me feel at home and freely shared your time,
knowledge and expertise. Sisiwe, the meals you cooked were delicious.
Gillian McGregor and Charlie Shackleton, as part of my advisory committee, thank you for
your initial input, constructive comments and sharing of time and information. James
Gambeza…