The Relationship between the Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism A Papua New Guinea Primary School Case Study Eliakim Tokacap Apelis, MPS Dip. Sec. Teach.(GTC - UPNG), B.Ed. (UOG), M.Ed. (QUT) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Queensland University of Technology September, 2008 Centre for Learning Innovation Faculty of Education
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The Relationship between the Inspectorial System and
teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics) are disclosed and their
linkages identified. For example, professional development interactive strategies are linked
directly to teacher professional development as experienced and perceived by teachers, head
teachers and inspectors. This is done so that the direct impacts of each inspectorial
interactive strategy on the dimensions of teacher professionalism are identified, and this
leads to the creation of a conceptual framework for an inspectorial system that enhances
teacher professionalism. The conceptual framework can guide supervisors, either school-
based or externally based, to develop and execute an efficient supervisory system that can
have a direct impact on an evolving teaching profession.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE Papua New Guinea: Introducing the Study 19 1.1 Introduction to the Study 19 1.2 The Origin of the Study 20 1.3 Papua New Guinea 20
1.3.1 Papua New Guinea and Its History 20 1.3.2 Education in Papua New Guinea 22
Traditional Education 22 History and Legacies 23 Contemporary Education 24 Current Education Reform 24 Legislation and Policies 27 Centralized and Decentralized Functions 28
1.3.3 Organizational Structure of the NDOE 29 Organizational Structure 30 Specific Functions of the Divisions 30 Provincial Divisions of Education 32
1.3.4 The Inspectorial System 32 The Inspectorial Functions and Responsibilities 33 Specific Responsibilities of Inspectorial System 34 Conflicting and Multiple Roles of Inspectors 36
1.3.5 Quality Education in PNG 37 1.3.6 Quality Assurance: A task of the Inspectorial System 38 1.3.7 Teacher Supervision and Professional Development in PNG schools 39 1.3.8 Teacher Professionalism in PNG Schools 40
1.4 The Significance of the Study 42 1.4.1 The Problem 43 1.4.2 The Research Question 44 1.4.3 Methodology 44
1.5 Summary 45
CHAPTER TWO Reviewing the Literature 46 2.1 Introduction 46 2.2 Organizational Structures and Cultures 46
2.2.1 Organizational Structures 46 2.2.2 Organizational Culture 48 2.2.3 Organizational Structure and Culture in Educational Institutions 51
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2.2.4 Organizational Structure and Culture: PNG Context 52 2.3 Inspectorial Systems 54
2.3.1 Inspection and Inspectorial System 54 2.3.2 History and Development of Inspectorial Systems 54 2.3.3 The Inspectorial System: An External Supervisory System and its
Implications 57 Supervision: An Inspectorial Interactive Strategy 60 Professional Development: An Inspectorial Interactive Strategy 61 Quality Assurance: Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 64
2.4.1 Professionalism Defined 67 2.4.2 Teacher Professionalism: The Dimensions 68 2.4.3 Teacher Professionalism: PNG Context 72
2.5 Summary of the Literature Review 73
CHAPTER THREE Research Design 76 3.1 Introduction 76 3.2 Philosophical Background 76
3.2.1 Ontology 77 3.2.2 Epistemology 77 3.2.3 The Philosophical Position of this Study 78
3.3 Research Methodology 79 3.3.1 Qualitative Research 80 3.3.2 Case Study Method 80 3.3.3 Intrinsic Study Method 82 3.3.4 Multi-Case Study Method 82
3.4 Data Sources 83 3.4.1 Selection of Multi-Case Study Cases 83 3.4.2 Pilot Case Study 84 3.4.3 Participants 84
3.5 Data Collection Procedures 85 3.5.1 Interviews 85 3.5.2 Focus Group Interview 87 3.5.3 Documents 88
3.6 Data Analysis 90 3.6.1 Data Analysis 90
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3.6.2 Data Analysis in Qualitative Research 90 3.6.3 Data Analysis in Case Study Methods 91 3.6.4 Content Analysis 92 3.6.5 Cross-case Synthesis 92 3.6.6 Summary of Data Analysis 95
3.7 Validity and Reliability 96 3.8 Ethical Issues 98 3.9 Position of Researcher 101 3.10 Problems and Limitations 102 3.11 The Research Plan and its Implementation 103
3.11.1 Phase 1: Selection of Case Studies and Participants 103 3.11.2 Phase 2: Data Collection and Analysis 103 3.11.3 Phase 3: Conclusion Stage 104
3.12 Summary of the Research Design 104
CHAPTER FOUR The Research Findings 107 4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 Overview of the findings 107
4.2.1 Stages of Data Analysis 107 4.2.2 Outcomes from the stages of data analysis 108 4.2.3 Common features of the Case Studies 108
4.3 Case Study 1: Findings of a Provincial Inspectorate and a Remote Government
School 109 4.3.1 Background information 109 4.3.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 110 4.3.3 Perceived Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 113
Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers 118 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Head Teacher 119 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Inspector 120 Synthesis of the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 122
4.3.4 Perceived Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 123 Teacher professionalism: Views of Teachers 128 Teacher professionalism: Views of Head Teacher 130 Teacher professionalism: Views of Inspector 132 Synthesis of the Views: Teacher Professionalism 134
4.3.5 Perceived linkages between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the
dimensions of teacher professionalism 135
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Perceptions of the Linkages: Views of Teachers 135 Perceptions of the linkages: Views of Head Teacher 139 Perceptions of the Linkages: Views of Inspector 140 Synthesis of the Views of Linkages 142
4.3.6 Summary of Case Study 1 143 4.4 Case Study 2: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Urban Church Agency
School 145 4.4.1 Background information 145 4.4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 146 4.4.3 Perceived inspectorial interactive strategies 150
Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers 156 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Head Teacher 158 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Inspectors 160 Synthesis of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 163
4.4.4 Perceived Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 165 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Teachers 173 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Head Teacher 176 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Inspectors 179 Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism 182
4.4.5 Perceived linkages between inspectorial interactive strategies and
dimensions of teacher professionalism 183 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Teachers 184 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Head Teacher 190 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Inspectors 194 Synthesis of Views of Linkages 199
4.4.6 Summary of Case Study 2 200 4.5 Case Study 3: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Urban Government
School 202 4.5.1 Background information 203 4.5.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 204 4.5.3 Preamble to the findings of Case Study 3 208 4.5.4 Perceptions of teachers, head teacher and inspectors: Inspectorial interactive
strategies 208 Synthesis of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers, Head
Teacher and Inspectors 214 4.5.5 Perceptions of teachers, head teacher and inspectors on the dimensions of
teacher professionalism 216
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Teacher Professionalism: Views of Teachers 221 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Head Teacher 222 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Inspectors 223 Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism 225
4.5.6 Perceived Linkages between the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies and the
Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 226 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Teachers 227 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Focus Group 229 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Head Teacher 230 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Inspectors 232 Synthesis of Views of Linkages 235
4.5.7 Summary of Case Study 3 236 4.6 Case Study 4: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Rural Government
School 238 4.6.1 Background information 239 4.6.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 239 4.6.3 Preamble to the findings of Case Study 4 242 4.6.4 Perceptions of teachers and inspectors: Inspectorial interactive strategies242
Synthesis of the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers and
Inspectors 247 4.6.5 Perceptions of Teachers, Head Teachers and Inspectors: Dimensions of
Teacher Professionalism 249 Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism 253
4.6.6 Perceptions of the participants on the linkages between the inspectorial
interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism256 Perceived Linkages: Views of Teachers 256 Perceived Linkages: Views of Inspectors 258 Synthesis of the Views of Linkages 260
4.6.7 Summary of Case Study 4 261
CHAPTER FIVE Cross-Case Findings and Synthesis 264 5.1 Introduction 264 5.2 Cross-Case Participants’ Demographic Characteristics 264
5.2.1 Locations of the Schools and Inspectorates 264 5.2.2 Cross-case participant demographical characteristics: Similarities and
differences 266
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5.2.3 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Teachers’
views 274 5.2.4 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Head
teachers’ views 275 5.2.5 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Inspectors’
views 275 5.2.6 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism:
Teachers’ views 276 5.2.7 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism: Head
teachers’ views 277 5.2.8 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism:
Inspectors’ views 277 5.3 Linkages between Inspectorial Interactive Strategies and Dimensions of
Teacher Professionalism: Views of Cross-case Participants 277 5.3.1 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of teachers 278 5.3.2 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of head teachers 280 5.3.2 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of inspectors 282 5.3.4 Synthesis of Cross-Case Participant Findings 284
5.4 Cross-case Findings 286 5.4.1 Demographic differences of the case studies and participants 286 5.4.2 Cross-case analysis 287 5.4.3 Common findings 289 5.4.4 Differences in findings 289
5.5 Input, Process and Output Structure of the Findings 291 5.6 Summary of Cross-Case Findings 295
CHAPTER SIX Synthesis of the Findings 296 6.1 Introduction 296 6.2 Functions of Inspectorial System 297 6.3 Inspectors as External Supervisors in Schools 297
6.3.1 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 298 Supervision for Quality Assurance 307 Supervision for Professional Development 308 Professional Ethics of Inspectors: Emerged Interactive Strategies from
Supervisory Practices 310 6.4 Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 311
6.4.1 Teacher Compliance: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 311
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6.4.2 Teacher Knowledge: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 315 6.4.3 Teacher Leadership: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 317 6.4.4 Teacher Professional Development: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism
321 6.4.5 Teacher Professional Ethics: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 322
6.5 Influence of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies on Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism 328 6.5.1 Quality assurance and teacher professionalism 328 6.5.2 .Professional Development and teacher professionalism 329 6.5.3 Professional ethics of inspectors and teacher professionalism 330
6.6 Organizational Culture: How it can impact on Inspection System and Teacher
Professionalism 331 6.7 How Inspectorial System can Enhance Teacher Professionalism 333
6.7.1 An improved Inspectorial System that Enhances Teacher Professionalism
333 6.7.2 A Reviewed Responsibility of the Inspectorial System 334
6.8 Summary of Synthesis and Conceptual Framework 335 6.9 Implications and Conclusions 339
6.9.1 Research questions and answers 339 6.9.2 Implications of the study on current inspectorial system and teacher
professionalism 340 6.9.3 Future of Inspectorial system 341
References 365
Figures
Figure 1.1: New Reform Structure for National Education System (After 1993) 26 Figure 1.2: Old Structure for National Education System (Before 1993) 26 Figure 2.1: Connections between Functions, Strategies/Processes and Outcomes of
Inspectorial Systems 59 Figure 2.2: The Faces of Teacher Professionalism 72 Figure 2.3: The Initial Conceptual Framework 75 Figure 3.1: Proposition 1 – Linkages between the Inspectorial Functions and
Strategies 93 Figure 3.2: Proposition 2 - Teacher Professionalism and its Dimensions 94
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Figure 3.3: Proposition 3 – Linkages between the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies
and the Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 95 Figure 3.4: Fieldwork procedure for data collection and analysis 104 Figure 3.5: Summary of the Research Design 106 Figure 4.1: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 136 Figure 4.2: Teacher Focus Group Perceptions of Linkages 137 Figure 4.3: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 139 Figure 4.4: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages 141 Figure 4.5: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 184 Figure 4.6: Focus Group Perceptions Linkages 189 Figure 4.7: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 190 Figure 4.8: Inspector Perceptions Linkages 195 Figure 4.9: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 227 Figure 4.10: Teacher Focus Group Perception of Linkages 229 Figure 4.11: Head Teacher Perception of Linkages 231 Figure 4.12: Inspector Perception of Linkages 233 Figure 4.13: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 256 Figure 4.14: Inspector Perceptions Linkages 259 Figure 5.1: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1 278 Figure 5.2: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 2 278 Figure 5.3: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 3 278 Figure 5.4: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 4 279 Figure 5.5: Conclusion for Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 279 Figure 5.6: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1 280 Figure 5.7: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 2 280 Figure 5.8: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 3 281 Figure 5.9: Conclusion for Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 281 Figure 5.10: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1 282 Figure 5.11: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 2 282 Figure 5.12: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 3 283 Figure 5.13: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 4 283 Figure 5.14: Conclusion for Inspector Perceptions of Linkages 283 Figure 5.15: Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism - Structure of Findings 293 Figure 6.1: Conceptual Framework - Relationships between the Inspectorial System
and Teacher Professionalism 338
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Tables
Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants of Case Study 1 111 Table 4.2: Inspector Responsibility Load 113 Table 4.3 Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:
Quality Assurance 114 Table 4.4: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:
Professional Development 115 Table 4.5: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:
Professional Ethics of Inspectors 116 Table 4.6: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Compliance 124 Table 4.7: Process of Establishing Themes of the Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge 125 Table 4.8: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Leadership 125 Table 4.9: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development 126 Table 4.10: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 127 Table 4.11: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 1 143 Table 4.12: Demographical Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 2 147 Table 4.13: Inspector Responsibility Load 150 Table 4.14: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:
Quality Assurance 151 Table 4.15: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:
Professional Development 152 Table 4.16: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:
Professional Ethics 153 Table 4.17: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Compliance 166 Table 4.18: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge 168 Table 4.19: Process of Establishing Themes of the Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Leadership 169 Table 4.20: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development 170
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Table 4.21: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 171 Table 4.22: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 2 201 Table 4.23: Demographic Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 3 205 Table 4.24: Inspector Responsibility Load 207 Table 4.25: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:
Quality Assurance 209 Table 4.26: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:
Professional Development 210 Table 4.27: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:
Professional Ethics 211 Table 4.28: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Compliance 217 Table 4.29: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge 218 Table 4.30: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Leadership 218 Table 4.31: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development 219 Table 4.32: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 220 Table 4.33: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 3 237 Table 4.34: Demographical Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 4 241 Table 4.35: Inspector Responsibility Load 242 Table 4.36: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:
Quality Assurance 243 Table 4.37: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies
: Professional Development 244 Table 4.38: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:
Professional Ethics 245 Table 4.39: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Compliance 250 Table 4.40: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge 250 Table 4.41: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Leadership 251
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Table 4.42: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development 251 Table 4.43: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 252 Table 4.44: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 4 262 Table 5.1: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Teachers 267 Table 5.2: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Head Teachers 270 Table 5.3: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Inspectors 272 Table 5.4: Cross-Case Participant Findings of Themes and the Linkages 285 Table 5.5: Cross-Case Analysis of Themes and Linkages 288 Table 6.1 Examples of Themes of Quality Assurance Interactive Strategies 300 Table 6.2: Examples of Themes on Professional Development Interactive Strategies 302 Table 6.3: Examples of Themes of Professional Ethics of Inspectors 304 Table 6.4: Examples of Themes of Teacher Compliance 313 Table 6.5: Examples of Themes of Teacher Knowledge 316 Table 6.6: Examples of Themes of Teacher Leadership 320 Table 6.7: Examples of Themes of Teacher Professional Development 323 Table 6.8: Examples of Themes of Teacher Professional Ethics 326
Appendices
APPENDIX 1 Map of Papua New Guinea: The provinces and towns 342 APPENDIX 2 Structure of NDOE 346 APPENDIX 3 Samples of Protocol Documents 346
APPENDIX 4 Interview Guidelines 352
APPENDIX 5 Samples of the Four Stages of Analysis 355
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STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP
The work in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at any
other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, this thesis
contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due
• How the inspectorial system (IS) operates • The perceptions of teachers, head teachers and
inspectors on the dimensions of teacher professionalism
• The linkages & relationships between IS & TP
Research Questions
• How & to what extent does the IS enhance or constrain TP? • How does the IS operate in primary schools? What issues do teachers, head
teachers & inspectors perceive as arising from the inspectorial operation? • What are the dimensions of TP & how are these relate to the inspectorial
interactive strategies? • What redeveloped conceptual framework that is grounded in the realities of
teachers’, head teachers’ & inspectors’ experiences & perceptions can be constructed to address the above questions?
Methods
• Qualitative case study methodology • Interpretivism approach • Intrinsic & Multi-case study methods • Data collection: Interviews, Focus group interview
& Document examination • Data analysis: Mixture of priori & posteriori
In response to questions of how the inspectors operate in schools, the activities used by
inspectors to carry out their responsibilities, according to teachers, the head teacher and
inspector were categorized into quality assurance, professional development and
professional ethics of inspectors. These categories emerged from the data through the
processes of clustering. Tables 4.3 to 4.5 illustrate the processes of establishing these
interactive strategies derived from the transcripts and documents analysis.
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Table 4.3 Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Quality Assurance
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis
Emerging Themes Emerged Themes Teacher • Checking teaching files & records, & personal records, delegated duties records. • Observed teacher’s lessons. • Interview teachers on personal character. • Registration of teachers through inspection processes. Head teacher • Inspectors carry out inspection for promotion. • Inspectors write reports on how teachers teach & how they perform their responsibilities. • Inspectors provide information to help head teachers to abide by policies in managing
schools. Teacher Focus group • Inspectors check work programs, workbooks, roll books & lesson plans. • Inspector checks teachers’ work at his own discretion. Inspector • Operational plans cover school visits, supervisory duties and training programs. • Inspector ensures senior teachers are organized in supervising teachers. • Inspector supervises and assesses head teachers as a curriculum leader. • Inspector ensures that Board of Management (BOM) and Parents & Citizens Association
carry out their responsibilities. • Inspectorate office is being used as a communication centre and a source of information by
PDOE and NDOE. • Inspector liaises with the Teaching Service Commission on matters related to teacher
discipline.
• Monitoring teaching standards and curriculum requirements • Teacher Appraisal, Assessment & Evaluation is carried out by
inspectors. • Quality control & assurance is carried out • Through the monitoring of policies & reporting to PDOE and
NDOE authorities. • Inspectors as disciplinarians, carrying out investigations on
disciplinary cases. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources are used
children’s education.
Quality assurance
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Table 4.4 Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Development
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Teacher : No comments Head teacher • Inspectors observe lessons and provide advice for improvement. • Inspectors provide advice on areas of weaknesses for improvement. • Inspectors help in extending head teacher knowledge in order to administer and
manage schools. • Inspectors help head teachers to formulate school policies. Focus group : No comments Inspector • Inspectors train senior teachers to become Deputy Head Teachers. • Inspectors strengthen head teachers’ and teachers’ supervisory roles ensuring skills
and confidence in supervision and curriculum implementation including teaching methods, knowledge and competence are established and teacher are valuing students’ education.
• Inspectors work with PDOE personnel and other stakeholders in an advisory capacity.
• Supervision for professional development through advisory
and training roles performed by inspectors. • Advisory capacity done by inspectors for provincial
authorities.
Professional development
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Table 4.5: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Ethics of Inspectors
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Teacher Operational issues • Teacher visited only once and only for registration. • Unplanned visits done by inspectors. • Inspector did not really do what he supposed to do. • No documents, including newsletters, related to inspector’s expectations of the teacher
were given to teachers. • No feedback from the inspector. Professional issues • Many teachers not performing well but getting good inspection reports for full
registration. • Teachers not performing well because inspectors are not being honest. • Teacher does not know whether he improved or not in his work. • Inspector did not appreciate teacher’s work. Head teacher Operational Issues • Head teacher has not been paid advisory & inspection visits by inspector for 5 years. • Inspectors perform “too much work.” • No appropriate documents provided by inspectors to help the head teacher & teachers
in supervision of teachers, management of schools & writing inspection reports. Professional Issues • Inspector did not look thoroughly at the things teacher expected him to write about. • Inspection done without advisory visit does not help teachers. Teacher Focus group Operational issues • Many changes experienced with the inspectorial operation and with many problems
being experienced, including lack of teaching and learning resources.
• Lack of planning and organization by inspector to carry out
his work. • Inspector’s integrity being questioned and is having adverse
impacts on teachers. • Lack of benefits experienced by teacher from inspector’s
visit. • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit schools and help
teachers. • Needs of teachers and changes not catered for by inspectors
due to lack of visits to schools.
Professional ethics of inspectors
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Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
• Inspectors observed teachers’ work less in remote schools compared to urban schools. Professional issues • Inspectors concentrate on classroom teaching and deal with weaknesses and provide
alternatives ways of improvement “but they did not do this well”. • Inspectors do not read documents provided by teachers. • Unequal distribution of inspectorial services in remote, rural and urban schools. • Lack of commitment by inspector in assisting teachers. • Inspectors enhanced teacher preparation when they visit schools. Inspector Operational issues • Impact of changes on the lives of teachers in both rural/remote and urban schools not
being catered for by inspectors due to lack of resources. Professional issues • Duplication of supervisory roles performed by school personnel and inspector –
inspector, head teacher and senior teacher supervising based level teachers, etc.
(As above)
(As above)
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Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers
The first theme related to the inspectors’ work concerned quality assurance interactive
strategies. This involved the use of checklists (e.g. lesson observation checklists) and
standard formats (e.g. inspection report formats) by inspectors to check on basic educational
requirements and to carry out the inspection of teacher and head teacher respectively. As
confirmed through experiences by the teacher:
“The first time he (inspector) came, he called me up and asked me if he could
observe one of my lessons. Then he checked my teaching files and programs.
Then he checked my personal statements (records) and delegated duties
records, and lastly he observed my lesson. Then he interviewed me asking
questions related to my personal character.” (WVT 1)
The teacher added that:
“I have noticed that the main aim of his work is to write the inspection report
and he aimed to register myself as a full time teacher.” (WVT 1)
The second theme related to the inspectors’ work was professional development
strategies. Though the use of checklists and standard formats was considered part of the
professional development strategies identified by the head teacher and the inspector,
teachers (including members of the focus group) did not view this to be the case. This
was probably attributed to the lack of advisory visits given to the teachers by inspectors.
The third theme referred to the manner in which inspectors conducted themselves in their
work, including questions raised on their professional behavior as observed by teachers.
Such an observation emerged as an issue that the teacher was concerned with and was
categorized as professional ethics of inspectors. Serious comments on such views were
common and exemplified here by the teacher and members of the focus group:
“I assessed Mr. (Inspector named) on what he did and some of the things that
he did were not good. Some of the things, to be honest, I don’t think he wrote
(the report) according to what he observed and to expected standards but he
just wrote a good report. Well I think this should not be done because it won’t
help at all for the new graduate.” (WVT 1)
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“With me I feel that the inspector came and did his job by observing how the
teacher is doing his/her work. The other teacher said that he just came for a
short time and left. But with me I prepared everything because the inspectors
were coming to inspect me so I make sure things are in order …….. But he
only spent little time in the classroom.” (WFG 1)
Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Head Teacher
With the first theme concerning quality assurance strategies the head teacher included
advisory and inspection written reports as strategies used by inspectors to monitor teacher
performances. Such reports were also used to assist head teachers in adhering to educational
policies. In support of the inspectors’ work the head teacher revealed that:
“Inspectors’ work, as far as I am concern, they are doing something good for
the teachers. They write up report on how teachers teach and how they perform
in school. Their work, as I can see, is good so they should continue with it.”
(WVH 1)
With the second theme concerning professional development interactive strategies, the head
teacher concluded that the advisory activities were also of a professional development
nature. Inspectors observed teachers’ lessons and provided advice on the quality of teaching
and learning. Inspectors also assisted the head teacher in formulating school policies as well
as providing skills in administering and managing the school. As the head teacher
confirmed:
“I feel that the Inspectors help the teachers in many ways and also help them to
better improve their teaching performances and also to improve in other areas
of responsibilities that they are supposed to be committed to. They assist the
teachers and analyze the weaknesses and strengths. Through this experience the
Inspector told me to improve on my performances as a teacher and as a senior
teacher as well.” (WVH 1)
The head teacher admitted that he had benefited from the inspectors’ work through advisory
activities and inspection processes he experienced while teaching in other schools. He
explained:
“Well I feel that what the Inspector was doing was good because the Inspector
was trying to help me somehow to extend the knowledge that I have as an
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administrator or a manager in a school. So the kinds of activities that the
Inspector is doing for me is good because after all they become examples for
me to follow so in that way I would put into practice what the Inspector is
putting across to me.” (WVH 1)
The third theme, professional ethics of inspectors, referred to the manner in which inspectors
behaved and conducted themselves in their work. As similarly observed by teachers, there
were questions raised on inspectors’ professional conduct and in the ways they portrayed
themselves to the public. This included such observations as the inspectors having no plans
for their school visits, inspectors did not provide information about their responsibilities and
inspectors did not thoroughly examine teachers’ documents. There were also no advisory
visits given to teachers prior to the inspection process, and though this was policy (Baki,
2001a; 2001b), it was a serious concern. The head teacher observed:
“Not so much problem that I could see about the inspector’s work but I see
that the inspectors should have proper inspection or visit programs. They
should plan in advance and the plan has to be distributed to schools so that
teachers and head teachers are well aware of their visit times so that they can
always prepare things and get ready for his or her visits………. And also when
they come to pay visits at least they should bring with them some kind of
documents regarding inspections so that they help the head teachers to
implement what is required during the inspection process.” (WVH 1)
“I believe regular advisory visits to schools are better than one or none. An
inspection visit without advisory visits first does not coincide with the
inspection process and the teaching profession well.” (WVH 1)
Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Inspector
With the theme concerning quality assurance interactive strategies, the inspector confirmed
that the operational plans he used included supervisory duties that concerned the monitoring
of curriculum requirements (teaching programs and assessments) and senior teachers’
supervision of base level teachers, the assessments of head teachers as curriculum leaders
and ensuring the schools operate smoothly. Consistent with the teachers’ and the head
teacher’s comments, the inspector confirmed:
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“In my early inspector days, many head teachers thought I was too young for
the job, that is, providing advisory and supervisory roles, writing comments
about their work and performance, …….. and writing inspection reports about
their performance.” (WVI 1)
“I oversee policy implementation in relation to educational standards,
curriculum implementation, inspections and teacher appraisal … ” (WVI 1)
“I make sure that senior teachers are well organized in supervising their
teachers in the current education reform structure, that is, in lower Primary
Grades (3, 4 & 5) and Upper Primary (6,7 & 8), effectively coordinating these
sections.………….I also supervise teachers in lower and upper primary grades
with their responsibilities when I visit the schools. I supervise and assess the
Head Teacher as a curriculum leader. The implementation of the curriculum is
his responsibility and he is also in control of the supervision of the teachers. At
the Administration level, the head teacher is the overall school administrator.
………….. In the school there is also the Board of Management (BOM) which
is responsible for the school under the Education Act of 1983. ……. The BOM
is accountable and responsible to the wellbeing of both students and teachers. I
ensure that there are no problems with funds and funds are used for educating
children.” (WVI 1)
With the theme, professional development interactive strategies, the inspector revealed his
full involvement in strengthening head teachers’ and senior teachers’ supervisory roles at the
school level through planning, facilitating and implementing training programs for teachers
and head teachers. The training programs, including advisory activities, covered changes in
the school system, curriculum issues, administration and management of the schools, and
professional development for teachers. As elaborated (also refer to the above inspector’s
comments):
“As an inspector ............ I like working with teachers and assist them become
competent in their own teaching performance, improve skills, children’s
activities and appraise them to become better teachers.” (WVI 1)
“………..(I am) Focusing more on promoting teacher professional development
programs through strengthening school based, cluster, zone or distance mode
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types of education to reach both teachers in upgrading their professional
competencies individually.” (WVI 1)
As identified by all participants, the third theme related to the inspectors’ work was
identified as professional ethics of inspectors. Professional ethics was related to the manner,
conduct and behavior of inspectors that arose from carrying out the quality assurance and
professional development activities. This theme also relates to organizational issues
including a lack of resources for inspectors to work with and a lack of support from
authorities. As a result the inspectors were not performing to expected standards and, in
general, this had demoralized the status of the inspectorial system. While the inspector fully
supported the existence of the inspectorial system he strongly emphasized the need to
reshape it so that it becomes more effective. He said:
“Inspectorate budgets for inspectors’ operations in many provinces are not
included despite the fact that inspectors continue to overwork. Inspectors
become communication ‘centers’ and provide expert advice to both the NDOE
and the PDOE. Both continue to downplay (the roles of) the school inspectors
and their work.” (WVI 1)
“I suggest we legalize the inspectorate system as an independent entity within
the NDOE, that is, the inspectorate system must be free from undue influence
but work according to its policy framework. It must be arm with teeth (legal
power) resources and support with training programs for inspectors.” (WVI 1)
Synthesis of the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies
Two main interactive strategies that the inspector applied when performing his
responsibilities with teachers and the head teacher in the school were identified as quality
assurance and professional development. These strategies were performed through the use
of inspector’s operational plans, checklists, standard formats and teacher/head teacher
advisory and inspection reports. The strategies involved direct interactions between the
teachers, the head teacher and inspector.
Quality assurance strategies were concerned with maintaining educational requirements and
monitoring the implementation of educational policies including curriculum and assessment,
and the administration and management of resources by teachers and the head teacher in the
school. These strategies were directly concerned with the performances of teachers and the
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head teacher and involved advisory activities (where checklists were used) and the inspection
processes (Section 1.3.4). The professional development interactive strategies involved
planned advisory and training programs that were facilitated and/or implemented by
inspectors. These strategies included observing and providing advice on teachers’ lessons,
records and files; providing advice on the administration and management of school
resources; and acknowledging teachers’ and the head teacher’s performances. However,
while the head teacher and inspector viewed this to be the case, teachers did not share the
same views. This could probably be attributed to the absence of advisory and inspection
visits given to the teachers.
Professional ethics of inspectors emerged as significant behavioral interactive strategies that
resulted from how inspectors behaved and conducted themselves while carrying out their
responsibilities. These behavioral strategies arose from the inspector’s quality assurance and
professional development practices as an external supervisor in the school, and included
organizational factors that influenced the inspector in his work. Such behavioral interactive
strategies demonstrated by the inspector, observed by teachers and the head teacher and
confirmed by the inspector, influenced teachers and the head teacher as members of the
teaching profession.
4.3.4 Perceived Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
In response to the questions of how teachers, the head teacher and inspector perceived
teacher professionalism, the following results were thematically derived from the analysis.
The teacher perceived teacher professionalism as having the dimensions of teacher
compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher professional ethics. The teacher focus group
perceived teacher professionalism as having the dimensions of teacher knowledge, teacher
professional development and teacher professional ethics. The head teacher perceived
teacher professionalism as having the dimensions of teacher compliance, teacher leadership
and teacher professional ethics. The inspector perceived teacher professionalism as having
the dimensions of teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher
professional development and teacher professional ethics.
Tables 4.6 to 4.10 illustrate the analytical processes through which the above results were
derived using grounded analysis approaches.
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Table 4.6: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Compliance
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teacher • Teacher teaching, including preparation of materials, teacher physical appearance, and
teacher performance. • Teachers as good implementers. • Carrying out work well for the students. • Teachers as planners. Head teacher • Teacher professionalism relates to the work that a teacher does. • Teacher must do his/her best in what he/she does. • Teachers having one mind and working together. • Head teacher formulating school policies. Teacher focus group: No comments Inspector • Teacher professionalism is characterized by what is in the job description or duty
statement of each teacher or head teacher. • Teacher practices – teaching, teacher competence, classroom organization and
management practices including curriculum content and context. • Head teachers and teachers as agents of changes. • Head teacher and teacher accountability.
• Teacher performance relates to teaching, preparation and in
performing other duties. • Teacher organization relates to planning and organizing
teacher records and files. • Teacher as agent of change. • Teacher accountability relates to teachers being accountable
to children learning and other responsibilities
Teacher compliance
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Table 4.7: Process of Establishing Themes of the Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teacher • Teacher qualifications. Head teacher : No comments Teacher focus group • Teacher competence and knowledge relate to teaching competence and curriculum
Table 4.8: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Leadership
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teacher : No comments Head teacher • Head teacher working at his best to show fellow teachers. • Head teacher taking a lead in all aspects of work in the school. • Leadership is important in Teacher Professionalism. Teacher focus group : No comments Inspector • Head teacher and teacher leadership skills - management, appraisal, organizational
leadership, consultants, etc. • Head teacher expertise in management, organizational and administrative skills.
• Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking
a lead in aspects of school operation.
Teacher leadership
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Table 4.9: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teacher : No comments Head teacher : No comments Teacher focus group • Teacher continuous professional development. • Teacher professional development as a continuing phenomenal in teaching. Inspector • Teacher supervisory roles in subordinate appraisal, conflict resolution, contextual
skills and life skills. • Teacher professional development.
Teacher professional development as a continuing phenomenal in teaching.
Teacher professional development
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Table 4.10: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teacher • Teacher honesty. • Teacher dedication. • Teacher commitment. • Teacher as good role model. • Teacher respecting other teachers. Head teacher • Teacher commitment. • Teacher honesty, teacher being honest in his/her work. • Teacher being dedicated to his/her working life. • Teacher interaction with children, this requires honesty. Teacher focus group • “Teaching is what you do with children”. • Dedication to work. • Commitment to work. Inspector • Teacher-interaction with children, teachers, colleagues, community and parents. • Head teacher integrity and impartiality and leadership.
• Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty, respect,
commitment and dedication. • Teacher-child interaction relates to what teachers do with
children. • Teacher interaction relates to how teachers relate and
communicate with children, and other stakeholders.
Teacher professional ethics
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Teacher professionalism: Views of Teachers
The interviewed teacher, who was only inspected the previous year for full registration,
viewed teacher professionalism as having three dimensions. These dimensions were teacher
compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher professional ethics. The interviewed teacher
referred teacher compliance to teachers complying with teaching responsibilities including
preparation of teaching and learning materials, implementing curriculum requirements and
performing well for the students. He said:
“I think teacher professionalism is simply referring to the teacher teaching, his
or her own work including preparation of teaching materials, ...... and teacher
performances, how he or she performs his or her work. This is all about
teacher professionalism.” (WVT 1)
However, the members of the focus group did not believe that adhering to requirements
(teacher compliance) was an aspect of the teaching profession. Their views maybe attributed
to their years of experience where duties had become ‘a norm’ for them. Such perception
maybe caused by the few visitations given to them by the inspectors where their
performances and educational requirements were not monitored. At the same time the views
of experienced teachers raised the issue of how new developments in education, including
the reformed curriculum were being addressed. It was not clear whether teachers were aware
of such developments. A member of the focus group reiterated the problems:
“Many times we do not have resources for the students to use, even the
curriculum involving the Melanesian Series, and later the Pacific Series and
then the new curriculum, many things are very slow (in being implemented by
the schools). And I feel that since the changes in curriculum took place until
now teaching is not so much interesting and many things are changing at
once.” (WFG 1)
The second emerged dimension of the teaching profession concerned teacher knowledge.
The teachers, both members of the focus group and the interviewed teacher believed that
teachers had to have appropriate knowledge and had to be competent in teaching methods
and skills. At the same time, as a member of the focus group argued, teacher knowledge had
to be addressed through continuous professional development.
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“So the main issues are teachers’ knowledge on the new curriculum and
teacher continuous professional development to address all agenda that relate
to the education reform that PNG is going through now.” (WFG 1)
The interviewed teacher, newly graduated, also noted the importance of teacher
qualifications related to teacher knowledge:
“I think some teachers in this school are performing to their best while others
are struggling because of their teaching qualifications. In this school we have
certificate holders and diploma holders. Thus there is a difference in the
quality of work”. (WVT 1)
The other identified dimension of teacher professionalism is teacher professional
development. The experienced teachers (focus group) believed that teacher professional
development was an important aspect of the teaching profession. However, this was not so
for the graduate teacher. This explained the fact that the graduate teacher was aware of
current changes and did not believe that continuous professional development was
appropriate for him. On the other hand, the experienced teachers relied on continuous
professional development to keep up with developments, including changes in curriculum
and technology. There were, however, serious problems at present in the school, as a
member of the focus group described:
“Teacher professional development concerning curriculum development, the
new curriculum, we have not been targeted, there is no training and in-service
on the new development and this is affecting us in our work. So I see that in
this province these new initiatives will not work well. So the main issues are
teachers’ knowledge on the new curriculum and teacher continuous
professional development to address all agenda that relate to the education
reform that PNG is going through now.” (WFG 1)
The fourth emerged dimension of the teaching profession concerned teacher professional
ethics. Teachers referred to teacher professional ethics in terms of the manner in which
teachers and the head teachers conducted themselves in the school and how this was
paramount to being a teacher. Such manner and conduct were also related to ethic and
values such as honesty, dedication, commitment, respect and teachers being role models for
children, colleagues and the public. As the interviewed teacher emphasized:
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“Honesty, dedication and commitment are also to do with teacher
professionalism.” (WVT 1)
“What I value as a teacher is that I must respect other teachers, I must help
other teachers and I must carry out my work well for the students.” (WVT 1)
Such beliefs were also expressed by a member of the focus group though he also
categorically described the current status of the teaching profession in PNG.
“….. I think if we are to look closely at this (teaching profession), I believe we
as teachers must dedicate and commit ourselves to our work. After all we know
that what we are giving to the children will allow them to have knowledge and
skills, both for their future career and lives. So I think commitment and
dedication must be part of our work and profession, these are very important
aspects (of being a teacher). Because we are teachers I think work
commitment, dedication and honesty are important areas that we need to
consider in our work. These aspects (of the teaching profession) I no longer see
being displayed by many teachers today.” (WFG 1)
Teacher professionalism: Views of Head Teacher
The head teacher viewed teacher professionalism as having three dimensions. The three
dimensions are teacher compliance, teacher leadership and teacher professional ethics.
With teacher compliance, the head teacher provided similar views as teachers and related
such views from his status as having supervisory responsibilities in the school. He related
teacher compliance to teachers and the head teacher having to abide by educational policies,
and management and professional requirements such as presenting effective lessons,
maintaining appropriate records and files, and managing and accounting for school resources
respectively. The head teacher emphasized that teacher compliance related directly to
teachers and the head teacher adhering to responsibilities. With his own roles concerning
teacher compliance, the head teacher confirmed:
“My current responsibility as a head teacher for this school is to make an
overall plan for the school for the whole year and to make sure teachers are
allocated to the classes to teach, and also to delegate some responsibilities to
them. As a supervisor, I make sure they perform to expectations as teachers
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and see how they are going with their performances and responsibilities. I help
teachers work in the school and give instructions to ensure students learn to the
expected standards. I also have to supervise teachers and students daily. And
another thing is that I must help teachers in their professional development
through in-services, discussions and meetings. In making sure the school run
smoothly, I also work closely with the Board of Management of the school and
the community as a whole.” (WVH 1)
The other emerged theme of the dimensions of teacher professionalism was teacher
leadership. The head teacher believed that leadership at any level in school was significant
and an integral part of the teaching profession. Teacher leadership concerned teachers taking
a lead in all aspects of the school life. Such views defined leadership from both an informal
and formal perspectives. The head teacher described his position:
“As a Head teacher I should try to work to my best to show my fellow teachers,
my subordinates, the kind of work performance especially taking a lead in all
aspects of work we have in the school. Leadership is far more important in the
school. I do administrative work in the school and also other activities that
would lead the teachers into some kind of things that they may have not
experienced sometimes in their teaching life. So leadership is far more
important (in order) to lead the teachers especially in my position as a Head
teacher.” (WVH 1)
Another theme that emerged about teacher professionalism was teacher professional ethics.
Teacher professional ethics referred to the manner in which teachers and head teachers
conducted themselves in schools. For example, as a leader, the head teacher was expected to
display a high degree of integrity as well as being impartial in his dealing with stakeholders
in the school system. Thus, teacher professional ethics was concerned with teachers’ beliefs
about the teaching profession. It concerned ethics and values that allowed teachers and head
teachers to carry out responsibilities with commitment, dedication and honesty, as advocated
by the head teacher:
“Simply, teacher professionalism relates to the work that a teacher does, a kind
of a teacher that is committed, the teacher has to be honest in his or her work,
the teacher has to be dedicated to his or her working life and also that the
teacher must do his or her best in his or her work that he or she is doing.
Because the profession itself is far more important for the teacher to deal with
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children, we teachers should have this kind of interaction with the children
which requires us to be very honest in our work.” (WVH 1)
Teacher professionalism: Views of Inspector
The inspector identified five dimensions of teacher professionalism. These dimensions were
teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional
development and teacher professional ethics. With teacher compliance the inspector
presented similar views to teachers and the head teacher by relating this dimension to
teachers and head teachers adhering to basic educational, administrative, management and
professional requirements. He also reiterated the importance of teachers and head teachers
complying with responsibilities that were described in job descriptions.
“The characteristics of a teacher and head teacher are bound by their job
descriptions or duty statements. The class teacher deals with improving
teacher practices; teaching, teacher competence, classroom organization and
management practices including curriculum content and context and student
integral development; mental, physical, social, and spiritual. The head teacher
provides expertise in terms of maintaining the best infrastructure, management,
organizational and administrative skills.” (WVI 1)
The inspector further stressed that teachers and head teachers were agents of change and had
to adhere to changes if they had to comply with developments in the school system:
“The characteristics of teacher professionalism of the teachers and head
teacher are that both are agents of changes in the school. One deals with
teaching practices, mostly in children while the head deals with management of
changes to create a healthy learning atmosphere for the children.” (WVI 1)
The inspector also noted that accountability was significant to teachers in carrying out their
responsibilities. He drew attention to the current problems in schools with teachers and
claimed that:
“….. teachers [should] become more accountable in their teaching and in their
work. I think a lot of teachers are not accountable in what they are doing now.
Some of them do not complete their assessments. Thus it is a current problem and
even some parents do not know the children’s academic results”. (WVI 1)
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Concerning teacher knowledge, the inspector supported the teachers’ views but
acknowledged that knowledge was a component of teacher competence, including
methods and skills of teaching and being knowledgeable in the content of the school
curriculum. The inspector stressed that:
“Teacher professionalism deals with building teacher competence – knowledge,
methods, skills, content, etc and building teacher curriculum – content, context,
overview, programs, etc.” (WVI 1)
Teachers and head teachers therefore had to have appropriate knowledge in curriculum
matters and had to be competent to deliver these to students for them to be members of the
teaching profession.
The experiences of the inspector led him to conclude that leadership at any level in schools
was significant to the teaching profession. In support of the head teacher, the inspector
related teacher leadership as an emerged dimension of teacher professionalism as having
teachers and head teachers taking a lead in all aspects of the school life. The inspector
argued that administrative, organizational and management skills as ingredients for
leadership were essential. In addition, the inspector viewed teacher leadership as related to
supervisory, professional development, consultancy and conflict resolution roles that
teachers and head teachers had to model. Such perceptions of leadership defined leadership
from multiple perspectives:
“Teacher professionalism deals with .......... building/promoting head teacher
In response to questions on how the inspectors operated in the schools, the interactive
strategies applied by the inspectors emerged into quality assurance, professional
development and professional ethics of inspectors. These results emerged from the data
through the process of clustering and were similar to the findings of Case Study 1. Tables
4.14 to 4.16 show the processes in identifying the emerged themes of the inspectorial
interactive strategies that originated from the transcripts and document analysis.
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Table 4.14: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Quality Assurance
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Teachers • Teachers apply for inspection before they are inspected for promotion. • Inspectors check on performances of teachers. • Inspectors gather reports from head teacher and write report on teachers. • Inspectors are concerned about what is expected and required of teachers. • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements. Head teacher • Inspectors visit, talk and share with head teachers professional issues and new changes
that come about. • Inspectors advise schools on government (education) policies. • Inspectors identify the strengths in head teachers’ performances and appraise them. Teacher Focus group • Inspectors maintain the standard of teaching and student learning. • Inspectors guide and help teachers to maintain standards. Inspectors • Inspectors observe teachers’ lessons, suggest improvements and advise head teachers
to follow up. • Inspectors ensure administrative requirements, including monthly returns, are done. • Inspectors ensure school based supervision is effective. • Inspectors ensure support from the community and parent exists. • Inspectors advise and deal with teacher and student discipline.
• Monitoring teaching standards and curriculum requirements • Teacher appraisal, assessment & evaluation are carried out
by inspectors. • Quality control & assurance is carried out • Through the monitoring of policies & reporting to
authorities. • Inspectors as disciplinarians, carrying out investigations on
disciplinary cases. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for
children’s education.
Quality assurance
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Table 4.15: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Development
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Teachers • Inspectors advise and assist teachers in their work. • Inspectors are resource people that teachers rely on for advice, assistance “and whatever
professional concerns teachers encounter”. • Inspectors encourage teachers to improve in their teaching. • Inspectors help teachers with new curriculum development. • Inspectors help teachers to be knowledgeable in their subjects. Head teacher • Inspectors discuss issues on professional development and growth of teachers. • Inspectors conduct in-services “in the professional development of teachers”. • Inspectors give “advice after her visits in the classrooms” observing teachers’ lessons. • Inspectors challenge and assist head teacher on supervision of teachers. • Inspectors identify the weaknesses in head teacher performance and provide advice accordingly. Focus group • Inspectors help teachers with their problems. • Inspectors help teachers with new development or changes including curriculum development. • Other activities as in Table 4.3 and as above. Inspectors • Inspectors look at the areas of (teacher) professionalism and assist teachers, professionally and
personally. • Inspectors use relevant documents including the Teaching Service and the Education Acts to in-
service teachers and head teachers on issues that they are not aware of. • Inspectors discuss with the head teacher the issues related to supervision of teachers and provide
assistance where appropriate. • Inspectors conduct in-service sessions. • Inspectors conduct meetings with teachers and discuss common issues as observed, as well as new
development in the education system.
• Inspectors assist teachers & head teachers in
their professional development. • Inspectors help teachers on personal &
professional problems. • Inspectors perform roles as agent of change. • Supervision for professional development
through advisory & training roles performed by inspectors.
• Advisory capacity done by inspectors for provincial authorities.
Professional development
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Table 4.16: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Ethics
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Teachers Operational issues • Inspectors do their work in school in a hurry. • Inspectors sometimes misused funds “and work is not done”. • Priority is given to teachers for registration. • Inspectors usually ‘inspect’ in group but not on individual basis. • Some inspectors do not have specific purposes to visit schools. • Inspectors do not discuss reports to verify issues being reported on. Professional issues • Teachers are not sure of inspector’s help during in-services. • Inspectors are not clear about new changes, including curriculum changes for them to help teachers
better. • No challenges given by inspectors. • Inspectors not capable of performing their work. • Inspectors sometimes are seen as merely visitors “which do not have any effect on teaching and
learning”. • It’s possible that teachers only prepare for inspectors’ visits to please the inspectors. Head teacher Operational issues • Inspectors are not walking to schools and give excuses of having no funds for traveling. • Inspectors being promoted from lower positions as head teachers are being questioned when
supervising head teachers in higher levels. • The inspectors “duplicate the work of the head teacher and senior teachers”. • Inspectors are concentrating too much on inspection role and have neglected their advisory role. • There is no support from provincial authorities for proper offices for the inspectors to work in and
this is affecting their status and their work in assisting teachers.
• Lack of planning and organization by inspector
to carry out his work. • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned and is
having adverse impacts on teachers. • Lack of benefits experienced by teacher from
inspectors’ visit. • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit
schools and help teachers. • Inspectors not challenging teachers. • Needs of teachers and changes not catered for
by inspectors due to lack of visits to schools. • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ work. • Lack of confidence in the processes and
outcomes of the inspection roles performed by inspectors.
• Lack of quality control and assurance system within the inspectorial system.
• Selection and appointment of inspectors from head teacher candidates is being questioned.
• Lack of support from provinces to accommodate inspectors in proper offices, etc.
• A learning environment and good relationships are developed between the inspectors and the head teachers.
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Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Professional issues • The head teacher is happy with particular inspector’s performance. • There are inconsistencies in the content of the inspection reports that affected the head teacher’s
respect for the inspector. • Inspectors write reports on people who are not ready for promotion. • Many inspectors lack skills in writing reports. • Inspectors have no idea about the new curriculum and are being questioned on their roles. Teacher Focus group Operational issues • Inspectors give excuses including no transport, of not visiting schools. Professional issues • Inspectors when not inspecting teachers have implications on teacher appointment, posting and
promotion. • Teacher being given eligibility through the inspections processes but has lost it due to non-
confirmation of the eligibility. • Since the reform (education) the performance of inspectors has dropped. • There is no quality control system within the inspectorial system to ensure inspector
professionalism is maintained. • There is too much wantok system (favouritism and nepotism) being practiced by some inspectors. Inspectors Operational issues • Inspectors have not visited some schools for 5 years due to constraints and logistical problems.
(continued) • Lack of knowledge and skills for inspectors to
perform their responsibilities. • Best current appraisal system (inspectorial
system) and to be maintained. • Inspectors’ roles are challenging. • Inspector contributes to children’s education. • Lack of clear focus in inspectors’ roles due to
lack of visits to teachers and clarity on inspectors’ responsibilities.
(continued) Professional ethics of inspectors
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Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Professional issues • The inspector’s job is challenging. • Without the (inspectorial) system schools will not operate well. • There is a lot more that inspectors should do for head teachers to take control of the situations in
schools. • The education reform and the reformed curriculum are challenges for the inspector when
interpreting these to teachers. • Inspector has to be fully versed and acquire skills and knowledge to be of help to teachers and head
teachers. • Inspector must be a step a head of teachers and head teachers in knowing changes for them to assist
teachers and head teaches better. • Inspector contributes indirectly to children’s education. • Some inspectors do not take documents relating to their roles and other educational and
professional issues seriously to assist them in their responsibilities. • A lot of head teachers are reluctant to come out and show the inspector their management and
supervision processes and outcomes. • There is a big gap between inspectors, teachers and head teachers because teachers and head
teachers do not know what inspectors are supposed to do, and because inspectors are not visiting schools.
(As above)
(As above)
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Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers
Teachers identified quality assurance activities as inspectorial interactive strategies that were
concerned with inspectors monitoring and evaluating their performances. Inspectors carried
out these practices by checking on requirements concerning the implementation of the
approved curriculum through observations and reports from the head teacher. The teachers,
both the interviewed teachers and members of the focus group, confirmed such experiences
as described by teachers:
“Most of the time I see that they represent the National Department of
Education by ensuring the department’s policies and requirements are carried
out and they check on our performances as teachers. They also look at how we
teach the students, whether we follow the department’s strategy and carry out
our teaching profession.” (MVT 1)
“Firstly most of them, like the two inspectors that have inspected me, the first
thing they did was they checked through my filing system. I had a filing system
which contained documents about administrative duties and another on students
personal records, for instance, record of attendance. ……..After checking my
files they observed a lesson presentation, checked student exercise books and
looked at the displays that I had placed on the board. One of the inspectors
did go up front after my lesson and asked students on what I had just taught and
asked for a few questions from the students.” (MVT 4)
The second set of inspectorial interactive strategies identified was of a professional
development nature. These activities included inspectors providing advice and assistance on
all aspects of teachers’ duties including teaching, the maintenance of records and files, and
other administrative and management responsibilities. As this teacher expressed:
“After 11 years of teaching, I believe the inspectors tasks and responsibilities
are to assist teachers and head teachers to be well informed of the changes that
are taking place in the higher places of the Department of Education and to
provide us with more training for our professional development to enhance our
knowledge on what we are to be doing. And also to help us understand our
roles and functions in the areas and levels of work that we have.” (MVT 4)
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Emerging from the quality assurance and professional development interactive strategies
were the issues on professional ethics of inspectors. Professional ethics, as revealed by
teachers, related to how inspectors conduct themselves when carrying out their
responsibilities. How inspectors performed their duties were influenced by factors caused by
the management of the inspectorial system as well as their professional behavior and
conduct. These included lack of clear focus in inspector responsibilities because of a lack of
organization and planning, a lack of inspector knowledge and skills to perform their work, a
lack of confidence in and benefits from the inspection processes experienced by teachers,
and a lack of resources for inspectors to perform duties. These professional, management
and administrative issues led to the theme of professional ethics of inspectors as inspectorial
interactive strategies as advocated by teachers:
“What I see is that when there is interaction with the inspector we know exactly,
in particular at the school level, what is expected of us. We have a target to
work for so that is the advantage of having an inspector. Most of the
inspectors, since I was here and from my observations is that there was no
specific purpose of them coming. Whether they come to deliver information or
probably there is an issue they need to inform us of. It wasn’t a schedule or
planned visit to school. For the last ten (10) years, with me, I have never had a
scheduled visit from the inspectors to see me and to comment on my duties
beside my formal application for an inspection.” (MVT 3)
“I have been a teacher for quite a long time. Most inspectors give excuses like
they have no transport, no car to take them to the schools so they keep to their
offices. That’s why they do not come out to do their work so maybe this has to
be looked into also. We can blame them but on the other hand if they are
handicapped they cannot go out to do their work so inspectors should be
provided with resources to go out and carry out their work. I think the major
issue I’ve brought up already, is, since the introduction of the reform,
inspectors’ performance have dropped. Before the reform it was alright, I
believe. As I’ve mentioned, maybe they have to be in-serviced on what is
happening so they can cope up with the changes also.” (MFG 1)
“What I can say about inspectors, from observation and being one of the senior
officers in the school, my last inspection was in 2001. I was inspected and was
given an eligibility status in 2001. My eligibility has already expired. I have
never been inspected to confirm or act on my eligibility. Inspectors are not
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really doing their job. They do not have the correct database of teachers. If
inspectors have a proper database of teachers’ inspection reports, they would
do follow-up. To date I see that my inspection is long overdue and I have never
been assessed again. Simply I do not know whether I am improving or
declining in my teaching. I will only know that through inspections. The
inspection report will tell me whether I am improving or declining or whether I
need some kind of incentives to improve. So I see that inspectors are not really
doing their jobs, they do not have the proper database of teachers’ inspections,
that’s what I can say.” (MFG 1)
Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Head Teacher
With the head teacher, the emerged interactive strategies of the quality assurance activities
included inspectors monitoring the implementation of educational policies, providing
information about changes that were taking place, and appraising the head teacher on his/her
general performance. The head teacher expressed his/her satisfaction:
“Yes, [Inspector named], our inspector has visited our school and in all my
years of work, [inspector’s named] work is outstanding. [Inspector named]
comes here, visits us, talks to us, shares with us any professional issues and new
changes that come about. For me personally, [inspector named] inspected me
in 2004. [Inspector named] carried out an advisory visit followed by the
inspection.” (MVH 1)
Professional development interactive strategies included inspectors helping and
encouraging the head teacher by providing advice on the supervision of teachers, and
facilitating and conducting in-service and training programs for teachers, head teachers and
other stakeholders directly involved with the school.
“In my experience with [inspector named], I see that [inspector named (is)]
open, [inspector named] invites me to discuss issues especially on the
development and growth of the teachers and the changes that are coming about.
For example, we had a workshop where seven schools and Boards of
Management members attended in which [inspector named] lectured and
explained the roles and responsibilities of the Board of Management.
[Inspector] doing a fine job in my school and I hear that [inspector named] is
doing a fine job in other schools as well.” (MVH I)
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“[Inspector named] has helped me in writing reports as suggested (with) new
roles of site leadership. [Inspector named] has guided me through by checking
them (reports). We are both happy with the learning. I have been doing this for
many years but now I see that [inspector named] has given me more
responsibility which I am grateful and I am enjoying it.” (MVH 1)
Professional ethics of inspectors, as revealed by the head teacher and consistent with the
teachers, were related to how inspectors carry out their responsibilities. In addition the head
teacher expressed concerns about the lack of support that the inspectors were provided by the
employing agencies. He raised questions about the manner in which the inspectors were
promoted from lower levels of head teacher positions and on the inspectors duplicating the
work of head teachers and senior teachers in supervising teachers in schools. The issue on
inspector qualification was also raised as impacting on their work. He argued that inspectors
were concentrating too much on the inspection processes which, in support of the teachers,
had become obstacles to career development of teachers.
“A big problem that I see and the teachers are raising is that inspectors are not
visiting schools and don’t carry out advisory visits. Inspections, particularly
(for) the new graduates, they are the worst affected. Inspectors don’t visit
schools in the rural and remote areas. They visit schools in town and schools
along the roads. This makes it hard for the new graduates to go and teach in
rural and remote areas because they can’t be inspected for registration.
………” (MVH 1)
“In my view a teacher must hold a level 3 position before he becomes an
inspector like the old days. In a level 3 you are probably a senior teacher or a
head teacher in a small school. And when you supervise a level 7 and 8 head
teacher you will hesitate to write a report on the senior officers. Thus, I’d like to
suggest that inspectors on the field must have a degree in education. In the
current system that we have, many of them lack this and so we must look at
training them so that they become efficient and confident in report writing and
in their approaches to the schools.” (MVH 1)
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Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Inspectors
Inspectors confirmed quality assurance activities as interactive strategies that they used in
monitoring educational, professional and administrative requirements undertaken by teachers
and head teachers in schools. At the same time, inspectors observed activities related to
curriculum implementation and the operations of the schools. These activities included
teacher lesson observations and submission of monthly reports to authorities respectively, as
required by educational authorities. Inspectors also revealed that they provided counseling
and dealt with teacher and student discipline as part of quality assurance.
“I actually visit teachers teaching in the classrooms, I write reports and after,
as usual, I sit down and discuss the reports with teachers.” (MVI 1)
“The main activities I do when I visit my schools is conduct meetings with
teachers, I see the head teacher and tell him the purpose of my visit, what I am
there for, whether I am there to inspect the head teacher, senior teachers or
based (level) teachers. I inform the head teacher which group I am inspecting,
visit them, write advisory notes then later discussed with them what their
weaknesses are and the good points that they need to be praised on. Those are
the things that we normally discuss and to see what their views are.” (MVI 2)
“With the head teachers we normally get together to discuss common issues
that they face within the schools or within the inspectorate so we have head
teachers meetings and then the common issues are discussed. I do follow up
visits to see that these things are done or improved. ……… I also ensure school
based supervision is continuously carried out at the school level by each head
teacher. I also encourage head teachers to compile monthly reports to report
on the school developments and problems to the authorities. ……. I also
ensure effective Board of Management is in place.” (MVI 2)
“When visiting schools, for example, with our meetings when we look at the
curriculum, what sort of curriculum they are using, and like now we are using
this outcome based curriculum, and in the discussion a lot of teachers are
coming out with what they are facing in the curriculum materials. …… I gather
their head teachers and whatever comes out as information, talk to them. We
are focusing that they should have a school vision and plans for their schools.
Where are they bringing the schools to? …………. In other schools, if you ask
the Chairman of the Board of Management, whether he’s got this and that, he
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or she would say I don’t have it. So a lot of the schools are facing problems to
work with the Board of Management and lack knowledge.” (MVI 3)
According to inspectors, professional development interactive strategies, concerned activities
that assisted teachers and head teachers to develop professionally and personally. Inspectors
confirmed what teachers and head teachers experienced when they conducted in-service
sessions and having meetings where issues concerning changes and teacher development
were discussed. Inspectors also pointed out that issues related to the teaching profession as
stipulated in relevant documents, including the PBDS, also formed part of the professional
development strategies. Inspectors confirmed these activities by the following comments:
“One of the things I look out for is professionalism. We want to assist and help
teachers as much as possible to develop their personalities as teachers.
Secondly another aspect that I look at is administrative duties. I try to see
whether teachers, head teachers are able to organize and manage themselves.
If they are able to manage themselves then they are able to manage others. So
we look at how they administer and manage their own teachers in their own
classrooms and the school as a whole. …….” (MVI 1)
“An example [of professional development activities] is like the implementation
of the reform curriculum. Teachers are not familiar with this then I have to see
that if it is a common issue in all the schools or just one school, if it is in all
schools, a district or inspectorate an in-service is planned together with the
head teachers and is conducted to address the issue.” (MVI 2)
Factors influencing how inspectors performed their duties, in some cases, were beyond their
control and included geographical locations of schools, financial constraints and logistical
support provided by employing agencies as previously indicated. Other factors included
inspector qualification and insufficient training concerning changes that took place in the
school system including the curriculum reform. Thus professional ethics of inspectors
emerged as an interactive strategies that concerned the manner, conduct and behavior of
inspectors caused by factors both within and beyond their control. As these inspectors
revealed:
“My inspectorate is a very difficult one, schools are located in difficult terrain
and most times I walk. We have no accessibility by road, a few of my schools
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are on the coast and I use motorist boats to travel there. Otherwise I get
dropped off on the coast and I walk to schools.” (MVI 1)
“With the professional part of it, inspectors (inspectors’ qualifications) should
be upgraded ………… so that they become more confident in their work. Right
now there’s a group of us that do not have the kind of qualification that the
Department expect from us, so it is up to the Department to make sure that
inspectors are put through to upgrade their qualifications so that we become
more confident in our own work.” MVI 2)
“It is very challenging to carry out duties of an inspector because I have to be
fully verse and acquire the skills and knowledge. I have to be a step ahead of
the teachers I had to know the changes before the teachers, because it’s my
responsibility to inform the teachers of the changes. The teachers will become
professional teachers from the kind of leadership and advice I provide to them.”
(MVI 2)
“A lot of times we give excuses but we can use common sense, like for example,
my schools are close so I can walk across and visit teachers instead of sitting
(doing nothing). Get out there and help teachers. Be role models and when you
gain that trust you can help them. The school will be very, very happy to work
with inspectors. Head teacher has to have very good relationship with his or her
teachers. Inspectors paid regular visits and be with teachers and help them out
and assist them with in-services’ needs. Communicate with them and show
interest in their work. A lot of time I see now in the provinces, we inspectors all
sit back and we are not going out and there is a big gap between teachers and
us. Teachers don’t know what inspectors are supposed to do and all the time we
are complaining to ourselves and what about them. In-services are needs for all
the three groups. Inspectors also go through such training, e.g. writing reports,
ethics and morale and change of attitudes.” (MVI 3)
This inspector admitted that when support from stakeholders was given she was able to
assist teachers and head teachers responsibly.
“The support that I have gained here in this province, that it is one of the
provinces that is supporting us inspectors, financial support and then at the
same time we get support from the National Department of Education. And for
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me personally, I get support from my family and it makes it easy. ........And of
course the schools, the Boards of Management are supporting us to go out to
some remote schools. We all share the costs. Beside financial support I have
attended seminars, workshops and conferences and this has given me a lot of
help and then coming back and helping out in the schools. For example, as an
assessor now, I see it very clearly when I go into the schools, I know what they
should be doing in the curriculum learning. So all those things I have gained
they support me a lot in doing my work.” (MVI 3)
At the same time there were factors that related to organizational cultures within
institutions that impacted on the professional ethics of inspectors. As this inspector
experienced:
“Well we are looking at 3 levels; the national level, the provincial level and the
school level. With my view and my feelings of the system we operating now is
that, with our Department, the National Department (of Education) they see us
as one of their officers. When it comes down to the provincial level, the
Provincial Education Advisors, especially those that are appointed by politicians
and from their own field of work, it becomes difficult to work with. They don’t
really work well with us in most of the provinces. At the school level head
teachers are always working with us as they see us as helpers.” (MVI 2)
“Well within our own division, Inspections and Guidance Division, there haven’t
been a lot of visits from them. I mean since I’ve been an inspector I haven’t seen
our supervisors come in to our level to supervise us or help us like we do with
teachers, that does not happen. .............We were getting directions through
correspondence but physically people have not been with us at the work place to
see how we (are) going.” (MVI 2)
Synthesis of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies
This synthesis of Case Study 2 takes into consideration the synthesis of the inspectorial
interactive strategies of Case Study 1 and makes references to issues where applicable. This
is done to avoid repetitions of experiences, beliefs and perceptions that were earlier
discussed.
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Similar to the findings of Case Study 1, the two main inspectorial interactive strategies that
emerged were quality assurance and professional development. In addition, the participants
revealed that quality assurance interactive strategies included the monitoring and evaluation
of teachers’ and head teachers’ performances. Quality assurance activities also included the
provision of information about changes in the school system and monitoring these changes
by the inspectors. Inspectors also revealed that counseling teachers and students (through
advice to teachers and head teachers) also formed part of the quality assurance strategies that
resulted with acceptable teaching and learning environments in the schools.
In addition to facilitating and conducting in-service programs that meet the professional
development needs of teachers and head teachers as part of the professional development
interactive strategies, inspectors also concentrated on appraising school based supervisory
systems where they provided professional advice to ensure school based supervision
approaches were effective. The use of relevant documents such as the PBDS to enhance and
sustain the teaching profession was also highlighted as a professional development approach
used by inspectors.
The professional ethics of inspectors were highlighted as serious concerns because these
were seriously affecting teachers’ and head teachers’ commitment and dedication to the
teaching profession. Though professional ethics concerned the behavior and conduct of
inspectors while carrying out responsibilities, the participants further related these to factors
arising from the management of the entire inspectorial system. These factors included lack
of logistical and financial support for inspectors, and factors related to the cultures of
organizations that dealt with inspectors, teachers and head teachers. At the same time,
teachers, the head teacher and inspectors raised concerns about the professional qualities of
inspectors. These concerns included the inspectors’ lack of focus, knowledge and skills
required to perform their responsibilities; the inspectors duplicating the supervisory
responsibilities performed by school based supervisors; and inspectors concentrating too
much on the inspection processes resulting with other responsibilities, including advisory
roles, being neglected.
As with Case Study 1, the quality assurance, professional development and professional
ethics of inspectors emerged as the inspectorial interactive strategies for Case Study 2.
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4.4.4 Perceived Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
In response to the question of how teachers, the head teacher and inspectors perceived
teacher professionalism, the results thematically derived from the analysis were that teacher
professionalism consisted of teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership,
teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. Though the results were
the same as the findings for Case Study 1, there were varying degrees of experiences, beliefs
and perceptions expressed by the participants. Tables 4.17 to 4.21 summarize the views of
the participants on the dimensions of teacher professionalism.
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Table 4.17: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Compliance
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Someone who is an implementer of educational policies including curriculum
requirements. • Someone who is a nation builder, educating children to be accepted by the community
and educating children to be spiritually, physically, academically and socially developed and contributing to nation building.
• Someone who deals with human beings. • Teachers being good motivators. • A teacher being someone who is resourceful. • A teacher being someone who is innovative and creative. • A teacher being someone who is industrious. • Being a teacher involves teaching, planning and programming (teacher performance). • Teacher performs his or her responsibilities. • Teacher performance relates to teachers implementing policies, meeting curriculum
requirements, carrying out teaching. • Teacher professionalism relates to teaching, learning materials, professional
development and living conditions of teachers. Head teacher • Performance of management (human & materialistic resources), organizational &
administrative responsibilities Teacher focus group • Teacher professionalism is about the teaching efficiency of the teacher.
• Teacher performance relates to teaching and performing other duties.
• Teacher organization relates to planning and organizing teacher records and files.
• Teacher as agent of change. • Teacher accountability relates to teachers being accountable
to children learning and other responsibilities. • Teacher performance relates to all aspects of teachers’
classroom work. • Teacher initiatives and dynamic in performance. • Teacher as an implementer of educational policies. • Teacher compliance. • Teacher efficiency.
Teacher compliance
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Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Inspectors • A teacher being reliable. • Teacher creating good teaching and learning environment in the classroom. • Teacher professionalism is characterized by what is in the job description or duty
statement of each teacher or head teacher. • Teachers having a lot of initiatives in their work. • Teachers being dynamic in their profession.
(As above)
(As above)
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Table 4.18: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Teachers being well informed of changes. • Teachers continuing to pursue and enhance knowledge. • A teacher being someone who is educated. • Teacher is knowledgeable on what she or he is doing. • Teacher knowledge, “how much knowledge you have in teaching the students”. Head teacher • Knowledge & implementation of educational, agency, school and Board of
Management policies. Teacher focus group : No comments Inspectors • Acquired knowledge and skills that teachers need to teach children. • Teacher having a clear understanding of what is expected of him. • What we know and how we impact ‘what we know’ to students.
• Teacher qualifications. • Teacher knowledge. • Teacher competence. • Teacher knowledge is enhanced through inspectors
interacting with teachers.
Teacher knowledge
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Table 4.19: Process of Establishing Themes of the Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Leadership
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Teacher leadership. • A teacher being someone who is promoted and working effectively at that promotional
level. • A teacher being a good organizer. • A teacher being a good manager. Head teacher • A head teacher. • A supervisor. • Senior teachers having supervisory and management skills. • Having potentials to be in “a level above the others and (so that) you can be able to
pick things very quickly to help everyone”. Teacher focus group • Teacher professionalism is when a teacher becomes a leader and who knows
everything. Inspectors • Head teacher having the knowledge to plan and run schools. • A head teacher gaining teachers’ trust. • A teacher being knowledgeable in all aspects of the teaching profession. • A head teacher being a good leader. • Head teachers leading by examples.
• Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking
a lead in aspects of school operation. • Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher
trusting each other, and planning and taking a lead in all aspects of the school.
• Head teacher leadership and management skills. • Teacher leadership relates to promotion, delegation of
responsibilities, etc. • Teacher leadership relates to being good organizer, manager,
administrator and leader.
Teacher leadership
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Table 4.20: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Someone who is spiritually, physically, academically and socially developed and
developing. • Teachers being concerned with continuous professional development and growth. • Being a teacher is having “a drive for professional (development and) growth”
including “intellectual grow with aspects of my profession including teaching”. • Teacher continuous learning or pursues professional development. Head teacher • Professional who are continually in-serviced and trained in aspects of their teaching
career. Teacher focus group • Teacher professionalism is about continuous professional development and upgrading
of the “quality of teachers’. Inspectors • Supervision of teachers in their work for professional development.
• Teacher professional development as a continuing
phenomenal in teaching. • Supervision for professional development.
Teacher professional development
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Table 4.21: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • “Teaching is (as) a noble profession” with a big responsibility. • A teacher being “someone who is committed”. • Teachers valuing students and the profession. • A teacher being “someone who is also a parent”. • Being a teacher is having a drive, a vision & a purpose to teach. • Being a teacher is when collaboratively participating to improve educational standards. • Teacher is supporting senior teachers and colleagues. • Teacher is showing good examples to children. • Teacher is able to disseminate information, knowledge & skills to children. • Teacher is being a good advisor & listener when counseling children. • Teacher “is dealing with children”. • Teacher becoming competitive in developing children academically. • Teacher is respectful. • Teacher is obedient. Head teacher • Specifically trained professionals who are singled out from public servants. • Teaching fellow. • Professional relationships with others including colleagues. • Understanding people and having people understanding you as a teacher, senior
teacher and head teacher.
• Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty, respect,
commitment, obedience and dedication. • Teacher-child interaction relates to what teachers do with
children. • Teacher interaction relates to how teachers relate and
communicate with other stakeholders. • Understanding people and working with people. • Teacher professional relationships with others. • Teacher being educated as a professional. Teacher community involvement. • Teaching is ‘nation building’. • Teacher collaboration. • Teacher rapport with children and concerns for children’s
welfare and academic achievements.
Teacher professional ethics
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Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teacher focus group • Teacher professionalism is about the good conduct of the teacher. • Teacher professionalism relates to teacher dedication. • Teacher professionalism is when a teacher is having “a good rapport with the students”
and being able to sustain it. • Teacher professionalism is when a teacher provides guidance. • A teacher is ‘everything’. • Other perceptions as above. Inspectors • Someone who has a heart for the children. • Someone who is a professional person. • Someone who has an image that is acceptable to the community. • Attitudes of teachers. • Teacher punctuality with work. • A teacher being honest. • A teacher must have trust. • A teacher having a good behavior. • A head teacher being humble. • Having been educated to be a teacher as a professional. • A teacher having good communication skills. Head teacher & teacher maturity. Teachers working with and helping the community. Other perceptions as above.
(As above)
(As above)
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Teacher Professionalism: Views of Teachers
Both interviewed teachers and members of the teacher focus group believed teacher
compliance concerned teachers performing responsibilities as required by educational
policies, including policies related to curriculum implementation. Teacher compliance
extended beyond implementing policies and required teachers to be industrious, efficient,
innovative, creative and resourceful in carrying out their responsibilities. Such beliefs were
noted in teachers’ comments when commenting on different groups of teachers:
“We probably have groups of teachers in the teaching profession. We have a
group of teachers who have a drive to work. They want to maintain what is
expected of the profession in terms of teaching itself and other duties that we
suppose to perform. There is another group of teachers, they have a vision but
they want people to push them to get the work done. And there are others in the
profession, probably it is not the place they suppose to be but they are just
there. But otherwise, generally, my general assessment of the profession would
be that the primary school teaching itself, I could see that there are a lot of
teachers who want to get the teaching to what is expected.” (MVT 3)
“I would look at a teacher in this dimension - I would see him or her as
someone who is committed and someone who is resourceful, someone who is
educated, someone who is innovative, creative and someone who is also a
parent.” (MVT 4)
Teacher knowledge was also revealed as another dimension of teacher professionalism.
Teacher knowledge concerned teachers being knowledgeable and skilful in what they teach
to students and, to sustain knowledge and skills, teachers had to be constantly equipped with
curriculum changes. However, to enhance teacher knowledge and skills, teacher
qualifications and teaching competencies in school curriculum were essential. Teachers
perceived teacher knowledge as a significant dimension of the teaching profession.
“I think teacher professionalism, as I understand it, is something to do with me
as a teacher. ………………. I’ve also gained knowledge in helping the
students. Teacher professionalism is how much knowledge you have in teaching
the students.” (MVT 1)
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“According to my understanding, to become a teacher is to be able to
disseminate information, knowledge and skills to the children as well as to
improve their attitudes and behavior that will make them prosper in life so that
they become good citizen later on in the country.” (MVT 2)
“……… If we are to be creative and industrious, if we have to serve as very
professional persons and as teachers then I believe we need to be equipped with
more knowledge and new ways of teaching. So I for one would like to see that
whoever is responsible for this help us find ways in which we could develop our
knowledge, maybe through correspondence.” (MVT 4)
However, the members of the focus group, all having Certificates in Primary Teaching, did
not perceive teacher knowledge as a significant dimension of teacher professionalism. Such
perception raises the question of whether teachers were contented with their current
curriculum knowledge despite changes experienced as a result of the education reform or
were simply unaware of the development in the education reform.
The other emerged dimension of teacher professionalism was teacher leadership. Teachers
believed that teacher leadership involved performing duties effectively and being formally
recognized and promoted in the schools. This perception reflected the experiences of the
teachers where promotion was the ultimate outcome of being appraised at any level in the
school hierarchy. Thus teacher leadership concerned teachers taking a formal lead in
different aspects of school and being a role model for students. Teacher leadership therefore,
is seen as resulting from the inspection processes. Such perceptions question the
sustainability of leadership in the teaching profession. These notions were expressed by a
member of the focus group:
“A teacher in my own opinion has to be a role model for the little children that
you are teaching. They copy everything from you as a teacher that determines
the type of person you are so you have to be a role model for the little children
that you are moulding. We are moulding them in many ways like mentally,
physically and spiritually and emotionally. In this way you have to be a role
model. Teacher is a leader, and knows about everything, like another parent,
the teacher provides guidance, these are some additional characteristics.”
(MFG 1)
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Teacher professional development as a dimension of teacher professionalism concerned
continuous professional development of teachers at all levels and emerged from the various
experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers. Teachers revealed that teacher professional
development referred to a drive for development in their profession and a continuing
learning process but it must be of a spiritual, physical, academic and social nature. However
teachers expressed concerns about the current problems and reiterated these beliefs and
experiences:
“……. generally, my general assessment of the profession would be that the
primary school teaching itself, I could see that there are a lot of teachers who
want to get the teaching to what is expected. But unfortunately, it is the lack of
staff development programs that is holding a lot of teachers back. But the drive
in teaching, the drive in the profession is there. Probably we need a lot of staff
development programs for teachers.” (MVT 3)
“The teaching profession in primary school seems to be declining, the way I
look at it. And I am not blaming the teachers. I am blaming the Government for
implementing the new curriculum with lack of in-services conducted. Maybe
full time courses for the teachers before the actual implementation of the new
curriculum are needed. I personally think that teacher performance is
declining and I seem to be, and I also feel like leaving the Department too
because it’s not the case anymore. I can’t produce the best results anymore
because I (am) no longer fit (to teach) according to the new curriculum.”
(MVT 5)
Teacher professional ethics also emerged as a dimension of teacher professionalism and
concerned work and professional conduct displayed by teachers. Teachers identified aspects
of teacher professional ethics as having a sense of responsibility in educating children and
collaborating with and supporting colleagues in performing teaching responsibilities.
Teacher professional ethics also referred to being committed, obedient and respectful, and
that a teacher had to have a vision and purpose to teach and to be a member of the teaching
profession. As confirmed by teachers:
“Maybe I would say, one of the things that is important is that as a teacher I
have to be committed to my job. That is what I think is very important in my job
and is what I am paid for. No other person will do my job as I am paid to do it.
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Teaching the students and how I take care of them, as well as helping them
should be properly done.” (MVT 1)
“I think some good qualities are by showing good example and support as a
senior teacher to teachers and students too. Some other examples include,
being a good advisor and listener when counseling the students in qualities of
life, and making them follow the ways to a better life.” (MVT 2)
These teachers compared their experiences and observations about the past and present
practicing teachers in primary schools:
“We probably have many good teachers, especially when you look back at the
teachers before us. Most of the older teachers are respectful and obedient in
comparison to the new graduates. I see many of the graduates come out with
bad attitudes. Most of them look for alcohol and most of them work only for
their pay, unlike the older teachers, especially now that we have grade twelve in
Teachers’ Colleges.” (MVT 2)
“Teacher professionalism is declining and teachers, now-a-days, are showing don’t-
care attitudes towards their work.” (MFG 1)
Teacher Professionalism: Views of Head Teacher
The head teacher was very experienced and had been a head teacher for twenty-seven years.
In supporting the teachers, the head teacher related teacher compliance to teachers and head
teachers performing responsibilities as required by education policies, including policies
concerning the efficient management of schools. However, concerning his specific roles,
s/he perceived teacher compliance as related to professional, management and administrative
requirements that he complied with including standards of teaching, supervision of teachers
and the management of school resources. He believed that to comply with such
requirements teachers and head teachers needed to manage and organize themselves and to
ensure resources were utilized to provide quality education for the children.
“For the teachers, the first thing is to dress neatly. They must also be punctual,
they must prepare lessons and have them signed by immediate supervisors, one
week in advance and then teach to the best they can. Time to time I carry out
supervision, check their work and conduct in-services to help them. For
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example, this afternoon we will attend a joint in-service with the international
school teachers to help us with our professional growth.” (MVH 1)
The head teacher further confirmed his responsibility to children and their parents, the
Board of Management and the Church Agency:
“For the children, the first thing is to make sure they attend school on a daily
basis, their health and their learning in each class. They have to learn as much
as they can to achieve the good results at the end. And for parents, regular
involvement in school activiities and conducting of meetings are needed so that
they’ll be briefed on the financial reports and general behaviour of their
children. If one or two students misbehave, a report is sent to their parents and
they are called to attend and a closed dialogue between us takes place. The
Board of Management has the delicate responsibility to make sure our rules are
upheld. They ensure infrastructure, school development and budgetting are in
place. For the (Church) Agency, Religion has to be taught to all classe, and we
try to develop the students spiritually.” (MVH 1)
While teachers believed that teacher knowledge was an educational and pedagogical issue,
the head teacher perceived it as a management and administrative aspect of the teaching
profession. Such belief restricted the perception of teacher knowledge to management and
administrative responsibilities with less emphasis on pedagogy. This may question the
educational leadership role of the head teacher, particularly in curriculum leadership. The
head teacher however, emphasized qualifications, knowledge and skills as significant to
being a teacher and head teacher:
“Qualification wise, I strongly believe and want all the teachers and senior
teachers must have a diploma, and head teachers must have diploma or degree
so that they can oversee and they can command instructions and management,
and this will go well so that people understand you and you understand people
so that you serve people better.” (MVH 1)
“Well the word professionalism is suited to us because we have gone through
professional training in that we have gone to high schools and then to the
Teacher’s College in which we were specifically trained which is very good. We
are not like other public servants because we can mould the kids up or we can
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damage the kids, and to be known as a professional man or professional woman
is very good……….. .” (MVH 1)
The head teacher indicated his perception of teacher leadership, as being primarily
associated with senior and head teacher positions in schools. He argued that to occupy such
formal leadership positions, one had to be equipped with supervisory and management skills.
At the same time however, he indicated that teacher leadership concerned teachers and head
teachers taking a lead in all aspects of a school. The head teacher confirmed:
“As a senior teacher, apart from the above mentioned, supervisory and
management skills are also important, so that you are able to critically analyze
and comment on what and how to help the teachers so that you develop this
professional relationship. This will help you as a senior teacher. …….. As a
head teacher, you must first of all have the skills of a base level teacher as per
duty statement, secondly, you must have the knowledge and skills of a senior
teacher and thirdly you must have management skills to be able to see and
develop or to plan so that you are a level above the others and you can be able
to pick things very quickly to help everyone.” (MVH 1)
Teacher professional development, the fourth emerged dimension of teacher professionalism,
concerned continuous professional development of teachers at all levels of the school
system. Consistent with the teachers’ ideas, the head teacher emphasized that teacher
professional development involved continually being trained or in-serviced in all aspects of
teaching. He highlighted the current problems experienced by the teachers as a result of a
lack of attention to teacher professional development by authorities:
“Teachers are very busy trying to collect bits and pieces from here and there.
There are no text books and there is nothing so teachers don’t know what to do.
The school system is becoming bad affecting teachers at the same time. For
example, in (province named) last year 18 teachers resigned because of this
(lack of training/in-service). And this year you expect the number to be doubled
because of this hopeless system we have with no support materials that teachers
can use. Now the teachers are categorized as ‘gatherers’ teachers. The
teachers of today have not been trained to teach grades 7 and 8. These are
structures in high schools thrown down to us. How can you expect the teachers
to teach these grades? So in other words, teacher will refuse and somebody
would just have to volunteer to do it, whether it is done well or not.” (MVH 1)
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Teacher professional ethics, the fifth emerged dimension of teacher professionalism, referred
to professional behavior and conduct displayed by teachers and the head teacher while
performing their responsibilities. The head teacher supported the teachers’ views that
teacher professional ethics related to being committed to educating children and argued that
a teacher had to understand children and colleagues by having good professional
relationships with them. He also emphasized that teacher professional ethics were related to
teachers’ and head teachers’ behavior and attitudes. He summarized these beliefs:
“To become a teacher, behavior and attitudes are of great importance. Once
you’ve completed your training and graduate, the first thing is to commit
yourself to your duty statements. This involves programming, preparation of
lessons and then teaching the best you can so that the kids can understand
what you teach. Your duty statement will help you become a base level teacher
if you understand it. ….. and how to help the (other) teachers so that you
develop this professional relationship. ……. and this will go well so that people
understand you and you understand people so that you serve people better.”
(MVH 1)
Teacher Professionalism: Views of Inspectors
Inspectors reported that teacher compliance involved teachers and head teachers being
reliable, dynamic and being able to carry out duties as stipulated in their duty statements.
Thus, teacher compliance as a dimension of teacher professionalism referred directly to
performing responsibilities to expected standards. Inspectors also stressed that when
performing responsibilities, creating an environment for student learning was a crucial task
for teachers and head teachers. As inspectors emphasized:
“The Performance Based Duty Statement as it is now, is very descriptive and
provides clear cut and indicates what areas of responsibilities at a particular
level has to be performed. Previously we had some duty statements in place but
the information was not specific so a lot of teachers crossed lines in doing other
peoples’ activities and duties. With this one now, it specifies the areas each
particular teacher of a different level are to be performing. For me personally I
think that is something good that has come out of teachers.” (MVI 1)
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“………… With the classroom teacher, it comes down to a small area of
environment which is the classroom. I like to see teachers creating very good
environment with the classroom, good setup, everything in place so that the
teaching and learning is taking place at the rate that is expected.” (MVI 2)
Teacher knowledge, the second dimension of teacher professionalism, concerned teachers
and head teachers having clear understandings of what was expected of them in and outside
the classroom situations. This is expressed by this inspector:
“Well teacher professionalism, as I understand it, is the knowledge and the
skills that the teacher will need to have in order to implement what is expected
of them. Once he has acquired these skills and knowledge, then we know that
the teacher is professionally competent.” (MVI 2)
Inspectors related teacher leadership to having the knowledge to plan and to ensure the
schools operated effectively in serving their purpose. Such knowledge in leadership
included being knowledgeable in all aspects of the teaching profession and being able to lead
by example through mutual trusts. Thus, consistent with teachers’ and the head teacher’s
beliefs, teacher leadership concerned teachers and head teachers applying appropriate
leadership qualities in all aspects of a school life and being role models for colleagues and
students.
“Ok, the head teacher has to have good managerial skills and become confident
and has to be a curriculum leader at the school level. He has to have these
skills and knowledge and that he is alert to the changes that are coming up.
The teacher has to be a role model to the children and the community. He or
she has to be professionally be matured and has to have a clear understanding
of what is expected of him as a teacher.” (MVI 2)
“For a head teacher, he must be understanding and understanding the staff and
he or she must be a good leader in the institution under his or her responsibility
and must be honest himself and be committed. He must have good knowledge,
be knowledgeable and have good communication skills. He or she must be
humble and being humble and be committed so he or she will gain teachers’
trust.” (MVI 3)
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Teacher professional development was perceived by inspectors as related directly to
continuous training and in-service for teachers and head teachers on issues related to their
responsibilities. Inspectors believed that the teaching profession had to be characterized by
supervisory strategies for professional development either through school based or external
supervisory means. This inspector observed the importance of teacher professional
development:
“Well (with) the professional side of teachers, I conducted in-services after I
identify the needs and on the problem areas of teachers. That’s where I step in
and plan and conduct in-services so that the teachers fully develop
professionally in those areas of difficulties so that they will know what they’re
doing. In this way they become more confident in their work in the long run.”
(MVI 2)
Teacher professional ethics emerged as a serious dimension of the teaching profession.
Teacher professional ethics concerned ethics and values such as honesty, trust and
humbleness practiced by teachers and head teachers in dealing with colleagues, children and
other stakeholders. Teacher professional ethics required teachers and head teachers to
perform their responsibilities with maturity and commitment. These views indicated that
having and displaying professional ethics through the conduct of teachers and head teachers
showed that there was maturity in the teaching profession. In supporting teachers and the
head teacher, inspectors reported the following experiences:
“For teachers, the special characteristics we are looking for are teachers who
can set a good model for students. Behavior and attitudes are such
characteristics that are acceptable within the community and school. We look
at teachers who have a lot of initiatives, who are dynamic in their profession,
who are willing to work with students, the community and other areas within
their profession that they can help with.” (MVI 1)
“For the teacher, the teacher must be honest, must have work commitment and
the trust and must be reliable. Some of those things I’ve mentioned earlier like
(displaying) good behavior, be knowledgeable, hard working and the
punctuality at work. For a head teacher, he must be understanding ……… and
must be honest with himself and be committed. …….... He or she must be
humble and being humble and be committed so he or she will gain teachers’
trust.” (MVI 3)
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However, inspectors also observed a general decline in teacher professional ethics due to
various factors, including hardships faced by teachers and head teachers:
“(With) The teachers, it’s their duty that they have to teach and they need to
work more on it. If I can make a comparison that in the past, I see teachers and
there was more work commitment. Today the teachers are more or less with the
money, their commitment is not there, it’s lacking somewhere and some how
something has gone wrong. It’s a profession and teaching here is a vocation.
That you come in, there is a lot of hardship and have in mind you must be
committed to the job. I’ve been a teacher for a period of time and I go into these
schools now and at times I say I wish I run the school. Because you know what
is expected. When we work hard and produce quality results the parents and
community will not complain.” (MVI 3)
“With the head teachers, for example, I walk in and see what they suppose to be
doing but at times, you go there and find a group of people with the door closed
chewing betel nuts and just telling stories instead of being in the classrooms.
So, on the spot, these are some of the things I need to change.” (MVI 3)
Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism
The findings of Case Study 2 revealed five dimensions of teacher professionalism and these
were teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional
development and teacher professional ethics. While these findings were consistent with the
findings of Case Study 1, there are important points of differences.
While teachers and head teachers perceived teacher compliance as not only performing
responsibilities associate with the specific positions they occupied, they also related teacher
compliance to implementing policies that required them to be agents of change. However
the head teacher believed that teacher compliance was more related to management,
organizational and administrative roles. The inspectors agreed with teachers’ perceptions
on teacher compliance and argued that teacher compliance concerned teachers and head
teachers being reliable in carrying out duties as stipulated in job descriptions.
From the teachers’ and inspectors’ views, teacher knowledge concerned teachers and head
teachers being informed (about changes), educated, knowledgeable and skilful in what they
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delivered to students. Teachers’ understanding of what were expected of them in the
classroom situation formed such perception. However to sustain teacher knowledge, teacher
qualifications and teaching competencies were essential. The head teacher perceived teacher
knowledge as more relevant to his role as a head teacher and linked teacher knowledge to
management and administrative responsibilities. While teachers and inspectors perceived
teacher knowledge as an educational and pedagogical phenomenon, the head teacher referred
to it as more of a management and administrative nature.
Teachers perceived teacher leadership as being a good organizer and manager in order to be
formerly promoted in schools. This perception reflected the experiences of the teachers with
the current appraisal system where promotion was the ultimate result of being appraised at
the school level. The head teacher believed teacher leadership required supervisory and
management skills. The inspectors, on the other hand, believed teacher leadership required
the knowledge to plan and to ensure the schools operate effectively in serving their purpose.
Thus teacher leadership, as a dimension of teacher professionalism, concerned teachers and
the head teacher having management and organizational knowledge and skills and being able
to apply these in their roles.
The participants indicated teacher professional development involved training and in-service
activities for teachers and head teachers. This required teachers and head teachers to develop
professionally, spiritually, physically and academically. The head teacher reiterated that
teacher professional development had to be continuous and, as advocated by the inspectors,
had to be focused. Inspectors further believed that professional development required
school based and external supervision strategies. This implied that the teaching profession
was a ‘process’ of continuous development, and had to evolve with educational changes.
With teacher professional ethics the participants viewed this as involving attitudes of trust,
obedient, behavior, respect, commitment, honesty and humility. These are displayed through
the behavior and conduct of teachers and head teachers while performing their
responsibilities.
4.4.5 Perceived linkages between inspectorial interactive strategies and dimensions of
teacher professionalism
To investigate the linkages from the emerged themes, teachers and the head teacher were
asked about the activities that the inspectors carried out and whether these activities had any
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influence in their profession. The inspectors were asked to confirm the linkages between the
inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism.
Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Teachers
The teachers related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance, teacher
knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development interactive strategies to teacher
professional development; and professional ethics to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.5
shows the linkages.
Figure 4.5: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages
Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
Quality assurance Teacher compliance
Teacher knowledge
Teacher Leadership
Professional development Teacher professional development
Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics
The teachers represented base level teachers and senior teachers including a deputy head
teacher. Individual teachers perceived quality assurance activities that inspectors used as
influencing them in complying with what were required of them.
“With my current professionalism when inspectors come and visit me I seem to
see that they are people who are concerned about what is expected and
required of us. Therefore I also have the drive to see that what I suppose to do
is done. ........... I see that, having these people around, we know that we are
expected to do something.” (MVT 3)
“ ..... when inspectors are observing and visiting me, and making comments I
feel that they are trying to get something out from me, what they expect me to do
as the curriculum requires, that is, to see whether I am teaching the right
content in the grades I am teaching. ......they visit me to check that the
education standard is kept at the expected standard. In any case, if there is no
visit done, the standard would be falling and it is through the visits and reports
that the Department of Education knows that the standard is still there.”
(MVT 5)
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The inspectors also utilized senior teachers in the schools to ensure teachers comply with
educational policies as well as curriculum requirements as this teacher implied:
“..... they (inspectors) are the ones who come and check what we are doing.
The inspectors visiting us, in particular (with) me, gives me the drive of doing a
lot of what I am expected of, while I am also getting the teachers to do the same
things. .......... And when the information I get from inspectors, if I tell the
teacher then we all have the same purposes, teachers of this school and myself.
We have the same purpose and we have a goal to achieve.” (MVT 3)
With the activities that concerned teacher knowledge the experienced teachers revealed that
quality assurance strategies ensured that they were up to date with subject content that they
were teaching as this teacher confirmed:
“After 11 years of teaching, I believe the inspectors tasks and responsibilities
are to assist teachers and head teachers to be well informed of the changes that
are taking place in the higher places of the Department of Education and to
provide us with more training for our professional development to enhance our
knowledge on what we are to be doing. ……..” (MVT 4)
Quality assurance activities that related to teacher leadership involved the inspection
processes and these were considered as means of promoting teachers. These experiences
influenced directly on teacher leadership qualities according to teachers. This implied that
the inspectors and the inspection processes significantly contributed to teacher leadership as
a dimension of teacher professionalism. Such experiences were admitted by teachers:
“From the activities that the Inspectors normally carry out,.............. like
checking on the filing system is mostly dealt with administrative functions and
probably they are trying to assist us to be good administrators and maybe to
help us for promotion purposes. .......... And also with the administrative
function, we are encouraged to or assisted by the inspectors in order to be good
managers or senior teachers to move onto the next level and to be able to work
effectively at promotional levels.” (MVT 4)
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Teachers at the same time perceived professional development activities carried out by
inspectors as impacting on their professional development. As experienced by these
teachers:
“Inspectors come and assist and advice us on things that we should be doing to
help the kids under our care. One other thing is to help in the teaching
profession to improve the skills I lack to help me help my students, so in other
words the inspector helps me to help the students as well as my professional
development.” (MVT 1)
“I see that when we are interacting with an inspector during his or her
inspection time, the inspector is helping and assisting us, trying to improve our
way of organizing things to be a good organizer or manager. Indirectly the
Inspector is trying to make us see that we are committed that we have to
improve our teaching skills so that we can be resourceful. In other words if we
are not doing something very well then probably we should try to find out more
on how we could do it better in future. So in doing so I see that this enhances
the characteristics of being creative and innovative. And also when we are
asked for or when we are commented on our classroom management or
organization, it also helps us to act as a parent, how we can organize like how
we can analyze things at home, how we can organize our own children.”
(MVT 4)
Inspectors also recognized and utilized senior teachers to facilitate professional development
activities to develop teachers professionally as stated by this teacher:
“Since I was here many inspectors have actually utilized me in a lot of things
because of my engagement in many things like curriculum workshops until
today. Inspectors are using me to conduct in-services on other cluster schools
and I have been facilitating PIST (Provincial In-service Training) and
workshops in the province through the request of inspectors.” (MVT 3)
However, teachers also expressed their concerns about the professional development roles of
inspectors as not effectively carried out and this impacted on their professional development.
This teacher elaborated on this issue:
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“We see inspectors as tools that have to equip us or professionally develop us.
Unfortunately it is not happening that way. We are looking forward for them to
actually engage in professional development programs and other things but this
is not happening. We seem to be developing ourselves in our own schools.
Professional development is our expectation and I thought they should have
some input in our professional growth but it is not happening that way.”
(MVT 3)
With professional ethics of inspectors, the behavior and means by which inspectors
conducted their responsibilities either educationally, professionally or administratively,
teachers perceived these to be directly influencing them in their professional ethics.
Teachers, and members of the focus group, conferred their experiences:
“Okay, some of the problems I’ve encountered with them (inspectors), I see that
they are wasting their time because most of the time their visits and observation
of the schools do not compliment the overall performance and function of the
schools visited. Sometimes they are seen as mere visitors which do not have
any effect on the general teaching and learning of the schools concerned.”
(MVT 2)
“Inspectors’ job is a vital one in the education system. Because of them visiting
schools the teachers are working. If there are no inspectors, no one would care
about work. So that’s why I say inspectors’ job is vital to the education
system.” (MVT 5)
“I’d like to say that, and what I would like to see, is that the inspectors should
maintain their integrity as inspectors. It’s good that you come and mingle with
the teachers but maybe that’s just my thought. When the inspector becomes too
friendly with the teachers, they become so good to each other so when the
inspector visits and inspects the teacher and give wrong thoughts, their
relationship is ruined. Therefore, my suggestion to the inspectors is to maintain
that authority or integrity as an inspector. True, they can come but I see that, in
some situations at a certain time, the inspectors get so drunk with the teachers
or carry on with them. I don’t see the inspectors do what they used to do when I
was at school and when comparing how they inspect my teachers. The
inspectors are very professional and the head teachers see them as examples,
and they (inspectors) also become good examples to teachers. They do what
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teachers do but I want them to become strict a bit. This is another thing I’d like
to suggest to the inspectors to uphold their integrity. Of course, there is a time
for socializing. But in that way your work as an inspector becomes efficient.
Becoming too friendly can be dangerous, that’s just another thought.”
(MFG 1)
Because of the adverse professional ethics of inspectors, teachers’ confidence in the
inspection processes was also highlighted as a concern for everyone. Such concerns were
illustrated by these comments, particularly by members of the focus group who had not been
visited and inspected by inspectors for a number of years:
“With me, the inspection report, personally, I have some dissatisfaction with it.
With the PBDS, in my assessment, there are many things that I have been doing
that should be written formally and given to me but is not put on. Perhaps
because the inspectors just come in and see me for one hour or so and go out.
This is my dissatisfaction on the current report. When I read it, even though I
was given a substantive position, I was not satisfied because there were a lot
more that should have been written on paper. The report does not reflect my
performance.” (MVT 3)
“The Inspectors are supposed to be our helpers, visiting us every now and then
whether they are carrying out any inspections or not and we are to have our
views, the problems that we face or whatever to them. In this group here I am
one of those who have not been visited by an inspector for some years. I have
requested for inspection but I was given reasons why I could not be inspected,
so in my opinion I think that, the inspectors must be here every now and then in
the schools to help us. Not only when it comes to inspection and they are
around, that’s my opinion about inspectors’ work.” (MFG 1)
However, compared with the experiences and perceptions of the interviewed teachers, the
focus group related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance and teacher
professional development; professional development interactive strategies to teacher
compliance and teacher professional development; and professional ethics of inspectors were
related to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.6 shows these linkages.
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189
Figure 4.6: Focus Group Perceptions Linkages
Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
Quality assurance Teacher compliance
Professional development Teacher professional development
Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics
The members of the focus group, though experienced, were base level teachers who had
basic teaching qualifications. While their perceptions of teacher professionalism included
three of the five dimensions (teacher compliance, teacher leadership, teacher professional
development and teacher professional ethics), their perceptions of the linkages between the
inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism were
restricted to teacher compliance, teacher professional development and teacher professional
ethics. They agreed that quality assurance activities influenced teachers in complying with
designated responsibilities, professional development activities impacting on professional
development of teachers, and professional ethics of inspectors affecting professional ethics
of teachers. As previously stated, they argued that quality assurance strategies also impacted
on their professional development although there were also problems with this perception as
a member of the focus group revealed:
“Before the reform, the inspectors’ work was very meaningful. There are a lot
of outcomes of advisory visits and inspection reports. After the advisory and
inspection visits you see some kind of opportunities such as professional
development, maybe further studies they would recommend in teachers colleges,
this sort of things. But now there’s none of these, you can be inspected, you can
be given a good report but you do not see any opportunity at all so I do not see
any point for inspectors coming again to do inspections. What will I benefit
from the inspections? You will give me good reports, reports and that’s all?
What are the reasons for you coming and doing inspections? Are you trying to
develop me professionally or trying to recommend me for some kind of
promotion or so? I see that there is no reason for an inspector to come and
inspect me anymore.” (MFG 1)
At the same time, compared to interviewed teachers, members of the focus group believed
that professional development activities also influenced teachers in adhering to educational,
professional and administrative requirements. This meant that teachers complied with such
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requirements only if they were guided by inspectors through professional development
strategies. As this member of the focus group stressed:
“…………We want the inspectors to be here so that in areas where we lack,
they are here to guide us and help us so that’s why we still need them to
maintain the standard and because of their non presence at the school now I
think we are missing out on a lot of things as I’ve mentioned. They are the ones
who have the last say to recommend us for further studies, this sort of thing we
are missing out on. Most of us still need their presence at the school to
maintain the standard.” (MFG 1)
Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Head Teacher
The head teacher related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance,
teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher
professional ethics; professional development interactive strategies to teacher professional
development; and professional ethics to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.7 shows the
linkages.
Figure 4.7: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages
Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
Quality assurance Teacher compliance
Teacher knowledge
Teacher leadership
Professional development Teacher professional development
Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics
The head teacher was very experienced and had been promoted through the inspection
processes. He perceived the quality assurance activities as influencing all dimensions of
teacher professionalism. The comments below related quality assurance activities
influencing him to perform responsibilities as expected of him:
“The challenge (inspector named) gives me is that I should carry out my duties
in supervision. (Inspector named) reminds me and at the same time I find this
challenge helpful to feel free to enter any classroom at any time to supervise
teachers. On the spot visit, that is just go and check. Every morning, I go for a
quick visit to see whether the teacher is in the classroom or not and that is one
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of the things I normally do. In this manner, I feel closer to the teachers and they
also feel that we are working together. …...” (MVH 1)
These comments made by the head teacher illustrated the impact of quality assurance
activities on teachers’ professional development:
“My inspector does a lot of good work……… talking and giving advice after
(inspector’s named) visits in the classrooms and then report writing. (Inspector
named) then discusses the reports with the teachers before leaving. It’s a very
good thing because (inspector named) helps the teacher understand her or his
report and as a writer (inspector named) is satisfied with the report. I am happy
because of this two-way communication. (Inspector) also gives advice to the
Board of Management on how to run the school, how we can use our money on
what to buy and what not to buy, and also advised on government policy. I
admire (inspector named) on (inspector’s named) supervision skills. (Inspector
named) goes to the classroom and sits with the teachers from Grades 3 to 8 so
there is plenty reports on the teachers here at the (school named). The written
reports carry good positive results, meaning promotional reports. This shows
that there is a good working relationship.” (MVH 1)
“For myself, I am happy because I can see my weaknesses. When I read my
advisory reports the inspector gives, it helps me a lot. These are my strengths,
which is a good sign. For weaknesses, I use these to improve on them and
become a better leader. And I am very happy to learn so much from it. I want
this to go ahead and at the same time, it moulds me to become a better person
in my work.” (MVH 1)
As with the above latter comments, the comments below revealed the impact of the quality
assurance strategies on teacher leadership:
“I am happy with the benefits or outcomes I have gained during this short
period of teaching for 30 years. Because of the inspection report, it has helped
me to a fast promotion to the highest level of Education Officer 8. ………...”
(MVH 1)
However, the head teacher also expressed concern that having gained eligibility status for
higher promotional positions in the school system through the inspection processes did not
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guarantee him a promotion because of the non-existence of higher positions. The head
teacher’s confidence in the inspection processes (quality assurance strategies) as far as
teacher leadership was concerned was an issue as he implied:
“First one, regarding personal report, I know I’m eligible its how you got it. My
concern is that there are no schools in the Momase region or (province named)
that has a level 8. For now, I am on a level 8 position but am not sure where I
will go from there.” (MVH 1)
The comments below were related to how inspectors carry out the quality assurance
interactive strategies in terms of management and general conduct, and how this influenced
professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher:
“I do know of an inspector who practices favoritism to especially women. This
inspector writes promotional reports on people who are not ready to take up
responsibility. This is obvious when we allocate duties to him/her. The
particular officer finds it hard to perform. I also noticed that the inspector gives
inspections not within working hours but maybe after hours, after 4.06pm,
writing reports without actually being in the classroom where you see the
teacher in front of you. As a result, I came across a teacher who refused to sign
a report done by this inspector. The inspector gave him an unsatisfactory
report. So that teacher came and saw me and when I was at the Provincial
Ratings Conference, and when the inspector tried to avoid it, I told him to read
the report and then we had a vote and the report was thrown out.” (MVH 1)
“With advisory work in the past, I saw that it was good because it helped the
teachers. Now, the present system now, I don’t know whether the Education Act
has changed. They say advisory is not necessary. The inspectors just come and
just carry out inspections. I totally do not agree with this practice because how
can you know and assume that this teacher has been working for a year like this
when you only see him or her for a day and to give a report like this. Whether it
is an unsatisfactory report, or an efficient report or a promotional report, I
don’t believe this because I don’t see how. Advisory visits, at least one, two,
three before inspections can come in but now inspectors are not doing that. I
don’t know why, has something changed in the Education Act or in the
inspection system but that’s what I have seen.” (MVH 1)
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The head teacher also agreed that professional development activities directly impacted on
teachers’ and his professional development. He illustrated this by the following experiences:
“My inspector does a lot of good work, i.e. in the professional development of
teachers, conducting in-services, talking and giving advice after her visits in the
classrooms and then report writing. (Inspector named) then discusses the
reports with the teachers before leaving. It’s a very good thing because
(inspector named) helps the teacher understand her or his report and as a
writer (inspector named) is satisfied with the report. …….” (MVH 1)
“(Inspector named) has helped me in writing reports as suggested new roles of
site leadership. (Inspector named) has guided me through by checking them
(reports). We are both happy with the learning. I have been doing this for many
years but now I see that (inspector named) has given me more responsibility
which I am grateful and I am enjoying it.” (MVH 1)
The behavior and conduct (professional ethics of inspectors) displayed by the inspectors, and
the qualifications and knowledge used by the inspectors to carry out their responsibilities
influenced teachers and the head teacher in how they conducted themselves in performing
their responsibilities (professional ethics of teachers). These views were expressed strongly
by the head teacher:
“Yes, under this current curriculum we are teaching, these inspectors have no
clue, no idea. They are just learning from us. How can they come and give us
inspections when they don’t know? They haven’t gone for training and in-
services. It’s only recently that they are learning. When we first got reports on
top-up and these grades 7 and 8 issues, they had no idea but learnt a lot from
us. I am happy because that is one way we learn from each other in order to
help the kids. Kids are, at the end, victims or beneficiaries.” (MVH 1)
Concerning all inspectorial interactive strategies applied by the inspectors, the head teacher
revealed the operational, management and administrative difficulties that the inspectors were
experiencing as part of the cultures of the organizations that were involved with the
inspectorial system and the teaching profession. He suggested ways by which the
inspectorial system could be improved in order to have a positive impact on the teachers and
head teachers.
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“To start off with, I see that our (Provincial) Education Office does not have a
proper section for inspectors. At the moment you’d find the inspectors working
in conference rooms. The inspectors have one or two rooms, maybe no
furniture, no stationeries. So there must be proper planning in the office and
Inspections and Guidance personnel must have their own typists, their own
machines for photocopying and duplicating, and computers so that they get
updates and compile reports from their previous visits. And then they will be in
a position to give information to the planning section or Advisor if he needs
advice. The setup at the Education Office is not inviting and the teachers are
reluctant to air their concerns because it (inspector’s office) is so open in the
conference room. There are other people around there and sometimes it makes
the work of the inspectors very difficult.” (MVH 1)
“I think we have a good system but the system is very old and needs to be
revised I think we have a good inspectorial system in PNG but the system needs
to be revised so that it helps with our work in the education system. And I
would like the inspectorial system, not only to have responsibilities over the
schools but also visiting and inspecting other personnel in the Education
Offices too if the law allows. For example, the inspector inspecting the PAO
(Provincial Administration Officer) ……(to) see if his or her responsibilities are
carried out. We come across a lot of problems on leave fares and all that
because nobody is watching him, nobody is inspecting him. Other officers like
the appointment officer and other guys in the system, so whoever works in the
education system should be inspected too. Because the inspector carries such
title he should inspect them not only the teachers in the classrooms. If we have
to improve the whole system we have to do something like this so that everybody
knows that the inspector is not only for the teachers but for everyone.”
(MVH 1)
Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Inspectors
The inspectors in Case Study 2 related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher
compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development interactive
strategies to teacher leadership, teacher knowledge and teacher professional development;
and professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.8 shows these
linkages.
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Figure 4.8: Inspector Perceptions Linkages
Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
Quality assurance Teacher compliance
Teacher knowledge
Teacher leadership
Professional development Teacher professional development
Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics
The inspectors revealed quality assurance activities they carried out influenced teachers and
head teachers to comply with the requirements of the duty statements as well as with
educational, professional and administrative policies. At the same time activities done as
means of quality assurance impacted also on the performances of teachers and head teachers,
as well as in the academic performances of the students:
“My job as an Inspector, and I am also new in the system. I find that it is
challenging. I also find that my presence in the schools has a lot of impact on
teachers in terms of their performance.” (MVI 1)
“As an Inspector, I find it that these work is very, very important and it helps as
a check and balance system to see what our schools are doing and how well
they are doing. We are not there, as I say, not to be a leader or a boss or what
but to go there to be seen where we can assist and help out. The bottom line of
this as I see is the learning of our children. The teachers can be guided properly
and know what they are doing then through that they can do their work better
and help our children in the classroom.” (MVI 3)
Quality assurance activities also had direct relationship with teacher knowledge implying
that inspectors contributed to enriching teachers and head teachers with appropriate
knowledge that they require to teach their subject areas and manage aspects of the schools
respectively. The inspectors also used appropriate documents to achieve such outcomes as
illustrated with the following comments:
“As I said earlier, during my visit to schools I have copies of circulars,
instructions and newsletters. I carry around copies of the Education and
Teaching Service Acts. I have a copy of the Performance Based Duty
Statement. During my visit I use the information as a basis in conducting staff
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meetings for teachers and inform them on whatever is there and how it is
relevant to their workplace. It is something new basically because they have
not received that information. Some of them are not aware that there are
certain things like that available. When the information goes to them, it is an
eye opener.” (MVI 1)
“The head teachers when visiting them, I try to develop them by advising them
on what things that should be done to improve their schools, they have to
develop their managerial skills so that they become confident in running their
school. In classroom teachers, when I give them advisory visit or lesson
observation it helps them to improve their skills and knowledge so that it will
develop the teacher at the end, as a head teacher, as a supervisor or as a
classroom teacher. These are the things that I help them with and as a result
head teachers have become good planners, managers and administrators.
Teachers have become more confident in their teaching.” (MVI 2)
The inspectors summed up the general achievements resulting from what they were
doing as means of quality assurance with teachers, the Board of Management and the
head teachers with this inspector’s comments:
“When we look at the professionalism of teachers and their output in the
classrooms as teachers, I see that if the teachers’ attitudes toward the children
are good then we will see an improvement in the standard of learning. That’s
the impact that the teacher will have on the students in terms of learning. If we
look at, for example, record keeping then it also indicates that the teacher
knows exactly what he is doing, and how he can manage his or her records.
The Board of Management (BOM), in terms of record keeping of money or
spending of money, the impact will be on the performance of the students.
When the BOM use their money wisely, then we know that the impact will be on
the students in terms of materials, infrastructure that indicates that money is
being used properly. With head teachers, his or her performance will indicate
in the way that the school is being run. The first impression we get is if the
school is running properly, we would already know what kind of scene is
happening in the schools without even talking to the head teacher. This is the
output of how the head teacher is performing.” (MVI 1)
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Inspectors also related quality assurance activities directly to teacher leadership. They
claimed that leadership qualities were enhanced when inspectors identified and
acknowledged problem areas in school leadership.
“With the head teachers, I find they must have the knowledge to plan and to run
the schools. They are working but they are not really focusing on what they
should be doing. A lot of things are just too general and they don’t know their
duty statements and with that a lot are ‘stepping on each others’ toes’. Their
colleague teachers and supervisors are not really aware of their duty
statements. Senior teachers are also appointed without training.” (MVI 3)
With professional development strategies inspectors observed that these were directly
influencing teachers and head teachers in their professional development, particularly in
enhancing knowledge and leadership qualities. These were reflected with the following
inspectors’ revelations:
“Some of the outcomes that I have witnessed during my visits are that teachers
know that the inspectors are there and are trying their best in utilizing whatever
resources there are to present their lessons and from advisory visits, I have seen
a lot of improvements. Teachers are willing to accept advice and improve in
their professional areas as well as in other areas in their profession. With head
teachers most of my emphasis is on how they administer schools and after my
visits I have seen improvements, administratively and of course professionally
in terms of staff development activities in the schools. They have picked up
after my visits. They conduct in-services. Many times they do their itineraries
but they don’t carry out these, but after my visits to them and having talked to
them, seeing the importance of staff in-service there was a lot of improvements
in some schools. But there is still more to be done.” (MVI 1)
“An example is like the implementation of the reform curriculum. Teachers are
not familiar with this then I have to see that if it is a common issue in all the
schools or just one school. If it is in all schools, a district or inspectorate an in-
service is planned together with the head teachers and is conducted to address
the issue.” (MVI 2)
At the same time inspectors admitted that their professional ethics impacted on the
professional ethics of teachers and head teachers. The inspectors revealed these experiences:
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“……A lot of head teachers having not been visited by inspectors sort of having
no care attitude. After my visits and discussions about their roles and
responsibilities they are beginning to pick up but there is still a lot to be done.”
(MVI 1)
“Teachers here, I find that they have been left alone for so long and having
coming here, it is not because I have made the change but little that I have
offered, I can see that there is learning, there is commitment and there is
respect. Their attitudes are slowly and gradually changing and then coming to
realize that, yes we have to do work and they are responding to some of the
things I’ve mentioned. Of course not everybody, there are people over there
who have their own ways of doing things. But they are coming to realize that,
yes, it is a task, it’s our responsibility and we must carry them out. And with
those little ways of doing things with them, we are trying slowly to do something
there.” (MVI 3)
The inspectors also revealed the factors that related to the cultures of the organizations that
were involved with the work of the inspectors. These factors impacted on their professional
ethics and also impacted on the professional ethics of teachers and head teachers.
“The inspectorate role, where I am in the field of education, is more
consultative with the different stakeholders that are involved in education.
There is a need for more consultation between the Education Department, the
Provincial and District Education Offices. Right now from my experience, I
have seen that there is lack of consultation. Because we are national officers,
the province tend to bypass us in a lot of things that are happening within our
schools in the provinces, and of course our inspectorate. So there is a need for
more consultation, more discussions at our level so that we have one common
goal and that is to maintain and uphold the standards of teaching and learning
in schools and of course the administrative capacity of head teachers in our
schools.” (MVI 1)
“What I’ve seen is that when we look at the inspection we look at it seriously
because it is our job and like in the provinces, some provinces support and
some provinces don’t. One of the things is, not in terms of money, we are in the
province and they tell you, they belong to the National Government and there.
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In the provinces, (and) there is not much commitment and (the) work
relationship. We try to do it but we are on our own. With the National
Department I think now there is (are) a lot of things that are happening. We see
things are coming however, in the province I find with the leadership, a lot of
things stop there and we down the line, we don’t get information. And at times
we work in isolation and there’s always frustrations which doesn’t help with
situations. We should work together. The big issue is communication. I mean
it’s lacking in the provinces between us, information come and then are not
given out. I’ve experienced, since coming to (inspectorate named), when I
walked into a school in 2004 I found that it was the first time for schools to see
the inspector coming in. And I feel that the schools are closer to walk to and
see what they are doing and let them see our presence so we are working
together as a group. Isolating and not visiting schools is not helping at all.
Maybe I’m proud but I have seen the level of work now compared to 2004 how
the teachers are coming around openly talking to the head teachers and we
need the check and balance system with our teachers in our schools.” (MVI 3)
Synthesis of Views of Linkages
There were simple and complex relationships revealed by participants as a result of their
experiences, beliefs and perceptions about the linkages between the inspectorial interactive
strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism. The interviewed teachers provided
simple relationships by implying that quality assurance interactive strategies related to
teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. They argued that quality
assurance activities ensured they comply with educational, professional and administrative
requirements of their responsibilities. At the same time such activities provided new
knowledge about changes in curriculum development and pedagogy. These teachers, some
of them occupying senior positions in the school, also revealed that quality assurance
activities assisted them in developing leadership qualities resulting in promotions to senior
teaching positions. Concerning professional development interactive strategies and
professional ethics of inspectors, teachers related these to their professional development and
professional ethics respectively. Members of the teacher focus group however, only noted
limited linkages. These teachers, who had not been visited and inspected for a number of
years, related quality assurance and professional development activities to teacher
compliance and also extended these activities to influencing them in their professional
development. This implied that the outcomes of these activities allowed them to develop
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professionally in order to comply with basic educational, professional and administrative
requirements.
The head teacher provided complex linkages, and while he agreed with the teachers that
quality assurance interactive strategies related directly to teacher compliance, teacher
knowledge, teacher leadership and teacher professional development, he extended the
linkages to teacher professional ethics. These different perceptions probably implied
different ways in which teachers and the head teacher performed and conducted their
responsibilities.
The inspectors also reported complex linkages and agreed with many of the teachers’ and
head teacher’s perceptions. The common linkages included quality assurance relating to
teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development
activities to teacher professional development; and professional ethics of inspectors to
professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher. However, contrary to teachers’ and the
head teacher’s perceptions, was the notion that professional development interactive
strategies impacted on teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. The teachers and the head
teacher did not agree with this and this may be due to a lack of focus in the professional
development activities performed by inspectors.
4.4.6 Summary of Case Study 2
Similar to the findings of Case Study 1 the inspectors in this case believed that they carried
out two main inspectorial interactive strategies when performing their responsibilities.
These were quality assurance and professional development interactive strategies. These
were demonstrated through advisory activities and inspection processes (Section 1.3.4).
Again, similar to the findings of Case Study 1, how the inspectors performed these
interactive strategies resulted in the emerged ‘behavioral’ interactive strategies of
professional ethics of inspectors that concerned the manner, conduct and behavior that were
demonstrated by the inspectors. In addition, particularly with this Case Study, the
professional ethics of inspectors were also influenced by the organizational cultures of the
agencies of the NDOE and the Provincial Administration. These factors included a lack of
cooperation, communication and consultation between personnel of different agencies
concerning the work of inspectors and issues related to the teaching profession.
Collectively, the emerged dimensions of teacher professionalism were teacher compliance,
teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher
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professional ethics. However, members of the focus group did not disclose teacher
knowledge as a significant dimension of teacher professionalism. These teachers were
experienced teachers who only had basic qualifications in teaching (Certificates in Primary
Teaching). Such a perception indicated that these teachers had not been exposed to new
knowledge by inspectors and were contented with existing levels of knowledge. This could
consequently result in a lack of innovation and creativity in teaching responsibilities.
The linkages of the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher
professionalism as noted above are summarized in Table 4.22. Cross-participants analysis
was used to derive the results for this case which are summarized below.
Table 4.22: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 2
Participants 1
Teacher Professionalism 2
Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 3
Quality Assurance
4
Professional Development
5
Professional Ethics
6 Key: MVT 1 - 5▲ MVH 1 ► MFG 1 ▼ MVI 1 – 3 ◄
Teacher Compliance ▲►▼◄ ▼ Teacher Knowledge ▲►◄ ◄ Teacher Leadership ▲►◄ ◄ Teacher Professional Development
►▼ ▲►▼◄
Teacher Professional Ethics ► ▲►▼◄
Teachers, the head teacher and inspectors concluded that quality assurance interactive
strategies directly influenced teachers and head teachers in complying with educational,
professional, management and administrative requirements and expectations of NDOE, TSC,
PDOE and other agencies. Quality assurance activities also allowed for appropriate
knowledge that teachers and the head teacher needed to perform responsibilities and address
changes that were being introduced into the school. At the same time all participants
believed that they developed leadership qualities through quality assurance interactive
strategies which eventually led to promotions to higher teaching positions. Only the head
teacher indicated that quality assurance interactive strategies impacted on his professional
development. This also implied that as teachers and the head teacher developed
professionally by means of quality assurance activities, the chances to be promoted through
the inspection processes was high. Only the head teacher experienced quality assurance
interactive strategies as influencing him in how he conducted himself in his work. This
implied that quality assurance activities that inspectors performed directly impacted on
professional ethics of the head teacher.
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As expected, all participants experienced that the professional development interactive
strategies impacted on teacher and head teacher professional development. This was obvious
because of the nature of the activities, including training and in-service sessions and advisory
roles carried out by inspectors that dealt with policies, curriculum changes and school
management issues. However, only teachers believed that professional development led to
an adherence to requirements and expectations of NDOE, TSC and PDOE. The nature of the
training and in-service sessions were seen to be important when changes in policies or new
policies were introduced. In such cases teachers and head teachers were required to comply
with the changes. On the other hand, inspectors argued that professional development
interactive strategies influenced teachers and the head teacher to be equipped with new
knowledge as well as having influence on their roles as leaders. This notion was contrary to
teachers’ and the head teacher’s views who did not perceive professional development
interactive strategies as impacting on their knowledge and leadership qualities.
How inspectors and other personnel working for central organizations including NDOE,
TSC and PDOE, conducted themselves in carrying out their responsibilities (professional
ethics) according to the views of participants influenced teachers and the head teachers in
performing their duties. The conduct of these personnel, including inspectors, reflected
existing cultures within concerned organizations which were not conducive to changes and
current development in the education system. At the same time, the question of professional
ethics of teachers, the head teacher and inspectors could be attributed to the quality of
teacher training and development they have had over the years.
In summary, quality assurance interactive strategies related directly to teacher compliance,
teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher
professional ethics. Professional development interactive strategies arguably impacted
directly on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership and teacher
professional development. Professional ethics of inspectors impacted directly on
professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher.
4.5 Case Study 3: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Urban
Government School
Eastern Highlands Province (EHP) was selected for this study to represent the provinces in
the Highlands Region of the country. The other provinces that make up the Highlands
Region are Simbu, Western Highlands, Enga and Southern Highlands Provinces. Nokondi
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Primary School, the school selected for this study, is located in the outskirt of Goroka, the
provincial centre of the province and was selected to represent urban and government agency
schools.
4.5.1 Background information
EHP is located on the mainland of PNG. It has a current population of 432 972 who speak
over many languages representing the many tribes of the province. The people of EHP live
on staple food including sweet potato, vegetables and a variety of fruits cultivated in fertile
gardens. The main cash crop of the province is coffee which the province contributes to the
country’s economy.
EHP is divided into 8 districts; Daulo, Goroka, Henganofi, Kainantu, Lufa, Obura-
Wonenara, Okapa and Unggai-Bena districts. Geographically the province has very rugged
mountains and is highly populated with most people living in the remote parts of the
province. The provincial center is Goroka, a town with a population of 25 000. Like all
other provinces most areas and districts are still developing in terms of infrastructure making
it difficult for progress to be made in the provision of social services, including education.
The current statistics show that the total number of community and primary schools
operating in the province is 229 with 70 primary schools and 159 community schools. There
are over 1 500 teaching positions in primary and community schools with 1 457 teachers on
strength of which 1 079 are males and 378 are females, representing 74% and 26% females
respectively. The number of students enrolled in primary and community schools is 54 157
with 31 562 males and 22 595 females representing 58% and 42% male to female
respectively (Sources: Senior Inspector’s Quarter Newsletters; 2003 Education Statistics of
PNG).
Students attending Nokondi Primary School lived in villages around and within Goroka.
Most of the students come from working parents who are employed in the province.
Nokondi Primary School is a level 8 school with a staff ceiling of thirty-six teachers, eight
(22%) of whom are males and twenty-eight (78%) are females. The teachers come from all
parts of PNG. Only ten teachers resided in the school while the rest resided in and around
Goroka due to lack of housing for teachers. The school enrolled a total of 1 270 students in
grades 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Of the 1 270 students 689 (54%) are males and 586 (46%) are
females (Sources: School Records).
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There are eleven inspector positions for the province of which six were occupied, including
the SPSI position, and five were vacant. The inspector responsible for Nokondi Primary
School is based in Goroka.
4.5.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants
The participants of Case Study 3, EHP, were made up of six teachers, the head teacher, the
teacher focus group of Nokondi Primary School and three primary school inspectors. The
teacher focus group was made up of teachers who had not been inspected during the last
three years. Three inspectors who participated in the research project represented 50% of the
provincial inspectors. Table 4.23 shows the demographic information about the participants.
The interviewed teachers for Case Study 3 consisted of a base level teacher and five senior
teachers. These six teachers represented 16.7% of teachers in the school with three females
(50%) and three males (50%). The teaching experiences of the teachers varied from eleven
to twenty-nine years. Their teaching experiences at this school varied from five to sixteen
years. With qualifications, five had Diploma in Primary Teaching, representing 83%, and
one had a Certificate in Primary Teaching, representing 17%. The teachers come from all
parts of PNG with ages varying from twenty-eight to forty-six years old. These teachers’
views represented the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of experienced teachers in
government urban schools who had interacted with inspectors.
The focus group was made up of 4 base level teachers and all were females. The teaching
experiences of members of the focus group varied from five to twenty-five years and all had
Diploma in Primary Teaching qualifications. At this school, their teaching experiences
varied from one to seven years. The ages of the members of the focus group varied from
twenty-three to forty-five years old. The focus group is made up 11% of the teaching staff,
and together with interviewed teachers and the head teacher, all participants made up 30.6%
of the teaching staff of the school. The views of the focus group represented the views of the
experienced base level teachers.
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Table 4.23: Demographic Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 3
Volunteer Participants
Sex Age Qualifications/Position in School Teaching/Inspector Experience % of Teachers or Inspectors in School or Inspectorate
Inspectors were allocated responsibilities by the SPSI at the approval of the Superintendent –
Primary Inspection based at NDOE. For this provincial inspectorate, the inspectors’
responsibility load ratios for the schools were 1:45, 1:38 and 1:31, for the teachers were
1:333, 1:501 and 1:176, and for the students were 1:8 511, 1:7 023, 1:10 000 respectively.
For the three inspectors the ratios of responsibility loads varied greatly, and on average,
inspector to schools ratio was 1:38, inspector to teachers was 1:333 and inspector to students
was 1:8 511. There was lack of policy that dictated the responsibility load of inspectors
resulting with heavy responsibility loads for some inspectors while others had light
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responsibility loads. Because of this, inspectors were either overworked and had little or no
time for all teachers and schools in their inspectorates.
4.5.3 Preamble to the findings of Case Study 3
The findings for Case Study 3 are discussed and used to consolidate the findings of Case
Studies 1 and 2. This is necessary to avoid repetition of common issues and disclosures.
Where appropriate, references are made accordingly.
4.5.4 Perceptions of teachers, head teacher and inspectors: Inspectorial interactive
strategies
In response to questions related to how the inspectors operated in schools, according to
participants, the interactive strategies emerged into three main categories; quality assurance,
professional development and professional ethics of inspectors. These categories emerged
from the data through the process of clustering and were consistent with the findings of Case
Studies 1 and 2. Tables 4.25 to 4.27 illustrate the processes of establishing the inspectorial
interactive strategies that originated from the transcripts and document analysis.
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Table 4.25: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Quality Assurance
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Teachers • Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation of educational policies. • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements. • Inspectors monitor student welfare. • Inspectors monitor head teacher leadership. • Inspectors check on the management and responsibilities to enhance the provision of quality education. • Other activities as in Table 4.6. Head teacher • Inspectors inspect head teacher for promotion. • Inspectors receive and compile reports about the schools for authorities. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for children’s education. • Inspectors identify the strengths in head teachers’ performances and appraise them. • Other activities as in Table 4.6. Teacher Focus group • Inspectors inspect teachers for registration. Inspectors • Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation of educational policies. • Inspectors use management and operational plans to carry out their responsibilities. • Inspectors receive and compile reports about the schools for authorities. • Inspectors appraise and evaluate teachers’ and head teachers’ performances for promotion. • Inspectors supervise for quality control and assurance through monitoring and advising teachers on
teaching standards, curriculum requirements and organized records. • Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation of educational policies. • Nationally and provincially delegated duties are performed by inspectors. • Inspectors ensure physical learning environment exists in schools. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for children’s education.
are carried out by inspectors. • Quality control & assurance is carried out
through the monitoring of policies & reporting to authorities.
• Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for children’s education.
Quality assurance
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Table 4.26: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Development
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Teachers • Inspectors assist teachers in their professional development. • Other activities as in Table 4.6. Head teacher • Inspectors check on the management and responsibilities to enhance professional
development of teachers. • Head teacher and teacher professional development is enhanced when in-service and
training are pursued by inspectors. Focus group - No comments Inspectors • Inspectors supervise for professional development through advisory and training roles. • Teacher professional development being pursued by inspectors. • Inspectors’ direct involvement with teacher and head teacher professional
development. • Other activities as in Table 4.6.
• Inspectors assist teachers & head teachers in their
professional development. • Supervision for professional development through advisory
& training roles performed by inspectors.
Professional development
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Table 4.27: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Ethics
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Teachers Operational issues • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ visits to schools and teachers. • Inspectors monitor conduct of teachers. • There is lack of documentation relating to the operation of the inspectorial system from the inspector or
the province. • There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector and the province. Professional issues • Inspector professional ethics being questioned and is having adverse impacts on teachers. • Inspectors’ roles are valued by teachers. • Inspector employment conditions are affecting inspectors in their work. • Working cultures in NDOE & PDOE are disadvantaging inspectors from doing their work effectively. • There is inadequate time to assist teachers. • Teacher performance decline when not inspected. • Lack of organization plans by NDOE to cater for the increasing number of teachers. • Lack of support and negligence by NDOE and PDOE to facilitate inspectors’ work in the schools. Head teacher Operational issues • There is lack of documentation relating to the operation of the inspectorial system from the inspector or
the province. • There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector and the province. • Lack of planning and organization by inspector to carry out his work. • There is no support from provincial authorities for proper offices for the inspectors to work in and this is
affecting their status and their work in assisting teachers. • Selection and appointment of inspectors from head teacher candidates are being questioned.
• Lack of planning and organization by
inspector to carry out his work. • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned and is
having adverse impacts on teachers. • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit
schools and help teachers. • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ work. • Lack of confidence in the processes and
outcomes of the inspection roles performed by inspectors.
• Selection and appointment of inspectors from head teacher candidates is being questioned.
• Lack of support from employing agency and other stakeholders for inspector to carry out their work.
• Lack of knowledge and skills for inspectors to perform their responsibilities.
• Inspectors’ roles are valued. • Inspector contributes to children’s education. • Lack of clear focus in inspectors’ roles due to
lack of visits to teachers and clarity on inspectors’ responsibilities.
Professional ethics of inspectors
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Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Professional issues • Inspector honesty is valued when dealing with teachers’ problems. • Lack of cooperation between stakeholders makes it hard for inspectors to perform their duties. • Inspector professional ethics being questioned and is having adverse impacts on teachers. • Lack of confidence, protocol and respect for head teachers does not help with inspector performing their
work. • Lack of confidence in the processes and outcomes of the inspection roles performed by inspectors. • Current organizational cultures are affecting inspectors’ work in schools. • Lack of clear focus in inspectors’ roles due to lack of visits to teachers and clarity on inspectors’
responsibilities. • Advisory visits have no specific purposes. Teacher Focus group Operational issues • Lack of commitment by inspectors in assisting teachers through lack of visits to schools. • Lack of support and negligence by NDOE and PDOE to facilitate inspectors’ work in the schools. • Teachers being forced to implement policies without being trained on aspects of concerned policies. Professional issues • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned and is having adverse impacts on teachers. • Lack of information on educational policies makes the work of inspectors difficult. Inspectors Operational issues • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ visits to schools and teachers. • There is lack of documentation relating to the operation of the inspectorial system from the inspector or
the province. • There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector and the province. • Inspectors are overloaded with work as per inspector-teacher ratio. • Lack of planning and organization by inspector to carry out his work.
(As above)
(As above)
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Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
• Inspectors use other means to accomplish their operational plans when logistics and support are unavailable.
Professional issues • Lack of cooperation between stakeholders makes it hard for inspectors to perform their duties. • The inspector’s roles are challenging. • Inspectors’ roles are valued by teachers and head teachers. • Duplication of responsibilities done by senior teachers, head teachers and inspectors in supervising
teachers in schools. • Inspectors’ integrity and work ethics being questioned and is having adverse impacts on teachers. • Provincial authorities undermining the roles of inspectors and not working well with inspectors as a result
of adverse attitudes towards inspectors because they are performing national functions. • Inspector respect for head teachers is encouraged through protocols. • Inspector qualifications and professional development are neglected and are affected their work. • Inspectors provide good leadership to teachers and head teachers. • Lack of networking between stakeholders, inspectors, head teachers and teachers to address educational
issues. • Policies are developed in isolation and this affects inspectors, head teachers and teachers when it comes
to implementation.
(As above)
(As above)
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Synthesis of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers, Head Teacher
and Inspectors
While specific activities of the quality assurance and professional development interactive
strategies were common in all three case studies so far, the specific issues related to the
professional ethics of inspectors were further consolidated by the participants of this Case
Study. For this reason, only the factors related to the professional ethics of inspectors are
discussed here. These factors included a lack of documentation and information on the
specific roles of inspectors and other educational issues that contributed to how teachers and
the head teacher viewed the work of the inspectors. This teacher summed up the
participants’ concerns:
“Some of these documents, to be honest, I have not read them. Most of the time
the inspectors talk to us about the Teaching Service Act and not documents
about their responsibilities and what is required of me. But to be able to get a
better view of what I ought to know or what we all should know, such
documents should remain with us, especially documents which relate to general
issues about the education system and what is expected and required of me.”
(EVT 4)
Teachers also expressed concern over the employment and working conditions of inspectors
as contributing to inspectors’ lack of commitment to perform their responsibilities reliably:
“I like the work of the inspector. But on the other end he is disadvantaged also.
The inspector cannot perform his duty unless he or she has the support in terms
of housing and transport. They do not have the money to make their work more
effective.” (EVT 4)
The head teacher complaint that a lack of planning and organization by the inspectors in
carrying out their work, including a lack of focus in advisory visits and the heavy workload,
were major issues that contributed to the adverse professional ethics of inspectors. He
conferred:
“I know of some inspectors who have stayed in the province and have become
inspectors. When they come to the school, some times they pretend in their
offices. They use notices and other documents I’ve created in other schools. I
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indirectly catch them doing this. This shows they’ve learnt some things from me
but they don’t mention it to me.” (EVH 1)
“I’d like to support the inspectors and I’d like to state that the National
Department of Education or Standards Division should try to look into and
screen their work because the ratio of inspectors to teachers is such that the
number of teaching officers is more than one person can handle. The other
includes the number of schools in a district. There are so many schools the
inspector (has) to cover in one year. They need to cut down the ratio in these
two areas. In addition, they need to put an officer as a site leader to help and
ease the workload of the inspectors.” (EVH 1)
The issue concerning the heavy workload of inspectors was also confirmed by this inspector
with suggestions made for improvement:
“I believe that advisory visits, supervisory visits and the inspection are too
much for an inspector. When we are looking at the inspector-teacher ratio and
the distances where the schools are located, the inspector doing too much. I
suggest that these are broken into certain areas of responsibilities and are
given to the school personnel and are specified for them to perform. For
example head teachers and the inspector would only work on the administrative
areas, that is, ......... The professional areas, like supervisory and advisory and
so forth, are given to the schools to work on at the school level. I think this will
be good.” (EVI 1)
At the same time inspectors expressed concern that they were duplicating the supervisory
responsibilities of the school based supervisors as stressed by this inspector:
“One other thing is that the head teacher is also carrying out advisory and
supervisory work and that is to make sure that his presence is felt by the
teachers. He pays visits, attends meetings and writes reports on teachers at the
end of each term so he or she has a lot of work to do. Therefore I spend time
with him advising him and talking to him on how we can work together and
make sure the results are good at the end of the year.” (EVI 1)
Thus the inspectorial interactive strategies identified from the experiences, beliefs and
perceptions of teachers, the head teacher and inspectors of Case Study 3 were quality
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assurance interactive strategies, professional development interactive strategies and
professional ethics of inspectors.
4.5.5 Perceptions of teachers, head teacher and inspectors on the dimensions of teacher
professionalism
In response to the questions of how teachers, the head teacher and inspectors perceived
teacher professionalism, the results thematically derived from the analysis were that teacher
professionalism consisted of the dimensions of teacher compliance, teacher knowledge,
teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. These
results were similar to the findings for Case Studies 1 and 2, with some varying views.
Tables 4.28 to 4.32 summarize the views of the participants on the dimensions of teacher
professionalism derived from using grounded analysis approaches.
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Table 4.28: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Compliance
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Teacher qualifications. • Teacher performing responsibilities as delegated and as policy requires. • Teacher responsibilities including administrative and professional duties as per duty statements. • Being a teacher involves teaching, planning and programming (teacher performance). • Teacher performance relates to teacher competence and productivity. Head teacher • Teacher performance relates to all aspects of head teachers’ and teachers’ work. Teacher focus group • The current status with and integrity of the teaching profession is questionable due to
differences performances. Inspectors • Teacher having been educated as a professional. • Teacher accountability relates to teachers being accountable to children’s learning and other
responsibilities. • Teacher performance relates to all aspects of head teachers’ and teachers’ work. • Changes, including curriculum reform, are creating confusions amongst teachers.
• Teacher performance relates to teaching and
performing other duties. • Teacher organization relates to planning and
organizing teacher records and files. • Teacher as agent of change. • Teacher accountability relates to teachers being
accountable to children learning and other responsibilities.
• Teacher as an implementer of educational policies.
Teacher compliance
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Table 4.29: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Teacher qualifications. Head teacher • Teacher qualifications. Teacher focus group • The current status with and integrity of the teaching profession is questionable due to
differences in qualifications. • Teacher knowledge. Inspectors • Teacher having been educated as a professional. • Teacher competence and knowledge relate to teaching competence and curriculum knowledge.
• Teacher qualifications. • Teacher knowledge. • Teacher competence. • Teacher having been educated as a professional.
Teacher knowledge
Table 4.30: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Leadership
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Teacher leadership. • Head teacher and teacher experience and responsibility for teachers and students. • Supervision and professional development of subordinates. Head teacher : No comments Teacher Focus group : No comments Inspectors • Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking a lead in aspects of work in school. • Head teacher as a role model.
• Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher
taking a lead in aspects of school operation. • Teacher leadership is providing for supervision and
professional development of subordinates. • Teacher leadership is taking responsibility for teachers
and students. • Head teacher as a role model.
Teacher leadership
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Table 4.31: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Professional development activities for teacher professional development. • Teacher continuous learning or pursues professional development. Head teacher • Professionals who are continually in-serviced and trained in aspects of their teaching career. Teacher focus group • Teacher professional development. Inspectors • Teachers of today are changing and improving with new ideas. • Teacher professional development as a continuing phenomenal in teaching. • There is need for focus and systematic professional development programs for teachers.
• Teacher professional development as a continuing
phenomenal in teaching. • Supervision for professional development.
Teacher professional development
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Table 4.32: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Teacher ethics or ethical values including professional conduct. • Teachers valuing student education. • A teacher being “someone who is also a parent”. • Teacher as a role model. • Teacher cooperation and cohesiveness. • Teacher integrity including honest, commitment and dedication. • Teachers live and work in difficult situations in PNG primary schools. Head teacher • Teacher positive image in the community. • Teachers valuing children’s education. • Teachers respecting each other. Teacher focus group • Teacher commitment. Inspectors • Head teacher and teacher commitment and dedication. • Head teacher as a role model. • Teacher professional relationships with others. • Teacher ethics and ethical values.
• Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty,
respect, commitment, obedience and dedication. • Teacher professional relationships with others. • Teacher positive image in the community. • Teacher cooperation and cohesiveness. • Teacher valuing children’s education. • Teachers as role models.
Teacher professional ethics
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Teacher Professionalism: Views of Teachers
The interviewed teachers perceived teacher professionalism as having the five dimensions,
that of teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional
development and teacher professional ethics. Members of the teacher focus group, who
occupied base level positions and had not been visited and inspected by inspectors for the
last three years, recognized the dimensions of teacher professionalism as teacher compliance,
teacher knowledge, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics.
Teacher leadership was insignificant to base level teachers.
There were varying views concerning teacher compliance, teacher professional development
and teacher professional ethics. With teacher compliance, teachers considered qualifications
as basic requirements that teachers had to have. With teacher professional development,
upgrading teacher qualifications was necessary while teacher professional ethics concerned
commitment to the teaching profession. As these teachers implied about these three
dimensions:
“Every individual teacher must have proper qualification. But this will require
planning. A teacher in PNG must plan a lot and must have appropriate
qualifications as a teacher to achieve goals, aims and objectives of the school.”
(EVT 3)
“The characteristic of a teacher is, simplify (simply), a profession to teach or
transmit the subject knowledge so that the students acquire what they suppose
to learn. The other thing is the qualifications of teachers. This is the strength
of teachers that enables them to help anybody like children and other outsiders
who come for help and they can be helped and managed to deal with their
learning or solving problems.” (EVT 5)
Concerning teacher leadership, teachers (with the exception of members of the focus group)
regarded teacher leadership as teachers performing supervisory and professional
development roles in the schools. The teachers also considered teacher professional ethics
as intrinsically related to teacher leadership as expressed clearly by these teachers:
“As being a teacher, I must be a role model, an example to the school children
in the form of dressing, behavior and attitude. The teacher should be a
communicator and a leader.” (EVT 3)
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“Being a teacher, what I value is the commitment I have for my work, being
punctual with my tasks, being attentive, being co-operative and I have to be a
guide, a director and a leader.” (EVT 5)
Teacher Professionalism: Views of Head Teacher
The head teacher perceived teacher professionalism as having the dimensions of teacher
compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher professional development and teacher professional
ethics. While this perception was shared by head teachers of Case Studies 1 and 2, teacher
leadership was recognized by the head teacher as insignificant to the teaching profession.
This may be attributed to the thirty-three years of head teacher experience resulting with the
assumption that his responsibilities had become ‘norms’.
Examples of the head teacher’s views on teacher compliance concerning pedagogy and
qualifications:
“As a teacher and head teacher, my priority is for the students to earn a better
education. And my teachers must get important things like better educational
materials to teach. These are two of my priorities so that the teachers are well
equipped to give good lessons to the students. Thus, I prioritize mainly on
teaching materials and the students as teacher professionalism.” (EVH 1)
“By upgrading my qualification, I am also meeting the requirements of
whatever level I’m occupying in the school. All teachers should upgrade their
qualifications. So in this way, whatever I say there is respect. I am lucky in this
school because most of my teachers have diploma and degrees and only two
have certificates in teaching.” (EVH 1)
An example of the head teacher’s view on teacher knowledge and how this was problematic
in schools:
“Ok, for example, in this reform system, they are pushing us around and most of
my teachers, even throughout the country or nationwide, are finding it difficult
to implement changes. The head teachers must know these changes and be
given time to go and look through the content (curriculum). And when we return
to our individual schools, we’ll be in a better position to implement them and it
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will work. But now they are throwing things at us without induction courses
and many schools are lacking this, unlike us in town. Because we have been
addressing this, we are all right in that we are aware and are knowledgeable in
what is happening. But most schools now only know of the old system
(curriculum). That is why, the main thing to be considered is that the head
teachers must attend courses to understand the contents (curriculum), know
exactly what they can do so that when they return they are okay. They are not
doing this to us and only throwing things at us which make us work extra
hard.” (EVH 1)
An example of the head teacher’s view on teacher professional development as an intrinsic
factor:
“Teacher professionalism, my view is that there are two aspects; (1) is
concerned with Professional Development in that I must make an effort to cop
with the changes in the Department of Education, especially in the curriculum
areas; and (2) I must, at the same time, upgrade my qualification.” (EVH 1)
An example of the head teacher’s view on teacher professional ethics as relating to valuing
the teaching profession and having respect from the community:
“Yes, I value the work of a teacher and the first thing I’d like to comment on is
that I’m very proud of being one. My thoughts in being a teacher are that, when
I teach, I am also educating myself. The children come form various
environments, so when they answer questions differently from my answers I try
to learn from their answers instead of being angry if they give different answers
to mine. And then, as a professional team, we teachers meet and discuss areas
of our professional interest, which I learn a lot from as well as the other
teachers. This makes me very proud. And secondly, the communities respect us
because we give this knowledge to the children. They also look at how we
behave and whether we are working or not. When they express their views to
me, I feel very proud and accept it.” (EVH 1)
Teacher Professionalism: Views of Inspectors
The inspectors perceived teacher professionalism as having five dimensions, that of teacher
compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and
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teacher professional ethics. This realization was consistent with the views of the inspectors
of Case Studies 1 and 2.
An example of inspectors’ views on teacher compliance and teacher knowledge relating to
qualifications as basic requirements that teachers had to comply with:
“Basically a teacher must be trained in a recognized institution including
Teachers’ Colleges in Papua New Guinea and must know the content of the
curriculum and know how to implement or translate the curriculum and
implement, asses and report. Those are the expected characteristics of a
teacher. In terms of a head teacher he must have teaching experience and
recognition that he can perform duties as a head teacher knowing the
curriculum management, including planning, management and controlling and
reporting, especially managing the whole organization of the school. So those
are the characteristics of a head teacher.” (EVI 1)
An example of inspectors’ view on teacher leadership as having formal leadership
responsibilities for teachers and students:
“With head teachers I value them as very important site leaders, very important
people. They make it happen or they might not make it happen. They direct,
they assist, they plan, they motivate, they encourage and then the teachers
follow what they are doing. ……..” (EVI 2)
An example of inspectors’ view on teacher professional development:
“And on the professional development that is knowing the job well, able to lead
others and train other officers and at the same time the children are well taught
and the results at the end are good.” (EVI 1)
An example of inspectors’ view on teacher professional ethics:
“A teacher is someone who teaches others about good things and ways. We
teach but actually practicing what we teach is a question. For example, we
teach others about not smoking but during recess and lunch times we see
teachers smoking. So teaching must go with practice, ethics and our attitude
too then we are truly professional teachers. We teach one thing and do the
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other thing that does not match up so my role is to try to help teachers that they
must match up. What you preach you must practice.” (EVI 2)
Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism
Similar to the views of the participants of Case Studies 1 and 2, the five emerged dimensions
of teacher professionalism perceived were teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher
leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. Though the
results were similar, there were some varying degrees of experiences, beliefs and
perceptions.
For example, in addition to the views of teachers in Case Studies 1 and 2, teachers, the head
teacher and inspectors in this case perceived teacher compliance as related to having
appropriate qualifications and being educated as professionals. These were significant
factors for teachers to comply with in order to be members of the teaching profession.
Teacher knowledge, as an emerged dimension of teacher professionalism, was important to
the teaching profession, according to all participants in this study. Teachers, the head
teacher and inspectors advocated that teachers had to be competent and knowledgeable in
their field of expertise before they become teachers. The head teacher emphasized that
teacher knowledge also concerned teachers upgrading their qualifications consistent with
changes in curriculum and pedagogical issues, and that this had to be concurrently addressed
through strategic and focused professional development programs.
Teachers (most of whom were senior teachers) and inspectors recognized teacher leadership
as having to perform responsibilities through formal leadership roles. Teacher leadership
regarded teachers and the head teacher as role models. It included supervisory and
professional development roles that teachers and the head teacher carried out in the school.
The inspectors valued and respected teachers and the head teacher, who performed
leadership roles and considered them as important to the school. Such perceptions however,
were not shared by the focus group members who were base level teachers and who had no
formal leadership roles. The head teacher also did not share such perception and this could
be attributed to his many years of head teacher experiences where leadership responsibilities
had become a ‘norm’ for him. Teacher leadership therefore, was perceived as a dimension
of teacher professionalism for those teachers who occupied formal leadership positions in the
school.
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All participants disclosed that teacher professional development was a necessity for all
teachers and the head teacher. Teacher professional development involved continuous
learning that had to be consistent with changes concerning aspects of the teaching
profession. It included teachers and the head teacher upgrading their qualifications. While
inspectors argued that teachers of today had to change and improve with new ideas, teacher
professional development had to be focused, systematic and had to have tangible outcomes.
Teacher professional ethics emerged to be a contentious issue for the teaching profession. It
related to how teachers behaved and conducted themselves in schools and the type of image
they portrayed in the community. Teachers perceived teacher professional ethics as being
cooperative with each other to provide a cohesive learning environment in the school.
Teacher professional ethics was concerned with teachers valuing children learning as a
priority. While the head teacher shared these perceptions he revealed that teacher
professional ethics was enhanced when teachers respected each other, the authorities and
other stakeholders. Inspectors conferred teacher professional ethics as teachers having
professional relationships with each other and with other professionals in order to foster
‘networking’ in the teaching profession. Teacher professional ethics was also enhanced
when teachers and the head teacher became role models for colleagues and students, when
teachers practiced what they teach and when teachers valued themselves as teachers.
Though various perceptions existed, the findings for this case revealed the five dimensions
of teacher professionalism as teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership,
teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. This was consistent with
the findings for Case Studies 1 and 2.
4.5.6 Perceived Linkages between the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies and the
Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
As previously done with Case Studies 1 and 2, the linkages from the emerged themes for
each type of participant were compared for similarities and differences. This was done to
produce a cross-participants analysis for the case. To do this, teachers and the head teacher
were asked about the activities that the inspectors carried out with them and whether these
activities influenced them. The inspectors were asked to confirm whether the intended
outcomes for the activities they did with teachers and head teachers were achieved.
Importantly the participants were asked to identify the linkages they believed existed
between the inspectorial interactive strategies and what they perceived as the dimensions of
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teacher professionalism. The findings discussed below for this Case Study make references
to the findings of Case Studies 1 and 2 where appropriate to avoid repetition.
Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Teachers
The teachers related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance, teacher
knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional
ethics; professional development interactive strategies to teacher professional development;
and professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.9 shows these
linkages.
Figure 4.9: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages
Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
Quality assurance Teacher compliance
Teacher knowledge
Teacher leadership
Professional development Teacher professional development
Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics
The teachers revealed that quality assurance interactive strategies influenced them in
complying with the expected requirements of their responsibilities, provided them with new
knowledge, gave them the opportunity to be promoted as formal leaders, assisted them in
their professional development and enhanced their professional ethics. While teachers
revealed that quality assurance interactive strategies impacted directly on all five dimensions
of teacher professionalism, they admitted that professional development interactive strategies
played an important part in their professional development. With professional ethics,
teachers experienced this to have influenced them on how they (teachers) also behaved and
conducted themselves in carrying out responsibilities. This implies that professional ethics
of inspectors directly influenced teachers in their attitudes and commitment to the teaching
profession. Teachers made similar observations to teachers of Case Studies 1 and 2 with the
common linkages. However, the significant differences were that teachers of Case Study 3
extended quality assurance activities as relating to teacher professional development and
teacher professional ethics. Examples of such experiences and beliefs were given by
teachers:
“When the inspector came to inspect me, he was checking whether I am
committed to my work and whether my performance is having an impact on the
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students. And the inspectors also assess whether teachers are addressing their
needs for professional development or not.” (EVT 1)
“The inspector looks at the areas where advice are provided for personal and
professional development such as in-service on areas to do with the education
reform. Others are part of checking the requirements of teaching including
teaching the correct syllabus that meet that requirement of the National
Department of Education. There is a connection of learning also between the
teacher and the inspector. If the teachers find it difficult to teach the students,
the inspectors can help. If there are no inspectors, the result won't be known. If
there is advice from an inspector then the relationship between him and the
teacher will be good. It is the Inspector that plays an important role in the work
of the teacher.” (EVT 3)
An example of quality assurance activities relating to teacher professional ethics:
“I believe there is honest relationship I have when interacting with the
inspectors’ roles. The inspectors make advisory on my work that really help me
with my loyalty to teaching. I am also committed to the requirements and
expectations of my work. I have to meet those requirements and expectations
such as programming and assessment that help me in my work and in my job as
a teacher. I have a feeling of being committed to my work as a teacher. The
supervision carried out on these requirements including inspection on me
makes (me) being honest in my work. It has also given me guidance to perform
in all areas of my profession.” (EVT 2)
This teacher summed up activities inspectors performed and how these related to all the five
dimensions of the teacher professionalism:
“I feel that when the Inspectors come around, their presence boosts me to get
help from them and the good things that help me in my weaknesses, including
the requirements of the Department of Education to improve on my professional
development. My professional development, together with my teacher
qualification and teacher leadership, helps to lead others. The improvements
help me to pass on the knowledge to my students as a major requirement. The
inspector helps and advises me to do what is required by the Department of
Education so that I can be a multi-grade teacher or I can be a teacher with
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good leadership qualities. I can be a teacher who reflects the qualities of my
profession so I must show I’ve got the knowledge, skills and attitudes.” (EVT 5)
Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Focus Group
The teacher focus group related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher
compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher professional development and teacher professional
ethics; professional development interactive strategies to teacher compliance, teacher
knowledge and teacher professional development; and professional ethics of inspectors to
teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.10 shows the linkages.
Figure 4.10: Teacher Focus Group Perception of Linkages
Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
Quality assurance Teacher compliance
Teacher knowledge
Professional development Teacher professional development
Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics
The focus group, which was made up of base level teachers and all having Diploma in
Primary Teaching, related quality assurance interactive strategies as influencing them to
comply with the requirements of the teaching profession, developed new knowledge,
developed professionally and ensured they conducted themselves ethically in carrying out
responsibilities. These were broader and complex perceptions of the impact of quality
assurance activities on teacher professionalism, which included teacher knowledge,
compared to the perceptions of the teachers of Case Studies 1 and 2. A member of the focus
group identified this linkage:
“When the inspectors come to inspect me, they check how much knowledge I
have. They helped me to improve in areas where I lack knowledge in. I must be
able to pass on the best knowledge to the students. The inspectors help me in
this”. (EFG 1)
With the professional development interactive strategies members of the focus group
indicated that such strategies impacted on their professional development and influenced
them in complying with requirements of the teaching profession. The activities ensured new
knowledge was gained concerning changes in the curriculum and in other pedagogical
issues. Teachers in the focus group also indicated that how inspectors managed, planned,
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organized and implemented the professional development activities (professional ethics of
inspectors) impacted directly on how they (teachers) conducted themselves and how they
managed, planned and carried out their responsibilities. An example of observations of the
professional development activities directly related to teacher compliance, teacher
knowledge and teacher professional development was stated by this member of the focus
group:
“I agree with (teacher named). Yes, one thing is that the inspectors usually
come and observe us and for me especially, I see that I must have competencies
to qualify myself professionally and they help me to gain more skills and
knowledge to impart to the students. This is what the inspectors expect from us.
And depending on how I develop myself, I would be able to teach the students
better.” (EFG 1)
The issue of professional ethics of inspectors and teachers was of a reciprocal nature and
questioned the status of both professions. The same concerns were expressed by members of
the focus group in Case Studies 1 and 2 as conferred by these members:
“Personally, I think there is no co-operation amongst them (inspectors and
PDOE officers). We are subjected to mistreatments and this we ask for the
inspector to look into when he comes here. I found out myself. I don’t see any
good working relationships amongst them.” (EFG 1)
“I agree on those comments. The other issue is there is no support for the
inspectors in providing transport to visit schools to see the teachers. This is a
big failure where the Department of Education must look into. (A) Lack of visits
to schools affects teacher professionalism.” (EFG 1)
Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Head Teacher
The head teacher related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance,
teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher
professional ethics; professional development interactive strategies to teacher professional
development; and professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional ethics. These
linkages were similar to the findings of the teachers of this case study and Case 2 study 2,
and the inspectors of Case Study 2. Figure 4.11 illustrates these linkages.
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Figure 4.11: Head Teacher Perception of Linkages
Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
Quality assurance Teacher compliance
Teacher knowledge
Teacher leadership
Professional development Teacher professional development
Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics
The head teacher revealed that quality assurance interactive strategies influenced him to
comply with expected requirements of his responsibilities, provided him with new
knowledge, gave him/her the opportunity to be promoted, assisted him in his professional
development and enhanced her professional ethics. Though the head teacher had not been
inspected recently he had the opportunity to communicate and relate with the inspectors
because of the location of the school. The head teacher expressed his experiences and beliefs
about these linkages by the following comments:
“…….. Firstly with management, as a manager of an institution I appreciate
the inspectors giving me courses. Firstly when they come to assess me, they
look at educational development of teachers and students. As a manager I look
at that because at the same time I am achieving my plans. Second one, that’s
curriculum development of teachers or teacher knowledge on curriculum areas.
That’s on the management of my areas when inspectors come in to my schools.
The third one is professional development, when they come they want to know
whether I am developing my teachers and the students in the professional side
of their areas and also how I carry out the professional development programs
with my teachers. That’s where the qualification comes in, teaching
qualification. With quality knowledge and skills in imparting, especially on
what is to be taught in each subject. And the fourth when they look at my
financial side of management, that also reminds me that they want to know
exactly how I spend my money on educational development of students and also
how I equip teachers with educational materials. And at the same time, they
also have to help with teacher development too, so these are the areas that they
come to help with. When they make comments, I also thank them because at the
same time I am achieving my internal plans for the development side of the
school.” (EVH 1)
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The head teacher experienced that professional development interactive strategies played an
important part in his and other teachers’ professional development. This comment
illustrated this experience:
“I see that the inspectors should also do the curriculum advisors’ work because
they are the first people to introduce the curriculum into the schools in their
districts by conducting courses on what is directed to us. This is also a big
challenge the inspector must be ready to undertake. When we efficiently
implement these in the classroom situation, we earn good respect, and the
inspector should closely monitor curriculum. In this area, when we will look
upon them for constant advice, we will be okay. And when they don’t do this, we
would lack everything and some schools do not implement new changes to the
curriculum and these are left unattended to. This brings about total failure on
the part of inspectors. The changes I’d like to see would be that they become
more as curriculum advisors.” (EVH 1)
The professional ethics of inspectors directly influenced the head teacher in his behavior,
attitudes and commitment to the teaching profession, particularly as a leader. He said
“Concerning this, I see that the inspectors are disadvantaged as they work in
isolation. There is no cooperation or communication link with doing their
various responsibilities with sections they work with. When they work in
isolation, that’s where some do not gain support, they lack in certain aspects
unlike those who’ve gained support. Their approach becomes negative.
Cooperation is not established. In EHP, this has been lacking and is still is.
Now that we have a new advisor I don’t know if there will be changes that will
be introduced.” (EVH 1)
Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Inspectors
The inspectors related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance, teacher
knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development interactive strategies to teacher
compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership and teacher professional development;
and professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional ethics.
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Figure 4.12: Inspector Perception of Linkages
Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
Quality assurance Teacher compliance
Teacher knowledge
Teacher leadership
Professional development Teacher professional development
Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics
The inspectors revealed that quality assurance activities influenced teachers and the head
teacher to comply with the requirements of their duty statements as well as complying with
policies that required attention. They revealed that quality assurance activities directly
related to teacher knowledge, implying that inspectors contributed to enriching teachers with
appropriate knowledge that was required to teach subjects. This means that when inspectors
monitor requirements, teachers were given the opportunities to gain new knowledge about
educational changes. Inspectors also revealed that leadership qualities were enhanced when
inspectors carried out inspections that identified teachers for promotional opportunities.
These perceptions were shared by teachers and the head teacher. These experiences were
illustrated clearly by this inspector’s comments:
“Earlier on we indicated the purposes of quality control (assurance), the
normal supervision and profession development. Thinking along that line and
as to make some connections, especially when a teacher is performing, knowing
his or her job and performing his or her duties well, then it determines him or
her for promotion. That is quality control (assurance) that results with a
promotion, and he or she is able to lead other people basing on what he knows,
and be able to train and facilitate other teachers and also to ensure that he or
she meets the requirements in order to continue to serve effectively as a teacher.
And on the professional development that is knowing the job well, able to lead
others and train other officers and at the same time the children are well taught
and the results at the end are good.” (EVI 1)
With professional development interactive strategies inspectors observed that these were
directly influencing teachers and head teachers in their professional development,
particularly with gaining new knowledge and developing leadership qualities, as well as
complying with requirements of the teaching profession. This is similar to the influences of
the quality assurance interactive strategies (refer to Figure 4.12).
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An example of professional development activities relating to teacher compliance:
“The activities that we do, I’ll just give one or two. For example two days
ago I had the graduate induction workshop, this workshop look at the
integrity of the department and expected standards that are required of them
as initial starters. After this in-service I told them the things that I am
expecting them to do and I left it open and when I visit the schools again I
make sure that they are implementing what I’ve in-service them on.” (EVI 3)
An example of professional development activities relating to teacher professional
development:
“Most activities help them to grow professionally in their professional career.
Many of them are happy with the activities that I try to do with them including
having staff meetings with them and advisory visits, I see that their professional
growth has improved.” (EVI 2)
An example of professional development activities relating to teacher knowledge and teacher
leadership anticipated by this inspector:
“Specific outcomes that I would like to see at the end of the day from my visits
in the classrooms and in the schools usually, the teachers will become better in
aspects of teaching where they are weak at and students will perform better.
And for head teachers they should be some improvements in his performance as
a team leader in the school, not only through reports and verbal means but also
in practicing and sustaining management and administrative skills.” (EVI 3)
At the same time inspectors admitted that their professional ethics that were caused by lack
of commitment by employer agencies to facilitate their work efficiently and effectively,
amongst other educational, professional and administrative anomalies, impacted on teachers’
and the head teachers’ professional behavior and conduct. This inspector argued
accordingly:
“There are a lot of areas. First, inspector accountability, competence and
professional development are some of the areas that the Department of
Education should be looking at. They are just calling for inspectors to join in
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and attend courses but there must be a vision and a plan by which there could
be specific purposes that could be directed and targeted by higher institutions
towards inspectors’ professional development and growth, and competency. I
feel that this area has not been looked at seriously yet we are giving a lot of
responsibilities to the inspectors without improving our own quality or level of
performance. This I would I say is an immediate issue we should look at. If the
inspector is a team leader, if he is competent and effective in his roles, then he
or she becomes an effective and efficient team leader. Secondly there is need
for drastic improvement in logistical support in terms of transport. If inspectors
can access the schools through the availability of transport I think the standard
of education will drastically improve. For the last 10 years, as far as I have
been an inspector, inspectors have had minimal support from all sectors of
authorities and inspectors have been struggling to maintain education standard
at the school and district levels. I think these are the two main areas that I have
seen that need to be improved, inspector accountability, competency and
professional growth, and logistical support.” (EVI 3)
Synthesis of Views of Linkages
The linkages disclosed by the participants between the inspectorial interactive strategies and
the dimensions of teacher professionalism, varied from simple to complex relationships.
There were common and different linkages identified between the relationships. All
participants believed that quality assurance interactive strategies influenced teachers and the
head teacher to comply with professional, educational and administrative requirements;
provided teachers and the head teacher with new knowledge; and gave teachers and the head
teacher opportunities to be promoted through the inspection processes. However, only
teachers and the head teacher believed that quality assurance activities impacted on their
professional development and professional ethics.
All participants agreed that professional development interactive strategies impacted on
teachers’ and the head teacher’s professional development. However, only the inspectors
believed that professional development interactive strategies influenced teachers and the
head teacher in developing leadership qualities. Inspectors also agreed with the base level
teachers that professional development activities ensured that teachers and the head teacher
gained new knowledge in order to comply with requirements brought about by changes.
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All participants revealed that professional ethics of inspectors impacted directly on the
professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher. Professional ethics of inspectors also
included experiences by inspectors that affected their work as a result of the factors caused
by the organizations responsible for the inspectorial system and the teaching profession.
These experiences included a lack of logistical support and a lack of professional
development opportunities for inspectors.
4.5.7 Summary of Case Study 3
The interactive strategies that emerged from the data analysis that inspectors used in
performing their responsibilities with teachers and the head teacher in the school were
quality assurance, professional development and professional ethics of inspectors. Quality
assurance and professional development interactive strategies are obvious strategies carried
out by inspectors through planned and organized activities. Professional ethics of inspectors
emerged as inspectorial interactive strategies that resulted from the behavior and conduct that
the inspectors displayed in carrying out their responsibilities. Professional ethics of
inspectors were also concerned with how existing cultures of the organizations responsible
for the inspectorial system and the teaching professional were affecting the roles of
inspectors.
Collectively, the emerged dimensions of teacher professionalism were teacher compliance,
teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher
professional ethics. However, members of the focus group and the head teacher did not
perceive teacher leadership as a dimension of teacher professionalism. The members of the
focus group were experienced base level teachers who had no formal leadership
responsibilities. Such perception indicated that these teachers had not been exposed to any
formal leadership role within the school and were contented with the positions they
occupied. The head teacher was a very experienced head teacher and also did not perceive
teacher leadership as a dimension of teacher professionalism, yet when asked about how the
interactive strategies used by inspectors influenced him in his career, he revealed that
inspectors had played an important role in his promotion to be a head teacher.
The linkages of the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher
professionalism as noted above are summarized in Table 4.33. Cross-participant analysis
was used to derive these results.
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Table 4.33: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 3
Participants 1
Teacher Professionalism
2
Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 3
Quality Assurance
4
Professional Development
5
Professional Ethics
6 Key: EVT 1 - 6▲ EVH 1 ► EFG 1 ▼ EVI 1 – 3 ◄
Teacher Compliance ▲▼►◄ ▲▼◄
Teacher Knowledge ▲▼►◄ ▲▼◄
Teacher Leadership ▲►◄ ▲▼◄
Teacher Professional Development
▲▼► ▲▼►◄
Teacher Professional Ethics
▲▼► ▲▼►◄
Teachers, the head teacher and inspectors concluded that quality assurance interactive
strategies directly influenced teachers and the head teacher in complying with educational,
professional, management, administrative and leadership requirements and expectations of
NDOE, TSC, PDOE and other agencies. Quality assurance activities also allowed for
appropriate knowledge that teachers and head teachers needed to gain in order to perform
responsibilities and addressed changes that were introduced in the schools. At the same
time, from experiences with the inspection processes, all participants (with the exceptions of
the members of the focus group who were base level teachers) believed that they gained
leadership qualities through quality assurance interactive strategies which eventually led to
promotion to higher teaching positions. This also indicated that as teachers and head
teachers developed professionally through means of quality assurance interactive strategies,
the potential and chances to be promoted through the inspection processes was high. The
teachers and the head teacher indicated that quality assurance interactive strategies impacted
on their professional development and on their professional ethics. However inspectors did
not perceive this to be the case. Such perception could attribute to the lack of follow up by
inspectors on the professional development interactive strategies that they applied and a lack
of insights into their roles and how they conducted themselves. It also meant that teachers
and the head teacher experienced quality assurance interactive strategies as having influence
in their behavior and conduct. This experience implied that inspectors had an impact on
professional ethics of teachers and the head teacher and further revealed that, because
inspectors lacked perception in such relationship, the quality assurance interactive strategies
were restricted to teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. In the case
of teacher leadership, base level teachers did not perceive this to be influenced by quality
assurance interactive strategies.
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As expected, all participants believed professional development interactive strategies directly
impacted on the professional development of teachers and the head teacher. This was
obvious because of the nature of the activities, including in-service and training sessions, and
advisory roles carried out by inspectors. However, only teachers and inspectors perceived
professional development activities as contributing to teachers and head teachers adhering to
educational, professional and administrative requirements, and contributing to their
professional development and developing leadership qualities. The head teacher did not
share these perceptions and this could be attributed to his many years of experience as a head
teacher.
As with Case Studies 1 and 2, how inspectors and other personnel working for central
organizations (NDOE, TSC and PDOE) behaved and conducted themselves in performing
responsibilities influenced teachers and the head teacher in performing their duties. The
conduct of these personnel working in central organizations reflected existing cultures within
the organizations. At the same time, the question of professional ethics of teachers, head
teachers and inspectors could be attributed to the quality of teacher training they have had
over the years. These could be issues for concern for the present and future of the teaching
profession.
In summary, for Case Study 3, quality assurance interactive strategies related directly to
teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional
development and teacher professional ethics. Professional development interactive strategies
impacted directly on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership and teacher
professional development. Inspector professional ethics impacted directly on teacher
professional ethics.
4.6 Case Study 4: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Rural
Government School
Central Province was selected for this study to represent the provinces in the Southern
Region of PNG. The other provinces that make up the Southern Region are Milne Bay, Gulf
and Oro Provinces, and the National Capital District (NCD).
Dekenai Primary School, the school selected for this study, is located in a rural District of
Central Province. Students attending Dekenai Primary School live in villages within
walking distance from the school. The school is an hour drive from Port Moresby. Most of
the students come from nearby villagers and have working parents who are employed by the
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government and private businesses operating in Port Moresby. Dekenai Primary School is a
rural government school and is selected to represent rural and government agency schools.
4.6.1 Background information
Central Province has a current population of 183 983 people, according to the 2000 census,
who speak over many languages representing the many tribes that live in the province. The
province is culturally diverse with people living on staple food including banana and yams.
Central is the only province that does not have any central administrative headquarters and
conducted all its government and private businesses in Port Moresby within the NCD. There
are no major economical produces in the province and most people earn their living by
working in Port Moresby and selling their garden produces in the NCD.
Central Province is divided into four districts; Abau, Goilala, Kairuku-Hiri and Rigo
Districts. Though the province surrounds NCD most districts were still developing, in terms
of infrastructure, making it difficult for progress to be made in the provision of social
services, including education services.
The current statistics show that the total number of community and primary schools
operating in the province is 184. There are 865 teachers on strength. The number of
students enrolled in community and primary schools is 39 496 with 20 194 males and 19 302
females representing 51% and 49% respectively (Sources: Inspectors’ Situation Reports,
2005).
Dekenai Primary School is a level 6 school with a staff ceiling of twenty-one teachers of
whom twelve (57%) are males and nine (43%) are females. The teachers come from all
parts of PNG. Sixteen teachers reside in the school while the rest reside outside the school.
The school enrolls 495 students in grades 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Of the 495 students 273 (55%)
are males and 222 (45%) are females. (Sources: School Records).
There are eight inspector positions for the province which were fully occupied. The
inspector responsible for Dekenai Primary School is based in Port Moresby, one and half
hours drive from the school.
4.6.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants
The participants of Case Study 4 were made up of three teachers and two primary school
inspectors. The head teacher did not volunteer and there was no focus group due to the
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unstable situation experienced by the school caused by the industrial strike taken by the PNG
Teachers Association during the time of the field work. Table 4.34 shows the demographic
characteristics of teachers and inspectors.
The teachers who participated in Case Study 4 consisted of a base level teacher and two
senior teachers. The three teachers represented 14% of teachers in the school with one
female (33%) and two males (67%). The teaching experiences of the interviewed teachers
varied from nine to seventeen years, while at this school, their teaching experiences varied
from two to eight years. With teacher qualifications, two had Diploma in Primary Teaching
(67%) and one had a Certificate in Primary Teaching (33%). The teachers come from all
parts of PNG with ages varying from thirty-one to forty years old. The teachers’ views
represented the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of experienced teachers teaching in rural
schools and who had recently been visited and inspected by inspectors.
The two inspectors come from Central Province with inspector experiences of nine and
sixteen years respectively. They were promoted from head teacher positions with teaching
and head teacher experiences of seventeen and eighteen years. Both inspectors had been in
this provincial inspectorate for over six years. One inspector had a Certificate in Primary
Teaching while the other had a Diploma in Primary Teaching. The ages of the inspectors
were forty-six and fifty-one years old. They represented 25% of the total number of
inspectors working in the province. The views of these inspectors represented the
experiences, beliefs and perceptions of experienced inspectors.
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Table 4.34: Demographical Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 4
Volunteer Participants
Sex Age Qualifications/Positions Teaching/Inspector Experience % of participants in School/Inspectorate
CVT 1* Male 40 • Certificate in Primary Teaching, Diploma in Education & Diploma in Administration & Finance
• Senior Teacher
• 17 years • 8 years at present school
Teacher participants: 14% of teachers of the school
For this provincial inspectorate, the two inspectors’ responsibility load ratios for the schools
were 1:39 and 1:21, for the teachers the ratios were 1:108 and 1:160, and for the students the
ratios were 1:2 000 and 1:1 800 respectively. On average, the inspector to schools ratio was
1:30, inspector to teachers was 1:134 and inspector to students was 1:1 900. There was a
lack of policy that dictated the responsibility load of inspectors resulting with heavy
responsibility loads for one inspector while the other had light responsibility loads. This
situation is similar to situations in other case studies.
4.6.3 Preamble to the findings of Case Study 4
The findings for Case Study 4 are used to consolidate the findings of Case Studies 1, 2 and 3
because of the nature of the research methods that were used across all the cases. This is
also necessary to avoid repetition of the findings. Where appropriate, references are made to
previous cases accordingly.
4.6.4 Perceptions of teachers and inspectors: Inspectorial interactive strategies
In response to questions related to how the inspectors operated in the school the inspectorial
interactive strategies applied by the inspectors in carrying out their responsibilities emerged
into three main categories; quality assurance, professional development and professional
ethics of inspectors. These results emerged from the data through the process of clustering
and were consistent with the findings for Case Studies 1, 2 and 3. Tables 4.36 to 4.38
illustrate the processes of establishing the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system
that originated from the transcripts and documents analysis.
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Table 4.36: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Quality Assurance
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Teachers • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements and monitor academic standards. • Inspectors monitor teacher performance. • Inspectors inspect teachers for registration and promotion. • Documents remind the teacher of her responsibilities. Inspectors • Supervision for quality control and assurance through inspectors monitoring and advising
teachers on teaching standards, curriculum requirements and organized records. • Documents guide teachers, head teachers and inspectors to do their work as required. • Quality control and assurance activities done by inspectors through document checklists,
administrative checklists, through reports and through training programs. • Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation of educational policies. • Inspectors use management and operational plans to carry out their responsibilities. • Inspectors appraise and evaluate teachers’ and head teachers’ performances for registration and
promotion. • Inspectors monitor head teacher, teacher and school performances. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for children’s education.
• Monitoring teaching standards and curriculum
requirements • Teacher appraisal, assessment & evaluation are carried
out by inspectors. • Quality control & assurance is carried out through the
monitoring of policies & reporting to authorities. • Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is
used for children’s education.
Quality assurance
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Table 4.37: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Development
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Teachers • Inspectors assist teachers in their professional development. Inspectors • Supervision for professional development through inspectors advising teachers on teaching
standards, curriculum requirements and organized records. • Inspectors provide good leadership to teachers and head teachers. • Inspectors supervise for professional development through advisory and training roles. • Teacher professional development being pursued by inspectors. • Inspectors’ direct involvement with teacher and head teacher professional development through
in-service programs, conferences, meetings and workshops.
• Inspectors assist teachers & head teachers in their
professional development. • Supervision for professional development through
advisory & training roles performed by inspectors.
Professional development
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Table 4.38: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Professional Ethics
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
Teachers Operational issues • Lack of planning and organization by inspectors for visits and to carry out their work. • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned through use of schools’ and teachers’ personal resources. • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ visits to schools and teachers. • Lack of support from NDOE and PDOE to facilitate inspectors’ work in the schools. • Inspectors are not committed to their responsibilities. • Lack of communication between stakeholders is affecting teachers. • There is lack of documentation relating to the operation of the inspectorial system from the
inspector or the province. • There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector and the
province. Professional issues • Lack of benefits experienced by teacher from inspector’s visits. • Inspector lacks interest in teacher’s work. • Teacher lacking confidence in inspectors’ roles. • Teacher performance and interest in teaching decline when not inspected by inspectors. • Lack of clear focus in inspectors’ responsibilities to assist teachers. • There is lack of elaboration and interpretation on relevant documents that relate to IS and TP,
and issues related to the teaching profession by inspectors. • Inspectors’ work is important to teachers. • Lack of knowledge, challenge and confidence in the processes and outcomes of the inspection
processes performed by inspectors. • Inspectors’ activities neglect teacher characteristics that are concerned with the community. • Inspectors as disciplinarians, carrying out investigations on disciplinary cases and charging
teachers accordingly. • Inspector is an inspiration to the teacher.
• Lack of planning and organization by inspector to
carry out his work. • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned and is having
adverse impacts on teachers. • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit schools and
help teachers. • Lack of resources affecting inspectors’ work. • Lack of confidence in the processes and outcomes of
the inspection roles performed by inspectors. • Lack of support from employing agency and other
stakeholders for inspector to carry out their work. • Lack of knowledge and skills for inspectors to perform
their responsibilities. • Inspectors’ roles are valued. • Lack of clear focus in inspectors’ roles due to lack of
visits to teachers and clarity on inspectors’ responsibilities.
Professional ethics of inspectors
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Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of activities derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging Themes Emerged Themes
• Teachers only perform duties to please the inspectors. • Ineffective discipline system carries out by inspectors on teachers. • Working cultures in NDOE & PDOE are disadvantaging inspectors from doing their work
effectively. Inspectors Operational issues • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit schools and help teachers. • Lack of planning and organization by inspector to carry out his work. • Documents provided by the inspectors on professional ethics and inspectors’ operational
obligations. Professional issues • Inspectors ensure good relationships are maintained. • Assessment of inspectors’ performance – professional work and professional ethics. • The inspector’s roles are important. • Inspectors ensure teacher ethical values are maintained. • Lack of support from provincial authorities is affecting inspectors’ work. • Lack of follow up by SPSI on inspectors in term of training. • Lack of acknowledgements and actions of inspectors’ reports is frustrating inspectors and
demeans inspectors’ roles. • Provincial authorities undermining the roles of inspectors and not working well with inspectors
as a result of adverse attitudes towards inspectors because they are performing national functions.
• TSC and the Education Acts need to be reviewed to ensure they serve their purpose. • Inspector qualifications and professional development are neglected and are affected their work. • Inspectors provide good leadership to teachers and head teachers.
(As above)
(As above)
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Synthesis of the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers and Inspectors
The findings concerning the inspectorial interactive strategies were similar to the findings of
Case Studies 1, 2 and 3. Because of this fact, this section synthesized the experiences,
beliefs and perceptions of the participants. Where there are similarities and differences,
these are discussed appropriately.
As with previous Case Studies, the two main inspectorial interactive strategies that were
identified were quality assurance and professional development. Emerging from the quality
assurance and professional development interactive strategies were the factors related to
professional ethics of inspectors. Quality assurance activities included inspectors monitoring
the implementation of educational policies, maintaining the quality of teaching and learning,
and appraising, assessing and evaluating teachers’ general performance. Examples of
teachers’ and inspectors’ experiences describing the quality assurance strategies were:
“When the Inspector came I think the Inspector came in especially to assess me
and make sure that I am teaching to the required standard and that I know what
I am doing as a teacher.” (CVT 1)
“I was not aware of the Inspectors’ coming but I was warned in advance that I
was going to be supervised so I did the normal things, got myself prepared.
When the Inspector came he supervised me looking at the teaching program, the
rolls and other little things plus supervising my teaching. And the inspection
that he gave me was promotional inspection.” (CVT 2)
“I check the head teachers on one important thing and that is on how the school
is managed, how the Board of Management (BOM) and the Parents & Citizens
Association (P&C) are operating and whether the standard of education
provided by the school meet what is required by the NDOE.” (CVI 1)
“The actual activities I do is; I check the programs, I check the teachers if they
are teaching well by asking children and spending time asking questions as well
as checking the physical environment of the school and other administrative
work. I also conduct general staff meetings and have private interviews with
teachers about their work.” (CVI 1)
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Professional development interactive strategies included inspectors helping and encouraging
teachers to improve in teaching and learning methods, providing advice on supervision of
teachers and facilitating in-service and training programs for teachers. These participants
expressed their experiences:
“Yes, I think while he was doing his observation he had to write some
comments. So by reading those comments I know that these are my weak points
and I know where my strengths are so in that way. When I see my weak points I
know that those are my weaknesses so I had to work on those weaknesses to
improve myself.” (CVT 2)
“The purpose of the advisory visit is to assist and encourage teachers to do
better in all duties and foremost is to help students to learn well and improve
progressively towards achieving the outcomes. ............” (CVI 2)
Professional ethics of inspectors were related to how inspectors carried out their
responsibilities. The difficulties caused by the management of the inspectorial system, and
the professional conduct of inspectors are categorized into this interactive strategy. Other
factors included a lack of clear focus in inspector responsibilities because of a lack of
organization and planning, a lack of resources for inspectors to perform tasks and a lack of
inspector knowledge and skills to perform responsibilities. Teachers and inspectors
commented:
“Normally, when they come and visit, they carry out the advisory visit as well.
Some times they do spot on visits, which I see as a failure. Sometimes they give
notices on paper well in advance to inform us that they are coming for advisory
visit. Now a days, there is no such thing, they only come and give whatever
inspection. Whatever or whether it’s for advisory or for inspection purposes,
they only come to do this. To add on, some times after the inspection, they
discuss with the teacher for only five minutes and then off they go. There is no
proper discussion on how to improve oneself or let’s say whatever aim they’re
aiming for to get us right. Perhaps, they do not have time to deal with us
accordingly, to see our weaknesses. Those things are not done. So in my view in
this area, they just drop in and then go back. I see that it’s not really rewarding
to us as teachers with whatever visits they make, sometimes it can be one per
two years and that’s only five or ten minutes they spent with us and off they go.
........” (EVT 3)
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“It is important, in my view, that in order for inspectors to provide effective
professional leadership to lead teachers to implement policy matters such as
curriculum implementation, on-going training to inspectors must be given in
areas of curriculum to gain in-depth knowledge so that they can help teachers
effectively. Qualifications of inspectors must be given top priority with
financial support to train them to be competent to use current techniques such
as computing to produce quality and timely reports. Logistic support for school
visits is a must for inspectors because schools they visit are scattered far and
wide. Money and transport are key factors to inspectors being productive in
their visitations for advisory and inspection work.” (CVI 2)
Consistent with the findings of Case Studies 1, 2 and 3, quality assurance, professional
development and professional ethics of inspectors emerged as inspectorial interactive
strategies.
4.6.5 Perceptions of Teachers, Head Teachers and Inspectors: Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism
The findings concerning the dimensions of teacher professionalism are discussed here with
direct references to the findings of Case Studies 1, 2 and 3. This allows for disclosures to be
strengthened and at the same time avoid repetition.
In response to the questions of how teachers and inspectors perceived teacher
professionalism, the results were that teacher professionalism consisted of five dimensions;
teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional
development and teacher professional ethics. These results were similar to the findings for
the previous Case Studies with some varying views. Because of this fact, this section
synthesized the participants’ views. Tables 4.39 to 4.43 summarize the experiences, beliefs
and perceptions of the participants on the dimensions of teacher professionalism derived by
using grounded analysis approaches.
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Table 4.39: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Compliance
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Teaching is a profession. • Teacher classroom organization. • Teacher performance relates to teaching, preparation and performing other duties. • Teaching methods used in delivering knowledge and skills to children. • Being a teacher involves teaching, planning and programming (teacher performance). Inspectors • Documents requiring teachers and head teachers to comply with educational policies. • Teacher counseling students on issues. • Teacher performance relates to all aspects of head teachers’ and teachers’ work.
• Teacher as counselor. • Teacher performance relates to teaching and
performing other duties. • Teacher organization relates to planning and
organizing teacher records and files. • Teacher as an implementer of educational policies.
Teacher compliance
Table 4.40: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Teacher knowledge relating to what should be done. • Teacher knowledge, including knowledge about the communities being served. • Teacher improvements in teaching. Inspectors • Teacher qualifications require attention by the government. • Teacher competence and knowledge relate to teaching competence and curriculum knowledge. • Teachers of today are better qualified.
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Table 4.41: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Leadership
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Teacher leadership relating to being a good leader and possessing leadership qualities. Inspectors • Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking a lead in aspects of work in school.
• Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher
taking a lead in aspects of school operation.
Teacher leadership
Table 4.42: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Teacher continuous learning or pursues professional development. Inspectors • Teacher professional development is pursued through training programs and in-service sessions. • Teacher professional development as a continuing phenomenal in teaching.
• Teacher professional development as a
continuing phenomenal in teaching. • Supervision for professional development.
Teacher professional development
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Table 4.43: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics
Stage 1 Analysis Samples of clusters of perceptions derived from transcripts and document examinations
Stage 2 Analysis Emerging themes Emerged themes
Teachers • Teacher ethics or ethical values including professional conduct. • Teacher positive image in the community. • The status of the teaching profession is declining due to lack of effective supervision. • Teaching is a profession. • Teacher ethics and ethical values including dedication, loyalty, honesty and commitment. • The characteristics of teacher professionalism are lacking and are not being displayed by
teachers. • Teachers valuing student education. • Teacher performing extra curricular duties. • Teacher relationships with community, colleagues and students. • Teacher confidence. • Teacher personal appearance. • Duplications of responsibilities by inspectors and school based supervisors. • Teacher as a role model. • Teacher integrity including honest, commitment and dedication. Inspectors • Teacher is everything, a jack of all trades. • Teacher community involvement. • Many teachers of today are not committed. • Teacher cooperation and support. • The teaching profession must be given recognition by the government. • Teacher and head teacher as a role models. • Teacher ethics and ethical values including dedication, loyalty, honesty and commitment.
• Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty,
respect, commitment, obedience and dedication. • Teacher professional relationships with others. Teacher positive image in the community. • Teacher cooperation and supports. • Teacher valuing children’s education. • Teachers as role models.
Teacher professional ethics
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Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism
In addition to views of participants of previous cases, teachers related planning and
organization also as key elements to teacher compliance that enabled them to deliver
appropriate knowledge and skills to children. Inspectors shared the same perceptions about
teacher compliance with teachers but also expected teachers to be counselors in order to
guide children in all aspects of their education. This teacher and inspector confirmed these
views:
“I think the work of a teacher is a very important job in any (other) Country
......... It is important that the teacher must know what he or she should do and
perform to the requirements and also the teacher needs help from others
including the Inspectors, supervisors and headmasters.” (CVT 2)
“A person in the teaching profession is someone who performs his or her
teaching duties to the best of his or her abilities as expected by the National
Department of Education.” (CVI 2)
Teacher knowledge, as an emerged dimension of teacher professionalism, was important to
the teaching profession. A teacher had to be qualified and a teacher had to be competent and
knowledgeable in his/her field of expertise before s/he had to become a teacher. The
inspectors, however, emphasized that a teacher had to be educated in all aspects of the
teaching profession, including work and professional ethics as well as having appropriate
knowledge about the community s/he served. The following comments confirmed these
beliefs:
“In my opinion, teacher professionalism is the way we can teach the children or
maybe psychologically, how we can deliver to the children what is required in a
certain level or the knowledge we need to give them. It is the way we try to get
an idea across to the children in a certain level in which we can use to give this
knowledge or idea. .............. There are a lot of aspects in teacher
professionalism, 1) includes the methods and skills we use to address an idea to
a certain human being, and 2) includes the behavior or the code of conduct we
use as a profession. How we behave to a group or the community as a whole
depends greatly on a person’s individuality and the knowledge and skill he
has.” (CVT 3)
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Teachers and inspectors perceived teacher leadership as taking a lead in aspects of the
school life, either formally or informally. This perception required teachers to have
leadership qualities to be members of the teaching profession. Teacher leadership qualities
were appropriate ingredients for all teachers to have irrespective of whether they were formal
leaders in the school or not. These participants advocated these perceptions:
“Yes in my view, there are many characteristics needed in teacher
professionalism. The other important thing is leadership values. We see
headmasters going for leadership courses but it should also include the
teachers. In fact a teacher must also be a leader because as a teacher you must
have the quality to be a leader. But in this system, we have teachers who are
great leaders which is good. When you call the word teacher it seems like a
leader, just like our Lord Jesus. He, as a leader, had the qualities and skills to
mould whoever he was dealing with. So in my opinion the qualities the teacher
must have as a leader and everyone in the community knows that teacher is a
leader whether headmaster or senior teacher or an ordinary teacher we must
poses that quality of being a good leader.” (CVT 3)
“What I understand of the teaching profession in our country, Papua New
Guinea, is that a teacher is everything. The Teacher is a trainer, the teacher is
a pastor and the teacher is a plumber or a doctor because the teacher is dealing
with human beings. He is not there for the children only but also for the whole
community. The community looks upon the teacher as a leader. I feel that
teacher must have the qualities of all these so that he’s able to answer questions
from the children and the community when asked.” (CVI 2)
Both teachers and inspectors revealed that teacher professional development was necessary
for all teachers. Teacher professional development involved continuous learning that was
consistent with changes within the teaching profession and in pedagogical issues. As
previously discovered in Case 2, supervision for continuous professional development of
teachers that was focused and systematic could sustain this dimension of teacher
professionalism. These participants said:
“……..Also if there’re other in-services that could take place to help the teacher
equipped themselves better so that they perform to the required standard. So
the teachers, I think, are very important people and they need to be fully
equipped as professionals.” (CVT 2)
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“I would expect them to be proactive in their work. They have to be
independent learners and workers to produce quality results. They have to be
creative and innovative. Make a shift in their traditional approaches to new
approaches that are suggested and recommended by the reforms and
competently assist others and colleagues they work with.” (CVI 2)
Teacher professional ethics concerned how teachers conducted themselves and the type of
image they portrayed in the community. Teachers and inspectors perceived teacher
professional ethics as being cooperative and supportive with each other amongst other
perceptions. Importantly, all participants considered teacher professional ethics as relating to
teachers having good conduct, were loyal and committed to their responsibilities. These
participants expressed:
“My understanding about teacher professionalism in Papua New Guinea is that
teaching is a professional career. What I understand is that a teacher must
have a good conduct, meaning he has to abide by the Code of Ethics, a teacher
must be an example to the community he or she serves, a teacher must carry out
the duties that is given by the department especially in discharging the
curriculum that is required for the children of Papua New Guinea, a teacher
must be knowledgeable about the communities he or she serve in Papua New
Guinea, a teacher must be ready to accept and be ready to get himself involve
in the communities he or she serves.” (CVT 1)
“Teachers in PNG Primary Schools today, I feel, have better qualifications and
training. But the only problem I see now is with their commitment. Teachers,
especially new graduates or those with new qualifications gained recently, are
not being utilized because these teachers seem to take up positions in rural
areas. They only want better places but the quality of training is good but they
are not really utilized because they (are) teaching in rural areas.” (CVI 2)
Though various perceptions of teacher professionalism existed, the analysis for Case Study 4
revealed that there were five dimensions of teacher professionalism and these were teacher
compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and
teacher professional ethics.
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4.6.6 Perceptions of the participants on the linkages between the inspectorial interactive
strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism
Similar to Case Studies 1, 2 and 3, the linkages between the inspectorial interactive strategies
and the dimensions of teacher professionalism for each type of participant (teachers and
inspectors) are compared for similarities and differences for this case. To do this, teachers
and inspectors were asked to identify the linkages they believed existed between the
inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism from their
experiences.
Perceived Linkages: Views of Teachers
The teachers related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance, teacher
knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development interactive strategies to teacher
professional development; and professional ethics of inspectors to teacher professional
ethics. Figure 4.13 shows these linkages.
Figure 4.13: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages
Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
Quality assurance Teacher compliance
Teacher knowledge
Teacher Leadership
Professional development Teacher professional development
Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics
Teachers experienced quality assurance activities to have influenced them in complying with
what were required of them, ensured that they were up to date with subject knowledge and
influenced directly on their leadership qualities (particularly through the inspection
processes). The latter implied that the inspection processes as a means of quality assurance
contributed significantly to teacher leadership.
This teacher highlighted his experiences when interacting with the inspectors, particularly in
relation to complying with basic requirements. He also revealed inspectors’ lack of attention
to other dimensions of teacher professionalism:
“With my experience most inspectors do not really look at the characteristics of
teacher professionalism during their inspections. They only concentrate on
looking at areas where we are required to do. For example, with the
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curriculum they look at the curriculum requirement. What is required of
teachers by the department especially in implementing the curriculum but
otherwise most of the Inspectors do not look at whether the teachers’
involvement with the community is there or the conduct of the teacher himself or
herself. They do not really look at these areas during their visits. They only
concentrate on the teacher performance and the requirement of their
curriculum implementation.” (CVT 1)
This teacher related quality assurance activities that led to enriching teacher knowledge and
skills but expressed disappointments concerning inadequacies being experienced:
“The way that I see it is I believe half of it would be skills. I see that there is not
enough time to learn fully in skills because they are just doing supervision. I
hardly see them aiding us in how to teach the students. This (was) alright before
when the white men were involved but today I don’t see that anymore. So when
they come, they should look more on skills/training on how to teach the
students. The other is giving in-services. I feel they need to train themselves on
how to give in-services based on knowledge, skills and the abilities to teach.
We know the skill but we don’t know the background knowledge which means
we are not ready to give. These results are poor quality and are low results.
Knowledge goes with skills so there will be good quality. The inspectors are
only concerned with supervision. They must try to do rehabilitation courses in
skill implementation which is lacking. This knowledge, skills and maybe
providing quality or high standards must emerge wherever the inspector is
involved.” (CVT 3)
This is an example of the quality assurance activities that encouraged the teacher to excel in
his work and being recognized for leadership roles:
“Some of these activities help me as a teacher to get myself prepared, especially
to work hard when I receive a report that is just satisfactory from an Inspector.
And after knowing this report I am encourage to work hard so that I can be able
to go up the next level which will really give me a lot of courage to work (more)
harder so that I can do my job as a teacher.” (CVT 1)
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Teachers at the same time perceived professional development activities facilitated and
carried out by inspectors as having impacts on their professional development, as this teacher
implied:
“Most of the inspectors’ activities are based ........ on improving the teachers’
weaknesses. When they are looking through the records they are trying to make
sure that the teacher is performing to the required standard ............ Its not
normally improving the (teacher) character with the community but the
activities that they display is mainly to do with the teaching profession
including improving the teacher in all aspects of his or her work, that’s how I
see it.” (CVT 2)
With professional ethics of inspectors, teachers perceived these to be directly influencing
them in their professional behavior and conduct (teacher professional ethics). These teachers
confirmed their current status in the teaching profession resulting from their experiences with
the inspectors:
“Teacher professionalism has now declined. Most of the teachers are not
behaving the way they suppose to behave because I believe that the supervision
or the ‘inspection’ is also declining. The monitoring system has really slowed
down, therefore the teachers seem to be loose and they think that there is no
watch dog available. There is no one looking at them that they just behave the
way they want to but really it is not improving but it is declining.” (CVT 1)
“The inspectors’ activities that they do with me are important. They help me to
be a professional in the school and also in the community..............” (CVT 2)
Perceived Linkages: Views of Inspectors
The inspectors related quality assurance interactive strategies to teacher compliance, teacher
knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development interactive strategies to teacher
compliance, teacher leadership and teacher professional development; and professional
ethics to teacher professional ethics. Figure 4.14 shows these linkages.
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Figure 4.14: Inspector Perceptions Linkages
Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
Quality assurance Teacher compliance
Teacher knowledge
Teacher leadership
Professional development Teacher professional development
Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics
The inspectors confirmed that quality assurance activities influenced teachers to comply with
the requirements of their duty statements as well as complying with educational policies.
Quality assurance activities also impacted on teacher knowledge and teacher leadership,
implying that inspectors enriched teachers and head teachers with appropriate knowledge
required to teach their subjects and manage the school respectively. Inspectors also revealed
that leadership qualities were enhanced through the inspection processes that identified
teachers for promotional opportunities. These experiences and beliefs were conferred by this
inspector:
“The activities I do with the head teachers develop the head teachers to be role
models. They provide leadership and they provide assistance to teachers.
They help the BOMs (Boards of Management) and the schools to operate to the
expectation of the NDOE. They must ensure that good relationship is
maintained in the community and with the children. These are the results of me
carrying out my responsibilities with the (teachers) and head teachers.”
(CVI 1)
With professional development interactive strategies inspectors observed that these were
influencing teachers and the head teachers in their professional development, particularly in
order to comply with changes and to develop leadership qualities. These linkages were
advocated by these inspectors:
“The activities we do with teachers in the teaching profession help them to
grow maturely in their work in order to work effectively and to educate the
children to improve in their learning.” (CVI 1)
“In-servicing them (teachers and head teachers) on new concepts and methods
makes them develop teaching programs using the reformed curriculum formats.
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The process leads to teachers and head teachers developing new skills and
knowledge. Some are slow to learn and adapt while others pick up and take up
new challenges with confidence, both teachers and head teachers.” (CVI 2)
At the same time inspectors admitted that their professional ethics that were caused by a lack
of commitment by employer agencies to manage and facilitate their work effectively,
amongst other educational and professional anomalies, impacted on teachers’ professional
conduct and behavior. Thus inspector professional ethics directly impacted on teacher
professional ethics as these inspectors claimed:
“..............Teachers must be responsible and be honest in what they are doing.
Some activities, like conducting in-services, teachers show good role models to
their colleagues and the community. Through these the teachers gain
confidence and trust in their work.” (CVI 1)
“It is important, in my view, that in order for inspectors to provide effective
professional leadership to lead teachers to implement policy matters such as
curriculum implementation, on-going training to inspectors must be given in
areas of curriculum to gain in-depth knowledge so that they can help teachers
effectively. Qualifications of inspectors must be given top priority with
financial support to train them to be competent to use current techniques such
as computing to produce quality and timely reports. Logistic support for school
visits is a must for inspectors because schools they visit are scattered far and
wide. Money and transport are key factors to inspectors being productive in
their visitations for advisory and inspection work.” (CVI 2)
Synthesis of the Views of Linkages
The findings concerning the linkages of the inspectorial interactive strategies and the
dimensions of teacher professionalism for Case Study 4 varied from simple relationships as
revealed by teachers, to complex relationships as revealed by inspectors. Teachers and
inspectors both agreed that quality assurance impacted on teacher compliance and teacher
leadership. Teachers and inspectors also agreed that professional development and
professional ethics of inspectors interactive strategies influenced teachers in their
professional development and professional ethics respectively. However, contrary to
teachers, the inspectors claimed that professional development activities also impacted on
teacher compliance and teacher leadership. At the same time, only the teachers believed that
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quality assurance strategies influenced them in acquiring new knowledge and skills. These
differences could explain the fact that, according to inspectors, professional development
strategies basically dealt with changes that required teachers to comply with educational
policies such as the current curriculum reform. According to inspectors, this also implied
that professional development interactive strategies also focused on leadership qualities.
This would indicate that teacher compliance and teacher leadership were more related to the
inspection processes, meaning that teachers and head teachers had to comply with
educational, professional and administrative requirements and showed leadership qualities
before they could be inspected for promotional opportunities.
4.6.7 Summary of Case Study 4
Similar to the findings of Case Studies 1, 2 and 3, the inspectorial interactive strategies that
emerged from the data were quality assurance, professional development and professional
ethics of inspectors. Quality assurance and professional development interactive strategies
were obvious strategies carried out by inspectors through planned and organized activities.
However, professional ethics of inspectors emerged as interactive strategies that resulted
from the behavior and conduct that the inspectors displayed in the school and community.
Professional ethics of inspectors are also facilitated by organizations cultures that existed
within employing agencies that influenced inspectors in their work.
Collectively, the participants identified the dimensions of teacher professionalism as teacher
compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and
teacher professional ethics. These findings and other relevant issues discussed were
consistent with the results for Case Studies 1, 2 and 3.
The linkages of the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher
professionalism are summarized in Table 4.44. As with other case studies, the findings
formed the ‘relationships’ between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions
of teacher professionalism as perceived by participants through cross-participants analysis.
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Table 4.44: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 4
Participants 1
Teacher Professionalism
2
Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 3
Quality Assurance
4
Professional Development
5
Professional Ethics
6 Key: CVT 1 - 2▲ CVI 1 – 2 ◄
Teacher Compliance ▲◄ ◄
Teacher Knowledge ▲◄
Teacher Leadership ▲◄ ◄
Teacher Professional Development
▲◄
Teacher Professional Ethics
▲◄
Teachers and inspectors concluded that quality assurance interactive strategies influenced
teachers and head teachers in complying with educational, professional, management,
administrative and leadership requirements of NDOE, TSC, PDOE and other agencies.
Quality assurance activities also allowed for appropriate knowledge that teachers and head
teachers needed to perform responsibilities and addressed changes in the school system. At
the same time, from experiences with the inspection processes, the participants believed that
they developed leadership qualities through quality assurance interactive strategies which
eventually led to promotional opportunities.
The participants disclosed professional development interactive strategies as directly
impacting on teachers’ professional development. However, only inspectors perceived
professional development activities as contributing to teachers adhering to expectations of
authorities, and contributing to teachers developing leadership qualities. The teachers did
not share these perceptions and this could be attributed to the irregular visitations by
inspectors, and the nature of the professional development activities that focused more on
educational requirements and policies rather than professional development of teachers and
head teachers.
As with Case Studies 1, 2 and 3, how inspectors conducted themselves influenced teachers
and head teachers in how they performed their duties. At the same time, the question of
professional ethics of teachers and inspectors could be attributed to the quality of teacher and
inspector training that they have had over the years.
In summary, for Case Study 4, quality assurance interactive strategies related directly to
teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. Professional development
interactive strategies impacted directly on teacher compliance, teacher leadership and teacher
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professional development while professional ethics of inspector impacted directly on teacher
professional ethics.
The next chapter, Chapter 5, integrates the findings of the four cases and provides further
discussions through a cross-case participant and cross-case analysis and discussions.
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CHAPTER FIVE
Cross-Case Findings and Synthesis
5.1 Introduction
In Chapter 4, the findings of the four cases studies were discussed separately, synthesized
and separate conclusions made. As a result, similarities and differences were highlighted
that compared and concluded the findings of each of the cases. Clarifications about the
specific activities of the inspectorial interactive strategies and explanations of the dimensions
of teacher professionalism as perceived by participants were also discussed.
This chapter discusses the findings of the four case studies as a result of the ‘cross-case
participant’ and cross-case analysis. In the cross-case participant analysis, similar groups of
participants’ (teachers, head teachers and inspectors) experiences, beliefs and perceptions are
synthesized before the cross-case synthesis is discussed. The discussions consider the
locations of the schools and inspectorates and the demographical characteristics of the
participants, including experiences and qualifications. The details of the ‘cross-participant’
and cross-case analysis were given in Chapter 3 and Section 4.2. This chapter begins with
the demographic characteristics of the participants followed by the discussions of the main
issues, the inspectorial interactive strategies, the dimensions of teacher professionalism and
their relationship. This is followed by an ‘input-process-output’ structure that summarizes
the cross-case findings. The chapter concludes with a summary.
assessment, evaluation and reporting of teachers’ and head teachers’ performances for
suitability and promotion and ensured resources were used for children’s education
(MacBeath, 2006). The ultimatum was that these strategies ensured that schools accounted
for children’s learning. Teachers, head teachers’ and schools’ performances were monitored,
assessed, evaluated and reported to authorities to ensure that the schools served their purpose
and were able to achieve their goals and objectives (Gurr, 2007). At the same time, the
implementation of educational policies was monitored and was reported to authorities. Table
6.1 summarizes examples of quality assurance interactive strategies.
How urgent and serious authorities reacted to reports was an issue that could lead to a
decline or improvement in work performances of teachers and head teachers (Learmonth,
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2000). The study also revealed that only the inspectors extended quality assurance
interactive strategies to include the monitoring and evaluation of the supervisory and
management processes that existed in the schools, the school physical environments and the
involvement of the stakeholders in aspects of the schools. While these strategies were
indicators that related directly to the quality of education (Welch, 2000), they were not
emphasized by the teachers and head teachers. This could indicate a lack of knowledge on
the management of the educational functions of the schools by teachers and head teachers.
The need to address such issues by the inspectorial system is necessary if schools have to
serve their functions well. However, schools can only serve their functions well if a
philosophy about work, people and human relations are centered around shared values,
exceptional performance and where there is emphasis on public accountability (Lim, 2001;
Travers, 2007). At the same time, quality assurance strategies need to identify and address
indicators of quality education such as qualifications, curriculum resources including
teaching and learning materials, and teacher development programs to enhance education
standards and the quality of education. (Welch, 2000). Quality assurance must also embrace
internal school improvement and should emphasize external accountability through school
self-evaluation, self-assessment, self-inspection, self-auditing and self-review
(Macclaughlin, 2001; va Amelsvoot, et al, 2006)
Professional development interactive strategies related directly to inspectors interacting with
teachers and head teachers to improve teaching and management practices and to ensure they
keep up with changes in the education system. This included inspectors identifying areas of
weaknesses in curriculum implementation, school based supervisory strategies, management
of resources and aspects of leadership, and providing appropriate advice and/or developing
training programs to address the areas of weaknesses. Inspectors, as external supervisors,
were also seen as sources of information on government and educational policies. They
were expected to be knowledgeable in government and educational policies. They were
consulted on educational issues if and when teachers and head teachers needed them. Beside
these perceptions, teachers and head teachers believed that inspectors’ roles were to help
them improve teaching and management practices. This implies that professional
development interactive strategies related more to improvement of professional, educational
and administrative practices as well as contributing to the professional development of
teachers and head teachers.
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Table 6.1: Examples of Themes of Quality Assurance Interactive Strategies
Quality Assurance Teachers Head teachers Inspectors
Case Study 1
• Inspectors check teaching files & records, personal records, delegated duties records, work programs, workbooks, roll books & lesson plans
• Inspectors observe teacher’s lessons. • Registration of teachers through inspection
processes done by inspectors. • Inspectors check teachers’ work at their own
discretion.
• Inspectors carry out inspection for promotion.
• Inspectors write reports on how teachers teach & how they perform their responsibilities.
• Inspectors provide information to help head teachers to abide by policies in managing schools.
• Inspectors’ Operational Plans cover school visits, supervisory duties and training programs.
• Inspectors ensure senior teachers are organized in supervising teachers.
• Inspectors supervise and assess head teachers as curriculum leaders.
• Inspectors ensure that Board of Management (BOM) and Parents & Citizens Association carry out their responsibilities.
Case Study 2 • Inspectors check on performances of teachers. • Inspectors gather reports from head teacher and
write report on teachers. • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements. • Inspectors maintain the standard of teaching and
student learning.
• Inspectors visit, talk and share with head teachers professional issues and new changes that come about.
• Inspectors advise schools on government (education) policies.
• Inspectors ensure administrative requirements, including monthly returns, are done.
• Inspectors ensure school based supervision is effective. • Inspectors ensure support from the community and parent
exists. • Inspectors deal with teacher and student discipline.
Case Study 3 • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements. • Inspectors monitor student welfare. • Inspectors monitor head teacher leadership. • Inspectors check on the management and
responsibilities to enhance quality education. • Inspectors inspect teachers for registration.
• Inspectors inspect head teacher for promotion.
• Inspectors receive and compile reports about the schools for authorities.
• Supervision for accountability to ensure resources is used for children’s education done by inspectors.
• Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation of educational policies.
• Inspectors receive and compile reports about the schools for authorities.
• Inspectors appraise teachers’ & head teachers’ performances for promotion.
• Inspectors ensure physical learning environment exists in schools.
Case Study 4 • Inspectors check on curriculum requirements and monitor academic standards.
• Inspectors monitor teacher performance. • Inspectors inspect teachers for registration and
promotion.
Not applicable • Inspectors monitor teaching standards. • Inspectors inform teachers and monitor implementation
of educational policies. • Inspectors appraise teachers’ and head teachers’
performances for registration and promotion. • Supervision done by inspectors for accountability to
ensure resources is used for children’s education.
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Inspectors, on the other hand, emphasized that professional development activities directly
influenced teachers and head teachers in their professional development and that this gave
teachers and head teachers opportunities for promotion. Table 6.2 summarizes examples of
professional development interactive strategies. However, how influential the professional
development interactive strategies were for teachers and head teachers was a concern to
participants, implying that teachers and head teachers were not contented with this aspect of
the inspectors’ role. It was also imperative that productive learning environments and a
culture of learning atmosphere were needed to exist in schools if tangible outcomes were to
be achieved (Day, 1994; Philips, 2003; Harris & van Tassell, 2005). This is paramount to
any professional development strategies that address improvement and development issues
of schools.
Professional development strategies applied by inspectors, either through facilitation or
direct interaction with teachers and head teachers, were not based on any specific model or
theory. This made it difficult for intended outcomes, if they were any, to be achieved.
Developing professional development models that should suite particular groups, levels or
contexts of teachers, head teachers and schools or using existing models is necessary if
professional development strategies are to make a difference in the professional career of
teachers and head teachers (also refer Section 2.3.3). Professional development strategies
applied by inspectors must also be focused on issues that address specific educational
changes and agenda, including moral purposes of teaching. In other words, different
professional development strategies, including models and theories, must be applied within a
particular school context rather than generally applying strategies across all schools that are
of very little or no benefit to teachers and head teachers (MacBeath, 2005).
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Table 6.2: Examples of Themes on Professional Development Interactive Strategies
Professional Development
Teachers Head Teachers Inspectors
Case Study 1
There were no comments from teachers in relation to professional development interactive strategies.
• Inspectors provide advice on areas of weaknesses for improvement.
• Inspectors help in extending head teacher knowledge in order to administer and manage schools.
• Inspectors help head teachers to formulate school policies.
• Inspectors train senior teachers to become Deputy Head Teachers. • Inspectors strengthen head teachers’ and teachers’ supervisory roles
ensuring skills and confidence in supervision and curriculum implementation including teaching methods, knowledge and competence are developed.
• Inspectors work with PDOE personnel and other stakeholders in an advisory capacity.
Case Study 2 • Inspectors are resource people that teachers rely on for advice & assistance.
• Inspectors encourage teachers to improve in their teaching.
• Inspectors help teachers with new curriculum development.
• Inspectors help teachers to be knowledgeable in their subjects.
• Inspectors help teachers with changes including curriculum development.
• Inspectors discuss issues on professional development and growth of teachers.
• Inspectors conduct in-services for the professional development of teachers.
• Inspectors give advice after visits in the classrooms observing teachers’ lessons.
• Inspectors identify the weaknesses in head teacher performance & provide advice accordingly.
• Inspectors look at the areas of teacher professionalism and assist teachers, professionally and personally.
• Inspectors use relevant documents including the Teaching Service and the Education Acts to in-service teachers and head teachers on issues that they are not aware of.
• Inspectors discuss with the head teacher the issues related to supervision of teachers and provide assistance where appropriate.
• Inspectors conduct meetings with teachers and discuss common issues as observed, as well as new development in the education system.
Case Study 3 • Inspectors assist teachers in their professional development.
• Other activities as above.
• Head teacher and teacher professional development is enhanced when in-service and training are pursued by inspectors.
• Other activities as above.
• Teacher professional development being pursued by inspectors. • Inspectors’ direct involvement with teacher and head teacher
professional development. • Other activities as above.
Case Study 4 • Inspectors assist teachers in their professional development.
• Other activities as above.
Not applicable • Inspectors provide good leadership to teachers and head teachers (role models).
• Inspectors’ direct involvement with teacher and head teacher professional development through in-service programs, conferences, meetings and workshops.
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The inspectorial interactive strategies associated with the professional ethics of inspectors
that emerged from this study revealed the deteriorating image and status of the inspectorial
system in PNG. How inspectors behaved and conducted themselves in interacting with
teachers and head teachers, and a lack of recognition of the importance of the inspectorial
functions in enhancing the teaching profession by authorities, had become contentious issues
(refer Table 6.3 which summarizes examples of professional ethics of inspectors). This had
come about because of both operational and professional factors that were affecting the
inspectors in carrying out their responsibilities, including a lack of visitations to schools
caused by a lack of resources and a lack of qualifications and professional development
activities for inspectors respectively. This implies that inspectors were not equipped with
resources to perform their responsibilities effectively. At the same time, most inspectors
were not academically equipped with appropriate management and supervisory skills,
curriculum knowledge and leadership qualities to create good impressions, encourage high
performance (through quality assurance strategies) and facilitate professional development
strategies. These factors were compounded by the deteriorating employment conditions of
inspectors that also affected their morale and commitment to their responsibilities. These
were vital ingredients in sustaining professional ethics of inspectors. Teachers and head
teachers expressed a lack of confidence in the work of inspectors because most inspectors
did not address specific issues in schools, amongst other irregular supervisory practices. The
study revealed that professional ethics of inspectors were a current source of dilemmas
within the inspectorial system. Such ethical dilemmas were also caused by organizational
cultures of central government agencies responsible for the inspectorial system, the teaching
profession and the school system. Such cultural issues included a lack of communication,
collaboration and networking between stakeholders concerning the roles of teachers, head
teachers and inspectors. In general, the central government agencies (NDOE and PDOE)
had shown little or no respect for how significant the inspectorial system was to the
maintenance, improvement and development of the school system. Therefore, the
participants’ concerns challenge these agencies to deal with this situation so that the image
and integrity of inspectors are enhanced.
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Table 6.3: Examples of Themes of Professional Ethics of Inspectors
Case Teachers Head Teachers Inspectors Study 1
Operational issues • Teacher visited only once & only for
registration. • No documents, including newsletters, related to
inspector’s expectations of the teacher were given to teachers.
• No feedback from the inspector after visits. • Inspectors observed teachers’ work less in
remote schools compared to urban schools. Professional issues • Many teachers not performing well but getting
good inspection reports for full registration. • Lack of commitment by inspector in assisting
teachers.
Operational Issues • Head teacher has not been paid advisory &
inspection visits by inspectors for 5 years. • No appropriate documents provided by
inspectors to help the head teacher & teachers in supervision of teachers, management of schools & writing inspection reports.
Professional Issues • Inspector did not look thoroughly at the things
teacher expected him to write about. • Inspection done without advisory visit does not
help teachers.
Operational issues Impact of changes on the lives of teachers in both rural/remote & urban schools not being catered for by inspectors due to lack of resources. Professional issues Duplication of supervisory roles performed by school personnel & inspector – inspector, head teacher & senior teacher supervising based level teachers, etc.
Study 2 Operational issues • Inspectors do their work in school in a hurry. • Some inspectors do not have specific purposes
to visit schools. • Inspectors give excuses, including no transport,
of not visiting schools. Professional issues • Teachers are not sure of inspector’s help during
in-services. • Inspectors are not clear about new changes,
including curriculum changes, for them to help teachers better.
• It’s possible that teachers only prepare for inspectors’ visits to please the inspectors.
Operational issues • Inspectors being promoted from lower positions
as head teachers being questioned. • The inspectors duplicate the work of the head
teacher & senior teachers. • Inspectors are concentrating too much on
inspection role & have neglected their advisory role.
• There is no support from provincial authorities for proper offices for the inspectors to work in & this is affecting their status & their work in assisting teachers.
Operational issues Inspectors have not visited some schools for 5 years due to logistical problems. Professional issues • Without the inspectorial system schools will not
operate well. • Inspectors have to be fully versed & acquire
skills and knowledge to be of help to teachers & head teachers.
• Inspectors contribute indirectly to children’s education.
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Case Teachers Head Teachers Inspectors • Inspectors when not inspecting teachers have
implications on teacher performance, appointment & promotion.
• Since the education reform the performance of inspectors has dropped.
• There is no quality assurance system within the inspectorial system to ensure inspector professionalism is maintained.
Professional issues • The head teacher is happy with particular
inspector’s performance. • There are inconsistencies in the content of the
inspection reports that affected the head teacher’s respect for the inspector.
• Inspectors have no idea about the new curriculum & are being questioned on their roles.
• Some inspectors do not take documents relating to their roles & other educational & professional issues seriously to assist them in their responsibilities.
• There is a big gap between inspectors, teachers & head teachers because teachers & head teachers do not know what inspectors are supposed to do.
Study 3 Operational issues • A lack of resources affecting inspectors’ visits
to schools & teachers. • Inspectors monitor conduct of teachers. • A lack of support & negligence by NDOE &
PDOE to facilitate inspectors’ work in the schools.
Professional issues • Teachers being forced by inspectors to
implement policies without being trained on aspects of concerned policies.
• Inspectors’ roles are valued by teachers. • Inspector employment conditions are affecting
inspectors in their work. • Working cultures in NDOE & PDOE are
disadvantaging inspectors from doing their work effectively.
Operational issues • A lack of planning & organization by inspectors
to carry out work. • Selection & appointment of inspectors from
head teacher candidates are being questioned. Professional issues • Inspector honesty is valued when dealing with
teachers’ problems. • A lack of cooperation between stakeholders
makes it hard for inspectors to perform their duties.
• A lack of confidence, protocol & respect for head teachers does not help with inspector performing their work.
• A lack of confidence in the processes & outcomes of the inspection roles performed by inspectors.
• Current organizational cultures are affecting inspectors’ work in schools.
Operational issues • Inspectors are overloaded with work. • Inspectors use other means to accomplish their
operational plans when logistics & support are unavailable.
Professional issues • Inspectors’ roles are valued by teachers and
head teachers. • Provincial authorities undermining the roles of
inspectors & not working well with inspectors as a result of adverse attitudes towards inspectors because they are performing national functions.
• Inspector qualifications & professional development are neglected & are affecting their work.
• Inspectors provide good leadership to teachers & head teachers (Role Models).
• A lack of networking between stakeholders, inspectors, head teachers & teachers to address educational issues.
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Case Teachers Head Teachers Inspectors • A lack of focus in inspectors’ roles due to a lack
of visits to teachers & clarity on inspectors’ responsibilities.
• Advisory visits have no specific purposes. Study 4 Operational issues
• Inspectors’ integrity being questioned through use of schools’ & teachers’ personal resources.
• Others as above Professional issues • A lack of benefits experienced by teachers from
inspectors’ visits. • Inspectors lack interest in teachers’ work. • Teachers lack confidence in inspectors’ roles. • A lack of clear focus in inspectors’
responsibilities to assist teachers. • A lack of confidence in the processes and
outcomes of the inspection processes performed by inspectors.
• Inspector is an inspiration to the teacher. • Teachers only perform duties to please the
inspectors.
Not applicable Operational issues • A lack of planning & organization by inspector
to carry out his work. • Some documents provided by the inspectors on
professional ethics & inspectors’ operational obligations.
Professional issues • Inspectors ensure good relationships are
maintained. • Inspectors ensure teacher ethical values are
maintained. • A lack of acknowledgements & actions of
inspectors’ reports is frustrating inspectors and demeans inspectors’ roles.
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The responsibilities of inspectors, identified with the interactive strategies above, were
dictated by the policies of the central government agencies that were responsible for
addressing national, provincial and institutional goals and objectives. In reality, however,
inspectors carried out a range of responsibilities through supervisory approaches. These
supervisory approaches emerged from the study as supervision for quality assurance and
professional development. At the same time, how inspectors performed these supervisory
responsibilities and conducted themselves also emerged as a particular issue, and likewise, it
was important because their actions influenced the ethics of the teaching profession. As a
result, teachers and head teachers expressed their frustrations over the inspectors’ level of
performance that was caused by factors that were both within and beyond inspectors’ means
and control (refer Table 6.3). It is argued here that inspectors’ responsibilities must evolve
with changes in the education system, implying that a culture of learning or change must
exist within the organizations responsible for the inspectorial system and the teaching
profession. It is also important that, within this culture of change, there must be clear
demarcations and/or relationships in inspectors’ responsibilities to avoid duplication of
supervisory responsibilities of school based supervisors. At the same time, whether
inspectors’ supervisory responsibilities are means of quality assurance or professional
development, there must be clear outcomes from these interactive strategies if inspectors
have to make a difference in the teaching profession.
Supervision for Quality Assurance
Supervision for quality assurance continued to be based on ‘scientific management’
approaches where monitoring, assessment and evaluation of teacher and head teacher
performance were still the basis of inspectors’ responsibilities as earlier discussed
(Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1993). In other words, inspectors ensured that teachers and head
teachers complied with the expectations of the employing agencies. However, supervision
for quality assurance must monitor, assess and evaluate the quality of ‘inputs’, the processes
involved and the quality of ‘outputs’ if quality outcomes are to be achieved (Welch, 2000).
This is necessary so that deficiencies are detected and problems are prevented before they
occur, and only then can supervision for quality assurance impact on teachers and head
teachers (Hoy et al, 2000; Learmonth, 2000). To achieve the most from supervision for
quality assurance, inspectors need to have appropriate qualifications that encompass relevant
knowledge and skills in curriculum, supervision, management and leadership issues. At the
same time, such knowledge and skills would ensure inspectors are focused on performing
their responsibilities to achieve tangible outcomes. It is also important that supervision for
quality assurance considers a human resource strategy where supervision must account for
the needs, potential and satisfaction of teachers, head teachers and inspectors. Without such
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regard problems are due to emerge (Sergiovanni, & Starratt, 1993). Supervision for quality
assurance can be successful if teachers, head teachers and inspectors, all know exactly the
purpose of the strategies inspectors apply, the outcomes expected of these strategies and how
these outcomes can impact on or influence teachers and head teachers. The ultimate
outcome, however, is that supervision for quality assurance must impact on educational
standards and quality education provided by the schools by improving the quality of teaching
and learning.
Supervision for Professional Development
Supervision and professional development are both concerned with the improvement and
development of organizations. In educational settings, supervision and professional
development strategies are concerned with improving the quality of education by applying
supervisory and professional development strategies that improve the quality of teaching and
learning (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). However, while supervision is more of a
management function that requires approaches that monitor, assess and evaluate
performances of individuals, professional development relates more to the means of
improvement and development that encourage learning to take place (Sergiovanni & Starratt,
1993; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007).
Supervision for professional development emerged from this study as a responsibility of the
inspectorial system and is considered crucial to teachers’ and head teachers’ career and
development (Acheson & Gall, 2003). It is crucial because teachers, head teachers and
schools have to continuously develop with changes in society, technology and the economy.
The study revealed that inspectors supervised and interacted with teachers and head teachers
in order to improve and develop them in their profession. This interactive process allowed
for inspectors to identify professional needs and developed training or in-service programs to
address these needs. From this process, inspectors also developed and facilitated training
programs that addressed changes in the school system which included curriculum
development, school management and leadership issues. Generally, supervisory processes
for professional development enabled teachers and head teachers to improve their
performance and for them to work for successes. As a result, the participants in this study
perceived professional development as a process that had to be initiated and facilitated by
outside factors and sources. This means that teachers and head teachers (and inspectors)
relied mostly on changes in the school system to pursue their professional development.
This approach however, did not encourage teachers and head teachers to pursue their own
professional development. This perception existed because there was a lack of opportunities
and incentives for teachers and head teachers to pursue their own professional development.
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Professional development, according to teachers, head teachers and inspectors, therefore was
a process that was extrinsically motivated, implying that professional development was
always initiated and facilitated by outside factors and sources respectively. Such perception
existed because there was no clear demarcation between the inspectors’ roles, whether
inspectors carried out supervision for quality assurance or supervision for professional
development.
Supervision for professional development is well illustrated in many studies as earlier
discussed (Sections 2.3.3 & 6.3.1). These studies that investigated and dealt with the quality
of teaching and learning, and teacher development proved that supervisory practices worked
well for the professional development of teachers and head teachers if they were
systematically and purposefully organized. Importantly, supervision for professional
development served to achieve both personal and school goals through planned and
coordinated activities if it continues to be recognized as a significant responsibility of the
inspectorial system (Barak et al, 1997; Sullivan & Glanz, 2000; Agnew et al, 2000;
Glickman, Gordon & Ross-Gordon, 2001).
However, for supervision for professional development to impact on teachers and head
teachers, inspectors must have knowledge and skills that address particular professional
development issues. For example, supervision for professional development that addresses
the current curriculum reform and outcome based curriculum would be more appropriate at
this time when PNG is going through its education reform. Thus inspectors need to be
equipped with appropriate curriculum knowledge if they are to contribute to the professional
development of teachers and head teachers. This was a common issue raised by participants
in this study, including inspectors themselves in that there was a lack of focus in the
professional development activities being carried out by inspectors. At the same time,
teachers and head teachers themselves have to be aware of their professional needs if
‘supervision for professional development’ is to be of benefit to them. As earlier stated, this
study revealed that, while participants identified professional development as an inspectorial
interactive strategy, there were no particular models that inspectors used to facilitate this. A
‘supervision for professional development model’ that incorporates various theories or
models, including mentorship (Dia-Maggioli, 2004) and clinical supervision (Acheson &
Gall, 2003), and that is focused on specific educational issues would ensure professional
development through the inspectorial system is of benefit to teachers and head teachers. At
the same time, a culture for change that creates a learning atmosphere and environment must
exist in the schools and inspectorates if supervision for professional development is to
impact on the teaching profession (Day, 1994; Philips, 2003; Harris & van Tassell, 2005;
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Hatch, 2006). It is important to take note that supervision for professional development,
whether it is the responsibility of inspectors or not, is central to the responsibilities of
teachers and head teachers. In PNG and/or other developing countries supervision for
professional development is seen as an immediate priority for schools because of the rapid
changes in society and technology, and the need for teachers and head teachers to adapt to
these changes. Changes in the education system are also inevitable and these can be
adversely affected without a systematic external supervisory system.
Professional Ethics of Inspectors: Emerged Interactive Strategies from Supervisory
Practices
The professional ethics of inspectors was not considered as a significant inspectorial
interactive strategy though the context of the problem briefly highlighted issues related to
this aspect of the inspectorial system (refer Sections 1.3.4 & 1.3.8, & Figure 2.2). However,
in this study, the professional ethics of inspectors emerged as a contentious issue of the
inspectorial system because of the adverse and unfavourable experiences and perceptions
being reflected by the participants concerning the behavior and conduct of inspectors in
performing their responsibilities. While the professional ethics of inspectors was a
contentious issue, it was also a very significant and relevant issue to the development of the
teaching profession in PNG because it related directly to ethical values and dilemmas
concerning inspectors’ exhibited behavior and conduct which are also impacting on teacher
professionalism (refer Table 6.3).
The study revealed that the professional ethics of inspectors were seriously being questioned
by participants, including inspectors themselves. This perception arose from the
deteriorating behavior and conduct of inspectors caused by factors that were both within and
beyond the inspectors’ means and control. For example, there was a lack of resources and
conducive working environments provided by the Government of PNG and NDOE for
inspectors to perform their responsibilities effectively. Such situations were compounded by
the unattractive employment conditions of inspectors and raised questions about the
commitment of the Government of PNG and NDOE in monitoring and enhancing the quality
of education in schools. In most cases, these observations amounted to the type of
organizational cultures that existed in these organizations. At the same time, a lack of
planning, a lack of purpose and a lack of focus in inspectors’ responsibilities also raised
ethical dilemmas about how seriously inspectors assisted teachers and head teachers.
Inspectors’ lack of knowledge and skills on educational issues, including curriculum
development, pedagogy, management and leadership that were needed to assist teachers and
head teachers, also resulted in questions raised on their performance. The study also
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revealed that inspectors, apart from their job descriptions, had no specific Code of
Professional Ethics that would guide them in carrying out their responsibilities (Strike &
Ternasky, 1993; Shapiro & Stefkovic, 2005). Generally, there were serious concerns about
the effectiveness of the inspectorial system and how it was influencing and impacting on
teachers, head teachers, schools, PDOE, NDOE and the Government of PNG in achieving
educational policies. The need to address the professional ethics of inspectors by addressing
the above issues is seen as necessary if the inspectorial system has to serve its functions.
6.4 Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
The study revealed that there were five dimensions of teacher professionalism that teachers,
head teachers and inspectors identified irrespective of their demographic differences. These
five dimensions of teacher professionalism were teacher compliance, teacher knowledge,
teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics.
Irrespective of where the schools were located either in the remote, rural or urban, and
whether the schools were government or Church agency schools, the perceptions of teachers,
head teachers and inspectors about the dimension of teacher professionalism remained the
same. These identified dimensions of teacher professionalism were consistent with other
‘faces’ of teacher professionalism that were reviewed in Section 2.4.2 (refer to Figure 2.2).
It is important however, to reaffirm that teacher professionalism, as with other professions, is
culturally and socially constructed and as such, is prone to evolve with social, economic and
political developments. Teacher professionalism in PNG context, as implied by the above
identified dimensions, is of a more generic nature and encompassed characteristics, features
and ideas that have already been researched in other context (Ganser, 2001; Sachs, 2003;
Whitty, 2006; Robson, 2006; Smith, 2007; Rizvi & Elliott, 2007). It must also be noted that
teacher professionalism in PNG has never been studied to ascertain its past, present and
future status. This study, while exploring the inspectorial interactive strategies and
dimensions of teacher professionalism, investigated the linkages or relationships between
them as significant outcomes. This section summarizes the dimensions of teacher
professionalism and discusses the relationships as reviewed through literature and as
perceived by the participants.
6.4.1 Teacher Compliance: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism
As a dimension of teacher professionalism, teacher compliance related to teachers and head
teachers complying with the professional, educational and administrative requirements of the
education system. The professional requirements required teachers and head teachers to
adhere to the standards of dressing and behavior as required by the TSC and NDOE. The
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educational requirements included teachers and head teachers successfully implementing
educational policies such as curriculum, teaching standards, assessments and in-service
programs. The administrative requirements included teachers and head teachers performing
responsibilities as prescribed in their duty statements and keeping educational and
administrative records (Department of Education, 2003b). With head teachers, the quality
of leadership and management of school resources that facilitates quality teaching was the
major expectation that required head teachers’ attention. A requirement that teachers and
head teachers had to comply with and which was fundamental to the teaching profession was
teacher qualification. Teacher qualification was a prerequisite to becoming a teacher.
From a comparative analysis, teachers related teacher compliance more to factors that
ensured teachers performed efficiently, particularly in teaching. These factors included
planning, preparation and organizing lessons, and teachers being resourceful, innovative and
industrious in order to be efficient. On the other hand, head teachers related teacher
compliance more to teachers being able to organize, manage and administer all aspects of
their work and, at the same time, being able to work collaboratively to achieve results. With
the head teachers’ responsibilities, this included formulating school policies to implement
appropriate educational policies. In addition to teachers’ and head teachers’ perceptions,
inspectors perceived teacher compliance as directly related to job descriptions. In other
words teachers and head teachers had to comply with the requirements of their job
descriptions that spelt out appropriate qualifications for each teaching position, areas of
responsibilities including teaching responsibilities and counseling students, internal and
external working relationships, and reporting to appropriate stakeholders (refer Section
1.3.8). Teacher compliance as perceived by the participants referred more to performance
and related directly to individual responsibilities that required teachers and head teachers to
purposefully carry out. Such situations encouraged a culture of teacher compliance, and in
this way, teachers and head teachers were made to be accountable and responsible for the
consequences of their actions (Lyons, 1998; Jarzabkowski, 1999; Becker & Weldon, 2004).
Table 6.4 gives examples of themes of teacher compliance.
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Table 6.4: Examples of Themes of Teacher Compliance
Cases Teachers Head teachers Inspectors Study 1 • Teacher teaching, including preparation of
materials, teacher physical appearance, and teacher performance.
• Teachers as good implementers. • Carrying out work well for the students. • Teachers as planners.
• Teacher professionalism relates to the work that a teacher does.
• Head teacher formulating school policies.
• Teacher professionalism is characterized by what is in the job description or duty statement of each teacher or head teacher.
• Teacher practices – teaching, teacher competence, classroom organization and management practices including curriculum content and context.
• Head teacher & teacher accountability.
Study 2 • Someone who is an implementer of educational policies including curriculum requirements.
• Teachers being good motivators. • A teacher being someone who is resourceful. • A teacher being someone who is innovative and
creative. • A teacher being someone who is industrious. • Being a teacher involves teaching, planning and
programming (teacher performance). • Teacher professionalism is about the teaching
up teacher leadership as having instructional and relational qualities that enhance learning
outcomes, and having qualities that generate positive relationships to create conditions for
learning. She emphasized that all teachers must contribute to the creation of collegial norms
to address school effectiveness; all teachers must be given the opportunity to lead; as
instructional leaders, all teachers must influence curriculum, teaching and learning; and that
all teachers must contribute to re-culturing schools through “leadership that is the outcome of
a dynamic of interpersonal relationships rather than individual action” (p. 2). Teacher
leadership requires teachers and head teachers to be knowledgeable and be exposed to
qualities and styles of leadership that include interpersonal leadership that encourages
communication and networking, and setting goals and mission statements as a key element
to success; adaptive leadership that navigates and effects changes through relationships; and
motivational leadership that encourages professional climates, support for teachers and
cultivating a learning community, to cater for both formal and informal aspects of the
schools (Gabriel, 2005). At the same time, these leadership styles require commitment to
classroom teaching, teachers and head teachers becoming experts in subject matter and
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pedagogy, teachers and head teachers understanding the contexts of national, provincial and
school educational policies, and teachers and head teachers having well developed
interpersonal skills for effective communication and collaboration (Gonzales, 2004).
However, to sustain these qualities, teachers and head teachers must build knowledge base of
leadership practices through research activities. Such research activities should encourage
teacher leadership through professional learning because teachers, as researchers, are “vitally
important to both worlds of theory and practice – it offers real possibilities for enhancing
educational outcomes” (Loughran, 2007, p. 596). As Duke (2004) (sighted in Sachs, 2007)
summarized, teacher leadership “is a process by which teachers, individually and collectively
influence their colleagues, principals and other members of school communities to improve
teaching and learning practices with the aim of increased student learning and achievement”
(p. 1). The findings explored the lack of knowledge and skills in teacher leadership and call
for strategies the inclusion of teacher leadership in teacher education and development at all
levels of teacher training to be considered to ensure inexperienced and experienced teachers
and head teachers are exposed to this vital dimension of teacher professionalism.
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Table 6.6: Examples of Themes of Teacher Leadership
Cases Teachers Head teachers Inspectors Study 1
No comments • Head teacher working at his best to show fellow teachers.
• Head teacher taking a lead in all aspects of work in the school.
• Leadership is important in Teacher Professionalism.
• Head teacher and teacher leadership skills - management, appraisal, organizational leadership, consultants, etc.
• Head teacher expertise in management, organizational and administrative skills
Study 2 • Teacher leadership. • A teacher being someone who is promoted and
working effectively at that promotional level. • A teacher being a good organizer. • A teacher being a good manager. • Teacher professionalism is when a teacher
becomes a leader and who knows everything.
• A head teacher. • A supervisor. • Senior teachers having supervisory and
management skills. • Having potentials to be in “a level above the others
and (so that) you can be able to pick things very quickly to help everyone”.
• Head teacher having the knowledge to plan and run schools.
• A head teacher gaining teachers’ trust. • A teacher being knowledgeable in all aspects of the
teaching profession. • A head teacher being a good leader. • Head teachers leading by examples.
Study 3 • Head teacher and teacher experience and responsibility for teachers and students.
• Supervision and professional development of subordinates.
No comments
• Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking a lead in aspects of work in school.
• Head teacher as a role model.
Study 4 Teacher leadership relating to being a good leader and possessing leadership qualities.
Not applicable Teacher leadership relates to head teacher and teacher taking a lead in aspects of work in school.
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6.4.4 Teacher Professional Development: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism
In Section 6.3.1, the strategies that inspectors used while interacting with teachers and head
teachers were identified into professional development interactive strategies. These
strategies summarized the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of participants and concluded
that inspectors were directly involved with the professional development of teachers and
head teachers through supervisory approaches. Discussion in teacher professional
development in this subsection is therefore restricted to teacher professional development as
a dimension of teacher professionalism.
As a dimension of teacher professionalism, teacher professional development was
recognized by teachers, head teachers and inspectors as vital to the teaching profession.
Participants emphasized that continuous professional development was a necessity in the
teaching profession because it was concerned with the ways that were affecting teaching (Li
2001). This finding revealed that, irrespective of whether teachers were inexperienced or
experienced and/or teachers or head teachers, continuous professional development was an
essential feature of the teaching profession. This was because teacher professional
development in any formats (whether it’s mentoring, skill development programs or
networking) allowed for teachers and head teachers to keep abreast with changes in the
education system (Diaz-Maggioli, 2004). Importantly teachers and head teachers needed to
“keep up with up-to-date academic and vocational subjects, rapid technology, commercial
and industrial advances” (Robson, 2006). At the same time, any reform agenda or change
initiated as part of education development required teacher professional development
because such changes required teachers and head teachers to gain new knowledge and skills
to perform responsibilities that were consistent with the changes (Beijaard, Meijer, Morine-
Dorshimer & Tillema, 2005). Teachers in particular, revealed that as a dimension of teacher
professionalism, teacher professional development had to encourage spiritual, physical,
academic and social aspects of the teaching profession. Such perceptions concerned the
areas of social development of teachers and head teachers where behavior and attitudes were
issues to be addressed, subject knowledge development where subject matter and pupil
attainment were concerns to be pursued, pedagogy development where teaching methods and
classroom management were concerns to be addressed, and cognitive development where
judgment and willingness by teachers and head teachers to consider new evidences in
improving teaching were considered (Li, 2001). This also applied to new development with
government and educational policies where teachers and head teachers were required to
comply with, implying that to comply with such development teachers and head teachers had
to gain knowledge and skills to implement such policies (Al-Hinai, 2007). Teacher
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professional development that enhanced performance, that provided quality leadership and
that sustained professional work ethics, was a crucial factor to ensure these expectations
were met. It must be noted that teacher professionalism is an evolving phenomenon and
within this context, teacher professional development is significant to its evolution.
Generally, however, teacher professional development is continuous education of teachers
because it enlarges knowledge and it appreciates the skills and understanding of their work
(Glickman, Gordon & Ross-Gordon, 2001).
6.4.5 Teacher Professional Ethics: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism
Teacher professional ethics as a dimension of teacher professionalism directly related to how
teachers and head teachers behaved and conducted themselves in performing their
responsibilities. Teacher professional ethics encompassed professional behavior and conduct
that included teachers and head teachers being corporative, collaborative, involved and
supportive of each other and being respectful, loyal, dedicated and committed to work. This
study revealed that teacher professional ethics were also embedded in working and living
conditions, and employment conditions that teachers and head teachers experienced
including a lack of or availability of basic teaching and learning materials, poor or acceptable
classroom facilities and poor or good standards of living (including a lack or availability of
housing for teachers) respectively. Such situations, caused by external factors and
influences, had led to ethical or unethical behavior and conduct that, in some cases, had
frustrated teachers and head teachers in performing their work (refer Tables 6.3 & 6.8). For
teachers and head teachers to be committed to producing expected results, the working and
living environments must be conducive to them carrying out their responsibilities. The study
revealed that teacher professional ethics was a contentious issue that had to be dealt with by
authorities and employing agencies otherwise teachers and head teachers would not be
committed to their responsibilities. At the same time teachers and head teachers needed a
code of ethics that ensured they performed their responsibilities effectively (Strike &
Ternaskey, 1993). Teacher professional ethics as a contentious dimension of teacher
professionalism had to be dealt with through teacher education and training, and professional
development programs in schools.
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Table 6.7: Examples of Themes of Teacher Professional Development
Cases Teachers Head teachers Inspectors Study 1 • Teacher continuous professional development.
Teacher professional development as a continuing phenomenal in teaching.
No comments
• Teacher supervisory roles in subordinate appraisal, conflict resolution, contextual skills and life skills.
• Teacher professional development.
Study 2 • Someone who is spiritually, physically, academically and socially developed and developing.
• Being a teacher is having “a drive for professional (development and) growth” including “intellectual grow with aspects of my profession including teaching”.
Professionals who are continually in-serviced and trained in aspects of their teaching career.
Supervision of teachers in their work for professional development.
Study 3 • Professional development activities for teacher professional development.
• Teacher continuous learning or pursues professional development.
• Other as above.
Professionals who are continually in-serviced and trained in aspects of their teaching career.
• Teachers of today are changing and improving with new ideas.
• There is need for focus and systematic professional development programs for teachers.
Study 4 • Teacher continuous learning or pursues professional development.
• Other as above.
Not applicable • Teacher professional development is pursued through training programs and in-service sessions.
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While teachers, head teachers and inspectors identified the above ethical issues as related to
the general behavior and conduct (and similarly as in the professional ethics of inspectors as
earlier discussed in Section 6.3), teacher professional ethics are conceived within school
cultures and are the values of being a teacher (Shapiro & Stefkovic, 2005). Keyton (2005)
explained that ethics are based on values and are central elements to school cultures. Within
this context, teacher professional ethics can be distinguished into personal and professional
ethical issues which result from individual upbringing, education and experiences, and/or as
a result of a set of principles and code of ethics that guide a particular profession, including
the teaching profession, respectively. These personal and professional ethics are socially
constructed and can be supported by values of organizations or schools (Hatch, 2006).
However, where personal or professional ethics are conflicting with organizational or school
values, negative social outcomes can result in unethical behavior and conduct experienced by
members of organizations or schools. Thus ethics are “a sense of identity that defines an
individual or an organization’s core beliefs and values” (Bolman & Deal, 2003, p. 402) and
that can hold together or disintegrate organizations, including educational institutions.
Marsh (2004), in affirming the cultural context of ethics, reiterated that teacher professional
ethics also relate specifically to the ethics of teaching and ethical relationships. The ethics of
teaching directly involve the passing of specific knowledge and skills to students so that the
“young acquire the ethical standards and enduring moral habits they will need to manage
their own lives and contribute to the common good” (p. 330). In other words, teachers and
head teachers must teach the values associated with good citizen without violating the values
of individuals and individual groups. Teachers need to provide caring and responsible
behavior for children to take responsibility and to participate in thinking, deciding and
acting. Ethical relationships relate to the ethical rights of teachers and head teachers to
participate in decision making and “to collaborate on decisions which relate to utilization of
labor” (p. 333). Ethical relationships also concern teachers and head teachers creating a
‘community’ atmosphere, teachers and head teachers serving as role models for students and
teachers and head teachers using open lines of communication to understand and resolve
problems.
In addition, Ladson-Billings (1998), identified the ethical dimensions of teaching into
informed empathy which encourages teacher interactions with students and adult, and caring
for and pitying their children; reflective practice whereby teachers and head teachers reflect
on teaching to ensure that they do more than just thinking about lessons, teachers and head
teachers reflect on and understand moral and the ethics of teaching and what made school
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meaningful so as to reflect on their qualities; and cultural relevant teaching where teachers
and head teachers deal with a pedagogy that empowers students intellectually, socially,
emotionally, and politically through imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes. The latter
encourages teachers and head teachers to understand the social contexts in which they teach
(including social inequalities) and to emphasize that knowledge is created, shared and
recycled, and to ensure that students are seen as producers of knowledge rather than
consumer of knowledge.
Ethical issues exist in all and at all levels of schools, however it is the unethical behavior and
conduct of teachers and head teachers that need to be overcome. A school that has a culture
that allows for feedback, reflection and reporting on changes that influence teachers’ and
head teacher’s roles, and a school that has a leader that facilitates ongoing conversations and
encourages consensus about issues, can result in teachers and head teachers committing
themselves to the teaching profession (Keyton, 2005). Though this study revealed teacher
professionalism as having five dimensions (teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher
leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics), there was a
lack of theoretical and practical evidence to show case the understanding of what constitutes
teacher professionalism from a PNG context. At the same time, with the exception of the
Teaching Service and Education Acts where aspects of teacher professionalism were briefly
referred to, there was no documented evidence to clearly spell out these dimensions of
teacher professionalism. This was clearly a direct result of a lack of research into aspects of
the teacher professionalism despite the various developments in education over the years
(Section 1.3.2). It is high time that research into the teaching profession in PNG is
encouraged and, consequently, this can lead to the evolution of teacher professionalism in
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Table 6.8: Examples of Themes of Teacher Professional Ethics
Cases Teachers Head teachers Inspectors
Study 1 • Teacher as good role model. • Teacher respecting other teachers. • “Teaching is what you do with children”. • Dedication to work. • Commitment to work. • Honesty, “Because we are teachers I think work
commitment, dedication and honesty are important areas that we need to consider in our work”.
• Teacher commitment. • Teacher being honest in his/her work. • Teacher being dedicated to his/her working
life. • Teacher interaction with children.
• Teacher-interaction with children, teachers, colleagues, community and parents.
• Head teacher integrity and impartiality and leadership.
Study 2 • “Teaching is as a noble profession” with a big responsibility.
• Teachers valuing students and the profession. • A teacher being “someone who is also a parent”. • Teacher is having a drive, a vision & a purpose to
teach. • Being a teacher is when collaboratively participating to
improve educational standards. • Teacher is able to disseminate information, knowledge
& skills to children. • Teacher being a listener when counseling children. • Teacher “is dealing with children”. • Teacher is respectful. • Teacher is obedient. • Teacher professionalism is about the good conduct of
the teacher. • Others as above.
• Specifically trained professionals who are singled out from public servants.
• Teaching fellow. • Professional relationships with others including
colleagues. • Understanding people and having people
understanding you as a teacher, senior teacher and head teacher.
• Someone who has a heart for the children. • Someone who has an image that is acceptable to
the community. • Attitudes of teachers. • Teacher punctuality with work. • A teacher being honest. • A teacher must have trust. • A teacher having a good behavior. • A head teacher being humble. • A teacher having good communication skills.
Others as above.
Study 3 • Teacher ethical values including professional conduct. • Teacher cooperation and cohesiveness. • Teacher integrity including honest, commitment and
dedication. • Teachers live and work in difficult situations in PNG
primary schools. • Others as above.
• Teacher positive image in the community. • Teachers valuing children’s education. • Teachers respecting each other.
• Head teacher and teacher commitment and dedication.
• Head teacher & teacher as a role model. • Teacher professional relationships with others.
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Cases Teachers Head teachers Inspectors
Study 4 • Teacher positive image in the community. • The characteristics of teacher professionalism are
lacking and are not being displayed by teachers. • Teacher performing extra curricular duties. • Teacher relationships with community, colleagues and
students. • Teacher confidence. • Teacher personal appearance. • Others as above.
Not applicable • Teacher is everything, a jack of all trades. • Teacher community involvement. • Teacher cooperation and support.
Teacher ethics include dedication, loyalty and honesty.
Others as above.
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6.5 Influence of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies on Dimensions of Teacher
Professionalism
The main focus in this study is to investigate and establish the relationships between the
inspectorial interactive strategies and each of the dimensions of teacher professionalism.
Teachers and head teachers were asked to reveal their experiences, beliefs and perceptions
about how the inspectorial interactive strategies influenced or impacted on their profession.
The inspectors’ responses were analyzed to confirm the teachers’ and head teachers’
disclosures, and by doing so, provided answers to the questions, “How are the dimensions of
teacher professionalism linked to the interactive strategies applied by inspectors on teachers
and head teachers? Do teachers, head teachers and inspectors openly recognize the links
between the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher
professionalism?” These relationships or linkages are synthesized in this section.
6.5.1 Quality assurance and teacher professionalism
It was the collective experience of teachers and head teachers that quality assurance
interactive strategies related directly to teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher
leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics. This implies
that when inspectors applied quality assurance strategies, teachers and head teachers were
made to implement policies, gained new knowledge on educational issues, developed
leadership qualities, developed management skills, developed professionally and maintained
their professional ethics.
However, with the novice teachers, quality assurance activities often influenced them to
adhere to implementing policies that required them to perform their responsibilities and to
meet the expectations of NDOE. This experience restricted the perceptions of inspectors’
responsibilities to the inspection role (refer Section 1.1.3). Most experienced teachers also
revealed that quality assurance activities influenced them in complying with policies and
requirements, gained new knowledge (including curriculum knowledge) and developed
leadership qualities. This showed that professional development and professional ethics of
teachers and head teachers were not impacted on by quality assurance activities. At the same
time, those teachers who had not been visited by inspectors for a number of years believed
that their professional ethics were only sustained when inspectors monitor their
performances.
The head teachers who were new and never visited or inspected by inspectors also believed
that quality assurance interactive strategies only impacted on them complying with the
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expectations of authorities, improved and developed their leadership qualities, and
maintained their professional ethics. It was noted that quality assurance strategies had not
impacted on head teachers’ knowledge and their professional development because of the
head teachers’ lack of opportunities to interact with the inspectors. This indicated the
importance of regular contact between head teachers and inspectors, and the need for
inspectors to assist newly appointed head teachers with their roles as head of educational
institutions.
Collectively inspectors believed that the quality assurance strategies they applied impacted
only on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership. Teachers’ and head
teachers’ professional development and ethics were never perceived to be influenced by
inspectors, a similar observation with teachers and head teachers who never had
opportunities to be visited by inspectors. This implies that inspectors perceived quality
assurance interactive strategies as having limited impact and influence on teachers and head
teachers. This was contrary to most teachers’ and head teachers’ experiences, beliefs and
perceptions that quality assurance activities influenced them in all dimensions of teacher
Professional ethics of inspectors must be addressed by improving employment conditions of
inspectors including salary levels, improving logistical support for inspectors to visit schools
such as transportation and allowances, working conditions including the provision of office
space and living conditions such as the provision of housing for inspectors. These proposals
are made because of the evidence of the deteriorating status of inspectorial system. At the
same time, qualifications of inspectors must be addressed and upgraded so that they are well
equipped to supervise teachers and head teachers. The qualifications must be above the
qualifications of teachers and head teachers so that inspectors are respected for advice they
offer. This is a major concern when it comes to how professional ethics of inspectors are
influencing professional ethics of teachers and head teachers. Generally, however
professional ethics must be addressed in all quality assurance and professional development
strategies applied by inspectors. Professional ethics for teachers, head teachers and
inspectors emerged from the study as a major concern. For this reason, professional ethics
must be addressed at all levels, including teacher education and training, so that teachers,
head teachers and inspectors are ethically developed in their profession.
6.7.2 A Reviewed Responsibility of the Inspectorial System
Though teachers, head teachers and inspectors noted the importance of retaining the
inspectorial system, the system has not been supported well by the systems of governance
either at the district, provincial or national level. The argument is that the inspectorial
system is too expensive to maintain even though the importance of its existence has not been
analyzed thoroughly (Australian Government, 2005). However, if significant changes have
to be made then it is imperative that the inspectorial system, its functions, responsibilities
and strategies are restricted to quality assurance. Generally, quality assurance strategies
were experienced, believed and perceived by teachers, head teachers and inspectors as
impacting directly on all dimensions of teacher professionalism (teacher compliance, teacher
knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional
ethics). However, specific quality assurance strategies that relate directly to each of these
dimensions must be clearly identified and demarcated to ensure direct impacts are
experienced on teacher professionalism. For example, monitoring curriculum
implementation in schools ensures schools comply with basic curriculum requirements. This
can be done using an approved checked list and a standard reporting format.
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Professional development has to be considered as an intrinsic matter by stakeholders in that
teachers, head teachers and inspectors must be encouraged to personally pursue. At the same
time, other responsible agencies, including divisions of NDOE as per their mandated
functions, provinces and schools, should be tasked to address this important aspect of the
teaching profession. Clear demarcations between the responsibilities of individuals (teachers
and head teachers), schools, and provincial and national agencies on continuous professional
development of teachers and head teachers must be established through systematic and
focused professional development programs. Within the schools the head teacher or
designated senior teachers can be responsible for professional development of teachers and
other school staff. This requirement can be supervised by inspectors as a component of
quality assurance strategies. Such approach would relieve inspectors of the multiple,
conflicting and confusing roles that they are currently performing and that would result with
tangible outcomes. At the same time, an improved inspectorial system that has attractive
terms of employment, working and living conditions of inspectors, that sustains efficient
management and administrative processes of resources and data base, encourages effective
planning and organizational strategies by inspectors, that has sufficient logistical support
given by stakeholders, and has a qualified and adequate manpower, can enhance teacher
professionalism.
The above suggestions may also require changes in current legislation but importantly the
main rationale behind these suggestions is the enhancement and sustainability of teacher
professionalism with the ultimate purpose of improving children’s education in terms of
academic standards and quality education.
6.8 Summary of Synthesis and Conceptual Framework
In integrating the main issues discussed in the preceding chapters and in this chapter, and in
answering the question, ‘what redeveloped conceptual framework grounded in the realities of
teachers’, head teachers’ and inspectors’ experiences, beliefs and perceptions about the
inspectorial interactive strategies that can enhance teacher professionalism’, a conceptualized
framework is now produced to illustrate the synthesis, the gap in current knowledge and the
findings of the study. Figure 6.1 summarizes, synthesizes and interprets information with
explanations given below.
The inspectorial system, its functions and responsibilities are covered in the Education Act
(Department of Education, 1983). The inspectors, their employment conditions and aspects
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of their work, their responsibilities are covered under the Public Service Act (The
Independent State of PNG, 1975) and their duty statements. The teaching profession and
related issues, including employment conditions of teachers, are covered under Teaching
Service Act (Department of Education, 1988). These legislations are over twenty years old
and how they are interpreted to meet the changes and developments in the education system
are of concern. At the same time different legislations have different influence on
leadership, management and administration and with this come the qualifications and
experiences of personnel implementing these legislations. This is hindering developments,
efficiency and effectiveness of the school system, the inspectorial system and the teaching
profession. The responsibilities of inspectors and how these responsibilities are performed depends on
the resources they are provided with and how these resources are managed and administered
by agencies that are responsible for the inspectorial system. Thus it is important to ensure
that inspectors are supported with logistics and essentials if their work is going to impact on
the teaching profession. At the same time leadership in various agencies that are fully or
partially responsible for the operations of the inspectorial system is also impacting on how
inspectors fulfilled their responsibilities. This is because the importance of the inspectorial
system and how it impacts on the teaching profession and eventually student academic
standards and quality of education are not always recognized by stakeholders, resulting in a
lack of commitment to support the inspectors in their work. This study revealed that the
decentralized and centralized systems of government, resulting in the separation of the
functions of the education system, were also adversely influencing the operations of the
inspectorial system. There were obvious situations where inspectors were not treated fairly
by personnel from PDOE, not because of their work but simply because they worked for the
centralized agency, the NDOE.
Some inspectors were also handicapped within their own organization. Their qualifications,
experiences and employment conditions, living and working conditions were impacting on
their work. At the same time how they valued their work and the culture within their own
organization were also influencing how they performed their responsibilities.
Though the main activities that the inspectors carry out as external supervisors are advisory
and inspection, both are supervisory in nature. These supervisory activities are categorized
into quality assurance, professional development interactive strategies and professional
ethics of inspectors.
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The effectiveness of these strategies, their feedback and the specific outcomes achieved are
questionable, and have contributed to the negative status and image that teachers and head
teachers portray of the inspectors and the inspectorial system.
Inspectors, with their qualifications and experiences, interact with teachers and head teachers
who have their own qualifications and experiences in the school system. Beside the
teachers’, head teachers’ and inspectors’ backgrounds (including employment, working and
living conditions) there are also factors such as school locations and school infrastructure
that impede or enhance the success and effectiveness of the inspectorial interactive strategies
(quality assurance, professional development and professional ethics). The study concluded that, as its contribution to current knowledge about the inspectorial
system and teacher professionalism, the inspectorial system is an external supervision
function that encompasses ‘supervision for quality assurance’ and ‘supervision for
professional development’. Emerging from these two major supervisory strategies were the
issues related to professional ethics of inspectors as external supervisors within the school
system.
These ethical issues can be both ethical and/or unethical depending on the nature of each
situation. The study also concluded that the dimensions of teacher professionalism are
teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional
development and teacher professional ethics.
The most significant conclusion the study made is that ‘supervision for quality assurance’
strategy influence directly on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership,
teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics; professional development
interactive strategies relate directly to teacher professional development though in reality
professional development interactive strategies should impact on all dimensions of teacher
professionalism; and professional ethics of inspectors relate directly to teacher professional
ethics.
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INSPECTORIAL SYSTEM
TEACHER
PROFESSIONALISM
SUPERVISION
Teacher
Compliance
Teacher
Knowledge
Teacher
Leadership
Teacher
Professional
Ethics
Teacher
Professional
Development
• Teaching Service Act • Education Act • Provincial/National
Responsibilities
Public Service Act
Education Act
Public Service Act
Education Act T
EA
CH
ER
S IN
TE
RA
CT
IVE
Quality
Assurance
Professional
Development
Professional
Ethics
OR
GA
NI
SA
TI
ON
AL
OR
GA
NI
SA
TI
ON
AL
Education Act
INP
UT
OU
TP
UT
P
RO
CE
SS
INSP
EC
TO
R
S
Figure 6.1: Conceptual Framework - Relationships between the Inspectorial System
and Teacher Professionalism
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The dimensions of teacher professionalism are outcomes when they were influenced by the
inspectorial interactive strategies and resulting with teachers and head teachers performing
their responsibilities efficiently and effectively. At the same time, the behavior and conduct
by which teachers and head teachers performed their duties are direct outcomes of the
influence of supervision for quality assurance and professional development. It also
reaffirmed the fact that teacher professionalism is not a static phenomenon but it is an
evolving phenomenon that must be continually contextualized with changes and
developments in the society.
6.9 Implications and Conclusions
The main purpose of this qualitative multi-case study was to investigate the phenomenon of
the inspectorial system and teacher professionalism and the relationships between them as
perceived by teachers, head teachers and inspectors. The study constructed a conceptual
foundation from a practical and theoretical framework for an inspectorial system that would
enhance teacher professionalism that totally represented the experiences, beliefs and
perceptions of teachers, head teachers and inspectors (Diagram 6.1). This section concludes
the study and highlights the implications the findings of the study would have on the current
inspectorial system and teacher professionalism.
6.9.1 Research questions and answers
This chapter, through the preceding discussions, has answered the main research question,
‘how and to what extent does the inspectorial system enhance and hinder teacher
professionalism in primary schools in PNG?’ and has specifically addressed in detail the
specific questions as introduced earlier in Chapter 1. The specific questions and answers are
summarized below:
• How does the inspectorial system operate in primary schools in PNG?
• What are the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system?
The study concluded that the current inspectorial system operates using two main interactive
strategies that of supervision for quality assurance and supervision for professional
development. Resulting from these two main strategies was the interactive strategy of
supervision for professional ethics.
• What are the dimensions of teacher professionalism that are perceived by
teachers, head teachers and inspectors?
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• How are these dimensions of teacher professionalism linked to the interactive
strategies applied by inspectors on teachers and head teachers?
The dimensions of teacher professionalism were revealed as teacher compliance, teacher
knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional development and teacher professional
ethics. These dimensions of teacher professionalism were seen to be evolving with changes in
the development of education.
• Do the teachers, head teachers and inspectors openly recognize the links between
the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher
professionalism? What are the relationships?
It was concluded further that the inspectorial interactive strategies were directly influencing
the dimensions of teacher professionalism, as in supervision for quality assurance impacting
on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership, teacher professional
development and teacher professional ethics; supervision for professional development
impacting teacher professional development; and professional ethics of inspectors
influencing teacher professional ethics. Though these linkages were revealed there were also
indications of linkages that were possible such as supervision for professional development
impacting on teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership (see Figure 6.1).
6.9.2 Implications of the study on current inspectorial system and teacher professionalism
The study exposed the need to consider improving and/or developing an inspectorial system
that has clear demarcations of responsibilities for inspectors as external supervisors. In other
words, the inspectorial system should have a clear and specific supervisory role so that it can
impact and influence directly on specific dimensions of teacher professionalism. At the
same time, the need to strengthen various capacities of the inspectorial system, including
issues related to logistics and human resources, is critical to how effective the inspectorial
functions impact on education standards and the quality of education provided by the
schools.
Furthermore, the study revealed the need to understand the dimensions of teacher
professionalism as evolving processes of development in education. This implies that any
new development, innovations and initiatives that any education system implements, teacher
professionalism must be a prime target as the catalyst for changes and development. Teacher
professionalism needs to be continuously researched to ascertain its current and future status.
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6.9.3 Future of Inspectorial system
Grounded and constructed within the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers, head
teachers and inspectors, and reaffirmed by literature, the inspectorial system should be more
responsible for the standards and quality of education in schools. Thus quality assurance
interactive strategies are more relevant and appropriate to perform this responsibility. By
concentrating on this phenomenon, the inspectorial system will impact holistically on teacher
professionalism. To facilitate this, firstly as in many countries, the inspectorial system
should be an entity outside the education system. It has to be specifically responsible for
education standards and the quality of education provided by the schools. Its main function
would be ‘supervision for quality assurance and professional ethics’. Secondly, ‘supervision
for professional development’ as an inspectorial responsibility, should be a school based
supervisory function that can be monitored by inspectors only as a component of the quality
assurance processes. Supervision for professional development for head teachers, however,
should be the responsibility of an external supervision system and not necessarily the
inspectorial system. In other words, the roles of the head teachers as administrators,
managers and leaders must be strengthened so that they are empowered to ensure the schools
serve their intended purposes. This study has concluded that the inspectorial system is still
appropriate for some developing countries like PNG until such time teacher professionalism
takes a different dimension.
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APPENDIX 1
Map of Papua New Guinea: the provinces and towns
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APPENDIX 2
Structure of NDOE
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National Department of Education Organisational/Functional Structure Chart as approved by DPM 15/12/2000
Minister
National LibrarianLibrary & Archives
Grade 15
SecretaryEx. 5
Deputy SecretaryPolicy & Administration
Grade 18
Deputy SecretaryHuman Resource
DevelopmentGrade 18
National EducationBoard
First Assistant SecretaryEducation Standards
Grade 17
First Assistant SecretaryHuman Resource
DevelopmentGrade 17
First Assistant SecretaryFinance &
AdministrationGrade 17
First Assistant SecretaryPolicy, Planning,
Research & Communication
Grade 17
Assistant SecretaryGeneral Administration
& PersonnelGrade 16
Assistant SecretaryFinance & Budgets
Grade 16
Assistant SecretaryPolicy, Research &
CommunicationGrade 16
Assistant SecretaryPlanning, Facilitating
& MonitoringGrade 16
Assistant SecretaryInspections & GuidanceGrade 16
Assistant SecretaryCurriculum
DevelopmentGrade 16
Assistant SecretaryTechnical/Vocational
EducationGrade 16
Assistant SecretaryTeacher Education
& Staff DevelopmentGrade 16
Assistant SecretaryGeneral Education
ServicesGrade 16
Assistant SecretaryNCD Education
ServicesGrade 16
SuperintendentAdministration& Personnel
Grade 14
ManagerElectronic Data
ProcessingGrade 14
Officer in ChargeOrganisation& MethodsGrade 13
Personnel OfficerGrade 13
Officer in ChargeLogisticsGrade 12
Chief AccountantAccountsGrade 14
SuperintendentBudgetsGrade 14
SuperintendentOperationGrade 14
Principal Legal AdvisorLegal
Grade 15
DirectorResearch & Evaluation
Grade 14
DirectorMedia &
CommunicationGrade 14
DirectorOverseas Organisation
Grade 14
SuperintendentOperationsGrade 14
National CoordinatorPlanning, Facilitating
& Monitoring UnitGrade 14
DirectorCooperate Data
Grade 14
CoordinatorProject Coordination
& ImplementationGrade 14
SuperintendentInspections
– Primary schoolsGrade 14
SuperintendentInspections
– Secondary schoolsGrade 14
SuperintendentGuidance & Counselling
Grade 14
SuperintendentOperationsGrade 14
SuperintendentInspections
– Elementary SchoolsGrade 14
SuperintendentMeasurement Services Unit
Grade 14
SuperintendentCurriculum Unit
Grade 14
SuperintendentMaterialsGrade 14
DirectorLiteracy & Awareness
SecretariatGrade 14
SuperintendentOperationsGrade 14
SuperintendentTechnical &
Vocational CurriculumGrade 14
SuperintendentTechnical &
Vocational InspectionsGrade 14
SuperintendentSupport Services
– VocationalGrade 14
SuperintendentOperationsGrade 14
SuperintendentStaff Development Unit
Grade 14
SuperintendentTeacher Education
DevelopmentGrade 14
SuperintendentCurriculum
& InspectionsGrade 14
CoordinatorSpecial Education
Grade 14
SuperintendentOperationsGrade 14
SuperintendentSchool Administration
Grade 14
SuperintendentSecondary &
Open LearningGrade 14
Project ManagerSecondary Education
Grade 14
SuperintendentOperationsGrade 14
Chief Internal AuditorAudit
Grade 14
ChairmanTeaching Service
CommissionEx. 4
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APPENDIX 3
Samples of Protocol Documents
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PROJECT TITLE: THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE INSPECTORIAL SYSTEM AND TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM
Name and contact details: Eliakim T. Apelis Queensland University of Technology Centre for Learning Innovation Kelvin Grove Campus Victoria Park Road Brisbane, Qld 4059 Telephone: (617) 3864 3074 Mobile: (614) 2213 3315 Facsimile: (617) 3864 3025 Email: [email protected]
PO Box 1199 The Provincial Education Advisor Date: 10th February 2006 Provincial Education Division QUT Student No.: 03107680 GOROKA EHP Papua New Guinea Dear Sir, SUBJECT: PERMISSION TO ENGAGE TEACHERS – (NAME OF CONCERNED) PS
I have written to the Secretary for Education to seek permission to engage (name of concerned) PS and six (6) volunteer-teachers, including the Head Teacher, for my research project. The research project leads to the award of a Doctor of Philosophy which I am pursuing. The title of the Research Project is “The Relationships between the Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism: A Papua New Guinea Primary School Case Study”. I will brief you about the research project during the course of the project. Meanwhile I am also writing to the Head Teacher of (name of concerned) PS to seek volunteer-teachers for my project. Three (3) volunteer-inspectors are also being sought through a separate letter to the Senior Primary School Inspector of EHP.
I write to formally request your permission to engage volunteer-teachers for the project. I will be conducting the research from 29th of May to 9th June 2006. I will be available should the Provincial Education Division and the school require my help in conducting workshops and in-service. My areas of interest are: Curriculum inquiry, research & leadership (school based curriculum); Professional development of teachers; Teacher professionalism; Educational supervision and Performance measurement (quality indicators of education in Schools).
I thank you in advance for your cooperation.
Yours Sincerely,
ELIAKIM T. APELIS PhD Candidate Queensland University of Technology cc: Senior Primary School Inspector - EHP cc: Head Teacher – (name of concerned) PS
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PROJECT TITLE: THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE INSPECTORIAL SYSTEM AND TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM: A PAPUA NEW GUINEA PRIMARY SCHOOL CASE STUDY
Name and contact details: Eliakim T. Apelis Queensland University of Technology Centre for Learning Innovation Kelvin Grove campus Victoria Park Road Brisbane, Qld 4059 Telephone: (617) 3864 3074 Mobile: (614) 2213 3315 Facsimile: (617) 3864 3025 Email: [email protected] Date: February 5, 2006 QUT Student No: 03107680
SUBJECT: INFORMATION ABOUT THE RESEARCH PROJECT
Introduction
My name is Eliakim Apelis and I am a full time student at the Queensland University of Technology
(QUT), Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. I am carrying out a Research Project towards an award of a
Doctor of Philosophy. The Research Project is titled: “The Relationships between the Inspectorial
System and Teacher Professionalism: A Papua New Guinea Primary School Case Study”. The
Research Project will involve volunteer teachers, including head teachers, and primary school
inspectors from selected schools and inspectorates located five (5) provinces of the four (4) regions of
Papua New Guinea (PNG). The five (5) provinces are the National Capital District, West New Britain
Province, Madang Province, Eastern Highlands Province and Central Province.
Objectives
The aim of the Research Project is to seek and identify how the Inspectorial System, through its
functions and interactive strategies, enhances and/or hinders the dimensions of teacher
professionalism. The specific objectives are to:
• investigate how the inspectorial system operates in primary schools in PNG,
• investigate the issues, including strengths, weaknesses and difficulties as perceived
and experienced by teachers, head teachers and primary school inspectors within the
operation of the inspectorial system,
• investigate how teacher professionalism is perceived by teachers, head teachers and
primary school inspectors,
• identify the linkages between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the perceived
dimensions of teacher professionalism by teachers, head teachers and primary school
inspectors,
• use the linkages to identify the perceived strengths, weaknesses and difficulties, to
analyze the appropriateness of the inspectorial system in relation to teacher
professionalism, and
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• use the findings to recommend a new contextual framework for existing inspectorial
systems.
It is also hoped that the findings of the study will contribute knowledge to the current literature on the
inspectorial systems and teacher professionalism from a developing country’s perspective.
Rationale
The context of the PNG school inspectorial system by which it currently exists has never been explored
for its relevance and suitability to the past and present education developments. The complex
management of education services in PNG, brought about by the growth of the education system and
the provincial and national functions of the education system, is considered as hindrance to achieving
tangible outcomes, outcomes of which teacher professionalism is one. By investigating the perceptions
of teachers, head teachers and primary school inspectors on the functions of the inspectorial system and
its interactive strategies (supervision, professional development and quality control/assurance) currently
used by inspectors in assisting teachers in their work, this study intends to identify the relationships
between the inspectorial system and teacher professionalism in primary schools in PNG as a case study.
The study will seek to identify the dimensions of teacher professionalism from a PNG perspective and will
use these to relate to the inspectorial interactive strategies. By doing so linkages will be made between
the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher professionalism that
will allow for a conceptual and contextual framework to be developed that will suit current education
development in PNG.
Participation
You are expected to participate by taking part in an in-depth interview and by providing appropriate
personal or professional documents that will be requested by the researcher (self). It is important
that, since you have volunteered to participate, you participate fully in the research project.
Risks
There will be no risk involved with you participating in the Research Project. There will be no
repercussions and danger to your personal and professional status taken as a result of your responses
or comments.
Inquiries
If you have queries or questions regarding any issue related to this Research Project you can contact
me using one of the above means of contact (phone, mobile, postal address, email or facsimile) or the
Research Ethics Officer on (617) 3864 2340 or on email: [email protected] if you have
concerns about the ethical conduct of the study.
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Freedom
Your participation is on a volunteer basis and you are at liberty to withdraw without any comments or
penalty whatsoever from the Research Project. You are expected to sign a consent form provided by
the researcher before you participate in the project.
Confidentiality
You are informed and assured that all matters related to your participation in the Research Project,
including your comments and responses during the interview, will be kept confidential. There will be
no references made to discredit you in anyway and your name will not be disclosed publicly for any
sensitive issues you make.
Acknowledgement
I acknowledge your participation and thank you in advance for your cooperation and willingness to
take part in this Research Project. Your contributions will be valued and will contribute to the
development of education in PNG should the National Department of Education decides to pursue the
improvement of the inspectorial system and teacher professionalism in PNG.
ELIAKIM APELIS
PhD Candidate
Queensland University of Technology
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CONSENT FORM
PROJECT TITLE: THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE INSPECTORIAL SYSTEM AND TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM: A PAPUA NEW GUINEA PRIMARY SCHOOL CASE STUDY
Name and contact details: Eliakim T. Apelis Queensland University of Technology Centre for Learning Innovation Kelvin Grove Campus Victoria Park Road Brisbane, Qld 4059 Telephone: (617) 3864 3074 Mobile: (614) 2213 3315 Facsimile: (617) 3864 3025 Email: [email protected] Date: 31ST January 2006 QUT Student No.: 03107680
The researcher conducting this research project abides by the principles governing the ethical conduct of research and, at all times, avows to protect the interests, comfort and safety of all research participants.
This form accompanies the Subject Information Package (SIP) and is given to you for your own protection and information. Both this form and the SIP contain description of the study to be undertaken.
When you sign this form, it indicates that:
1. You have received the SIP and that you have read and understood its contents; 2. You understand that all the data which you provide will only be revealed to the researcher and
yourself. When the results of the study are published you will remain anonymous; 3. Your participation in the study is voluntary; 4. You may direct any queries and further questions to Eliakim T. Apelis at any time during the
study. You may also direct complaints and concerns regarding the ethical conduct of this investigation to Queensland University of Technology’s Registrar on telephone: 07 3864 1056;
5. Only interviewees will receive feedback on the original transcript for comments and proof reading;
6. You agree to participate in this research titled “The Relationships between the Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism: A Papua New Guinea Primary School Case Study” as part of a postgraduate thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy for Eliakim Tokacap Apelis.
To be signed by participant: Name of participant: ___________________________ Phone: ______________ Address: _________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ Signature: ___________________________________ Date: ________________ To be signed by the Researcher: Researcher’s Name: ___________________________ Phone: _______________ Signature: ___________________________________ Date: ________________
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APPENDIX 4
Interview Guiidelines
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QUESTION GUIDELINES FOR HEAD TEACHER INTERVIEW
NAME: _____________________ FEMALE/MALE: __________________ AGE: _____________________ MARITAL STATUS: ________________ PROVINCE OF ORIGIN: ____________ PROVINCE PRESENTLY BASED: ______ SCHOOL CURRENTLY HEADING: ____________________________________ PART A: PERSONAL DATA AND INFORMATION 1. What is your current highest teaching qualification? 2. How many years have you been teaching? 3. How many years have you been a head teacher? 4. How many years have you been the head teacher at this school? PART B: INSPECTORIAL OPERATIONS 1. Describe your current responsibilities? 2. Have you been visited or inspected by an inspector during the last 2 years? Tell me about your
experiences as a head teacher with the inspectors when they visit you in school. 3. Describe the actual activities that the inspectors do when they visit you in their advisory visits.
Could you tell me about the activities the inspectors do when they visit you during their inspection visits? Can you make sense out of these activities and put them into groups? For example, some activities (to specify as revealed by the interviewee) help you to improve your teaching strategies, what about the others (to specify where appropriate)?
4. In your view, describe the work of the inspectors. What do you feel about the inspectors’ work? 6. Describe the issues and challenges that you have experienced or felt, as a head teacher, as arising
from your interaction with the inspectors. 7. From your experience as a head teacher, describe the outcomes or benefits you have gained from
interacting with the inspectors. 8. From your experience, describe the problems about the inspectors’ work. Can you suggest some
solutions to these problems (make reference to each problem)? 9. In your view, do you think the inspectors benefit from interacting with you? Tell me more about
these benefits (if any given by the interviewee). 10. From your experience as a head teacher, tell me about the qualities of the inspectors you value. 11. You have provided some documents to me about the inspectors’ responsibilities and what they
require of you as a head teacher (refer to documents provided by the interviewee). What are your views about these documents (refer to each of these documents)?
12. Overall, tell me about your view concerning the inspectors’ work in primary schools in PNG. PART C: TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM 1. Tell me about what you know or understand about ‘teacher professionalism’ from your
experience, both as a teacher and a head teacher. 2. Describe the characteristics that you have as being former teacher and a head teacher. 3. How do you feel about the activities that the inspectors do with you? How do these activities
affect you as a head teacher? 4. Describe the connections between the activities the inspectors do with you and the characteristics
you display as being a head teacher. 5. You have provided some documents to me about ‘teacher professionalism’ or what is expected
of you as a head teacher (refer to documents provided by interviewee). What are your views about these documents (refer to each of these documents)?
6. Describe what value you have as a teacher and a head teacher. 7. In general what is your view about the characteristics of teacher professionalism (as described in
(2) above) being displayed by teachers at this school? 8. Overall, tell me about your views about the teaching profession in PNG primary schools.
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PART D: A NEW CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 1. If you are to suggest improvements to the inspectors’ work that support and enhance your work,
what are some priority areas that the inspector would improve on? 2. What would you suggest as specific outcomes in your work as a result of your interaction with
the inspector? PART E: ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE WITHIN INSPECTORIAL SYSTEM From your experience tell me about your feeling towards the NDOE, District/Provincial Education Office, Inspectorate and School concerning the inspectors’ work and your work as a head teacher. PART F: FURTHER COMMENTS Do you have further comments to make on the work of the inspectors and your understanding and perceptions of teaching profession in PNG primary schools?
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APPENDIX 5
Samples of the Four Stages of Analysis
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DATA ANALYSIS
STAGE 1: CONTENT ANALYSIS - CLUSTERING AND IDENTIFYING EMERGING THEMES FOR INDIVIDUAL PARTICIPANTS AND DOCUMENTS
Introduction In this Stage the content analysis for each participant, focus group and documents involving the clustering of similar experiences, ideas and perceptions, is done. The clusters of similar experiences, ideas and perceptions are then identified into emerging themes for each participant, focus group and documents. In this case study, the content analysis comprises of 5 Holy Spirit PS Volunteer Teachers (MVT 1 - 5), Holy Spirit PS Volunteer Head Teacher (MVH 1), Madang Volunteer Inspectors (MVI 1 - 3), Holy Spirit PS Focus Group (MFG 1) and the Madang Province Document Analysis (MDA 1) as per interview transcripts and documents provided by each participant. Transcripts Analysis The primary and secondary questions of the research are used for the analysis. The transcripts of the interviews are analyzed followed by the document analysis for each participant. Primary Question: To what extent does the Inspectorial System enhance and hinder Teacher Professionalism in PNG
Primary Schools? Secondary Questions: Inspectorial Operation 1. How does the Inspectorial System operate in Primary Schools in PNG? 2. What issues do teachers and school inspectors of primary schools experienced as arising from such inspectorial
operation? Do the activities carried out by inspectors result with intended outcomes being achieved? If not, why? What needs to be changed? Do inspectors experience difficulties in engaging the strategies to perform their responsibilities? If so, what are the difficulties? How can these difficulties be addressed?
Secondary Question: Teacher Professionalism 3. What are the dimensions or characteristics of teacher professionalism that are perceived by teachers, head
teachers and inspectors? How do these dimensions of teacher professionalism linked to the interactive strategies applied by inspectors on teachers and head teachers? Do teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive the links between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism?
Secondary Question: New Conceptual Framework 4. What redeveloped conceptual framework grounded in the realities of teachers’, head teachers’ and inspectors’
experiences and perceptions can be constructed to address the answers to questions 2 and 3? MVT 1: Transcript content analysis Interviewer: MVT 1 Date: 12/05/2006 Name: MVT 1 Sex: Female Age: 39 years old Marital Status: Married Province of Origin: New Ireland Province Province Presently Based: Madang School Currently Teaching: (Name of) PS No. of Years at Present school: 10 years Qualifications: Certificate in Primary Teaching Teaching Experience: 20 years Position: Senior Teacher Teacher’s Current Responsibility “My responsibility is to teach in the classroom. As a senior teacher, I provide leadership in the organizing and running of some aspects of the school and I perform extra duties in the school”.
How the Inspectorial System operates in primary schools
• Teachers apply for inspection before they are inspected for promotion. Theme: Inspection is done by inspectors for promotion.
• Inspectors ensure educational policies and requirements are carried out by teachers. • Inspectors check on performances of teachers. • Inspectors look at how we teach the students, “whether we follow the Departments’ strategy and
carry out our teaching profession”. Theme: Monitoring teaching standards and curriculum requirements - Quality control and
Assurance.
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• Inspectors represent the Department of Education in what they do. Theme: Inspectors have the authority to deal with teachers on behalf of NDOE.
• Inspectors give priority to teachers for registration.
Theme: Inspections carried out for teacher registration. • Inspectors visit teachers and deal with them in groups. • Inspectors advise and assist teachers, “Inspectors come and assist and advice us on things that we
should be doing to help the kids under our care. One other thing is (for them) to help in the teaching profession to improve the skills I lack to help me help my students, so in other words the inspector helps me to help the students as well as my professional development”. Theme: Advice and assistance are given to teachers by inspectors for professional development -
Supervision for professional development. Issues arising from the Inspectorial System Operational issues
• Teacher has not been visited for more than 5 years. • Inspectors do their work in schools in a hurry, “For the inspectors, I see that they go to schools and
return in a hurry. How will the teachers work well, maybe the teachers need more help but they have not gained any. So the inspector must be honest, such that the logistics and funds they get must be put to use and their work must be done properly so that the teachers can work well”. Theme: Lack of commitment to visit schools and help teachers thoroughly.
• No follow up action done from inspectors’ discussions, “I’ve already mentioned that the inspector
comes and discusses so many things. There’s so much talk but no action is done”. Theme: Lack of follow-up action by inspectors.
• Inspectors sometimes misused funds “and work is not properly done”.
Theme: Inspectors’ integrity being questioned for misused of funds. • Priority is given to teachers for registration while neglecting others. • Inspectors usually ‘inspect’, “us in group but not on an individual basis”.
Theme: Rigid strategies used by inspectors in carrying out advisory and inspection duties. Professional issues
• Inspectors do bad and good things, “Some things are bad and some are good. Working with an inspector who is neutral is good. I ask that the inspectors must work with the teacher to help the students further… . One good thing is they observe and report on my work, which is necessary”.
• Teacher is not sure of inspector’s help during in-services. • Inspectors not being honest in their work, “I’ve been teaching for 10 years now at primary school,
there’ve been many changes and the inspector comes and inspects but has not been honest enough”. • Inspectors are not clear about new changes, including curriculum changes for them to help teachers
better. Theme: Inspectors’ integrity being questioned for inconsistent approaches to assist teachers and
not being honest.
• Discussions in groups with inspector help each of the teachers to learn more from each other. Theme: Inspector creates a learning environment in group discussions.
Do activities carried out by inspectors result with intended outcomes? If not why? What needs to be changed?
• Checking on teaching performance resulting with requirements, including curriculum, being met by teachers. Theme: Requirements on curriculum implementation are met by teacher.
• Report is produced by inspector for the teacher for evaluation and other purposes. • Inspector helps teacher personally. • From advice and assistance teacher improves on skills that she lacks. • From advice and assistance teacher develops professionally.
Theme: Inspector supervisory activities result with teacher professional and personal development.
• Teacher unsure of inspector’s help during in-service. • There is too much talk by inspector but no action taken on issues discussed. • Inspector should help teacher gain information for her work – this is not the case.
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• Teachers have not gained any help from inspectors, “For the inspectors, I see that they go to the schools and return in a hurry. How will the teachers work well, maybe the teachers need more help but they have not gained any”. Theme: No significant outcomes generally in teacher’s work as a result of inspector’s activities.
• Group discussions amongst teachers and inspector help teachers “learn from them and they learnt
from us (teachers)”. Theme: A learning environment is enhanced from group discussions between teachers and
inspector.
Difficulties with inspectors performing their responsibilities. What are the difficulties? How are these difficulties being addressed?
Operational difficulties • Lack of funds for inspectors to carry out their duties. • Lack of funds experienced by inspector is affecting their work. Theme: Lack of resources and logistics resulting with inspectors not visiting schools.
• Funds are misused by inspectors resulting with “work is not properly done”.
Theme: Inspector’s integrity being questioned for misused of funds. Professional difficulties
• Group ‘inspection’ and not individual making it difficult for individual professional development. • Theme: Lack of organization & planning to cater for individual teachers.
• Inspector not working closer with teacher and not writing honest reports.
Theme: Inspector’s integrity being questioned for not writing honest reports.
• Inspector lacks knowledge on curriculum to help and direct teachers, “Just like a family growing, curriculum is too. I think the inspector should be clear on this and the new changes. A good knowledge is needed to help and direct us. The inspector must be aware so that we are helped. I should be able to get help from the inspector”. Theme: Inspector lacks knowledge on curriculum to facilitate teacher curriculum knowledge.
• There is no cooperation between organizations concerning the inspectors’ work.
Theme: Working cultures within stakeholders’ organizations affecting inspector’s work.
The dimensions or characteristics of Teacher Professionalism • Teacher performance relates to teachers implementing policies, meeting curriculum requirements,
carrying out teaching. • Teaching the students and how “I take care of them”.
Theme: Teacher performance relates to teaching and in performing other duties.
• Teacher commitment relates to how the teacher is committed to her job through preparation and planning.
Theme: Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty, commitment and dedication. • Teacher knowledge, “how much knowledge you have in teaching the students”. Theme: Teacher knowledge. • Teacher professionalism relates to teaching, learning materials, professional development and living
conditions of teachers. Theme: Teacher organization relates to planning, preparation and organizing teacher records
and files. The current perceptions of the status of the teaching profession in PNG Primary Schools
• “The teaching profession, in my opinion, is one of the many jobs we have chosen today. Okay, I am satisfied as a teacher, but I think, I should get more support in my work. These include teaching and learning materials, professional development and living conditions”. Theme: Teachers need support in their professional development and teaching and learning
resources. Perceived linkages or relationships between what inspectors do and the dimensions of Teacher Professionalism
• Inspection activities inspectors do with teachers lead to teacher full registration. Theme: Inspection processes result with requirements met in teacher registration.
• Advisory activities done by inspectors help teachers to develop personally.
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• Inspector’s advisory activities help teacher “to improve the skills I lack to help me to help students as well as for my professional development”.
• Inspector helps teacher to gain new knowledge on changes. Theme: Advisory activities carried out by inspectors resulting with teacher professional and
personal development.
• Group discussions by teachers and inspectors create a learning environment within the school staff, “Maybe, as I’ve mentioned, with other teachers the inspector sits with us as a group and discuss our work, we work in groups and teach the students. We learn from them and they learn from us”. Theme: A learning environment is enhanced from group discussions between teachers and
inspector.
• Inspectors help teachers to help students further. • When inspector helps the teacher, she commits herself to her responsibilities.
Theme: Inspector helping the teacher resulting with teacher committing herself to the profession. Secondary Question: New Conceptual Framework Suggestions for improvement
• Inspector must help the teacher to help students further. • The need for actions to take place after visits to schools and discussions with teachers. • Teachers should get more support from inspectors.
Theme: Improve current practices including advisory and inspection roles, communication and reporting to help students further.
• Inspectors must have more funds to carry out their advisory and inspection visits to schools and
teachers. Theme: Improve logistical support and resources for inspectors to effectively do their work.
• Inspector knowledge on changes is needed “to help and direct us”.
Theme: Inspector knowledge needs on changes need addressing – Inspectors as Agents of Change.
• Provincial needs need to be looked at by NDOE, through inspectors, when implementing new
changes, including changes in the curriculum. Theme: Introduce new strategies in inspection, and generally in inspector’s roles.
• There is no cooperation between organizations concerning the inspectors’ work.
Theme: Changes in organizational culture within PEO, NDOE and IGD.
MVT 1: Document Analysis With the exception of her duty statement which was part of the Performance Based Duty Statement package, there was no other document provided by the teacher despite the advance notice. The duty statement is analyzed as part of the PBDS analysis. Asked what the teacher taught of other documents that she was aware of such as the Education and Teaching Service Acts, the teacher expressed that “I see that for me, my role is a classroom teacher, I must commit myself and the inspector should come and help me. We are also trying our best to work and these documents guide us. I think that my work is my responsibility”. Theme: There is lack of documentation relating to the operation of the inspectorial system from the inspector, the
school or the province. Theme: There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector, the school and the
province.
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STAGE 2: ANALYSES - EMERGED THEMES AND LINKAGES OF INSPECTORIAL OPERATIONAL STRATEGIES AND THE DIMENSIONS OF TEACHER PROFESSIONALISM
Introduction In this Stage, the emerging themes for each participant, focus group and documents are categorized into 2 emerged themes of the main phenomenal issues, the inspectorial strategies and teacher professionalism. With the results the linkages between the inspectorial emerged themes (interactive strategies) and teacher professionalism emerged themes (dimensions of teacher professionalism) are summarized to allow for the findings and discussions for each participant to be made.
MVT 1 Analysis This analysis summarizes the emerging themes for the activities of the inspectorial operation and the dimensions of teacher professionalism as experienced and perceived by this participant (MVT 1) into emerged themes and then links these up into ‘relationships’ that forms part of the findings and discussions. Summary of Table 11a: Table 11a reveals the emerging themes of the inspectorial operation (Column 1) derived from Stage 1 Analysis above for the participant (MVT 1) and summarizes these into emerged themes (Column 2, 3), issues and outcomes. Table 11a: Analysis 1- Inspectorial Operation
EMERGING THEMES FROM CLUSTERED ACTIVITIES, IDEAS, PERCEPTIONS & EXPERIENCES
(1) Key: ¥ - Quality control & assurance activities, ⌂ - Professional development strategies, ♣ - Professional ethics, √ - Organization & planning, × - Outcomes, € - Organizational culture, ♫ - qualifications
EMERGED THEMES (2)
INSPECTORIAL STRATEGIES
(3)
ISSUES AND DIFFICULTIES
(4)
ACHIEVABLE OUTCOMES (5)
Inspectorial Operation • Inspection is done by inspectors for
promotion. ¥ • Monitoring teaching standards and
curriculum requirements ¥ • Inspectors have the authority to deal with
teachers on behalf of NDOE. ¥ • Inspections carried out for teacher
registration. ¥ • Advice and assistance are given to teachers
by inspectors for professional development - Supervision for professional development. ⌂
• Quality control
and assurance ¥
• Professional development ⌂
• Teacher leadership through inspection process. ¥
• Teacher registration ¥
• Teacher professional development ⌂
Inspectorial Issues Operational issues • Lack of commitment by inspectors to visit
schools and help teachers thoroughly. ♣ • Lack of follow-up action by inspectors. √ • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned for
misused of funds. ♣ • Rigid strategies used by inspectors in
carrying out advisory and inspection duties. €
Professional issues • Inspectors’ integrity being questioned for
inconsistent approaches to assist teachers and not being honest. ♣√
• Inspector creates a learning environment in group discussions. €
• Organization
and planning √ • Inspector
Professional Ethics ♣
• Organizational culture €
No tangible outcomes, more of maintenance nature ×
Inspectorial Difficulties Operational difficulties • Lack of resources and logistics resulting
with inspectors not visiting schools. √ • Inspector’s integrity being questioned for
misused of funds. ♣ Professional difficulties
• Organization
and planning √ • Inspector
Professional Ethics ♣
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• Lack of organization & planning to cater for individual teachers. √
• Inspector’s integrity being questioned for not writing honest reports. ♣
• Inspector lacks knowledge on curriculum to facilitate teacher curriculum knowledge. ♫
• Working cultures within stakeholders’ organizations affecting inspector’s work. €
• Inspector qualifications ♫
• Organizational culture €
Intended outcomes from inspectorial operation • Requirements on curriculum
implementation are met by teacher. ¥ • Inspector supervisory activities result with
teacher professional and personal development. ⌂
• No tangible outcomes generally in teacher’s work as a result of inspector’s activities. ×
• A learning environment is enhanced from group discussions between teachers and inspector. ⌂ €
• Quality control
and assurance ¥
• Professional development ⌂
Organizational culture €
• Curriculum
requirements met. ¥
• Teacher professional development. ⌂
• Teacher personal development. ⌂
• No tangible outcomes ×
Suggestions for improvement • Improve current practices including
advisory and inspection roles, communication and reporting to help students further. ¥⌂
• Improve logistical support and resources for inspectors to effectively do their work. √¥
• Inspector knowledge needs on changes need addressing ‘Inspectors as Agents of Change’. ♫ ♣
• Introduce new strategies in inspection, and generally in inspector’s roles. €√
• Changes in organizational culture within PEO, NDOE and IGD.
• Quality control
& assurance ¥ • Professional
development ⌂
• Organization
and planning √ • Inspector
qualifications ♫ ♣
• Organizational culture €
Document examination • There is lack of documentation relating to
the operation of the inspectorial system from the inspector, the school or the province. ♣
• There is lack of documentation relating to teacher professionalism from the inspector, the school and the province available in the school. ♣
• Professional
ethics ♣
Due to unavailability of documents: • Lack of focus
in quality control and assurance role of inspectors. ♣
• Lack of ‘conceptual development’ in teacher professionalism. ♣
Teacher lack of knowledge on inspectorial operation and teacher professionalism. ♣
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Summary of Table 11b: Table 11b reveals the emerging themes of the dimensions of teacher professionalism (Column 1) derived from Stage 1 Analysis above for the participant (MVT 1) and summarizes these into emerged themes (Column 2). Table 11b: Analysis 2 – Teacher Professionalism
EMERGING THEMES FROM CLUSTERED PERCEPTIONS (1)
EMERGED THEMES (2)
Key: ¥ - Quality control & assurance activities, ⌂ - Professional development strategies, ♣ - Professional ethics, √ - Organization & planning, × - Outcomes, € - Organizational culture, ♫ - qualifications Dimensions of teacher professionalism (transcript) • Teacher performance relates to teaching and in performing other duties. ¥ • Teacher ethics or ethical values including honesty, commitment and dedication.
♣ • Teacher knowledge. ♫ ¥ • Teacher organization relates to planning, preparation and organizing teacher
Summary of Table 11c: Table 11c reveals the linkages between the emerged themes of the strategies of the inspectorial operation (Column 1) and the dimensions of teacher professionalism (Column 2) derived from the interview-transcripts (section 1) and document analysis (section 2) as perceived by the participant (MVT 1) and as analyzed in Tables 11a and 11b. The symbols indicate the linkages. For example, ‘Professional Development’ activities (⌂) imply that the activities enable the teacher to develop professionally (Teacher Professional Development) (⌂). Table 11c: Analysis 3a – Participant’s perspectives of linkages of emerged themes
Emerged Theme of Inspectorial Operation (1)
Emerged Themes of Teacher Professionalism
(2) Section 1: Transcript Final Analysis
Key: ¥ - Quality control & assurance activities, ⌂ - Professional development strategies, ♣ - Professional ethics, √ - Organization & planning, × - Outcomes, € - Organizational culture, ♫ - qualifications • Inspection processes result with requirements met in teacher registration. ¥ • Advisory activities carried out by inspectors resulting with teacher professional
and personal development. ⌂ • A learning environment is enhanced from group discussions between teachers
and inspector. ⌂ • Inspector helping the teacher resulting with teacher committing herself to the
Section 2: Document Final Analysis • Inspector professional ethics ♣ Teacher professional ethics.
♣ Summary of Diagram 1: This diagram reveals that the ‘Quality Control and Assurance’ activities (which emerged from the clusters of activities and the emerging themes) apply by inspectors relate directly to ‘Teacher Compliance’, ‘Teacher Knowledge’ and ‘Teacher Leadership’ according to the participant’s perception. The ‘Professional Development’ strategies lead to a ‘learning environment’ in the school (Teacher Professional Development). The emerged theme of ‘Professional Ethics’ relates directly to ‘Teacher Professional Ethics’ implying that how the inspectors conduct themselves does relate to how the teacher conducts himself in carrying out responsibilities. Diagram 1: Analysis 3b – Perceived Relationships between Inspectorial Strategies and the Dimensions of Teacher professionalism as per Table 11c. Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism • Quality assurance Teacher compliance Teacher knowledge Teacher leadership • Professional development Teacher professional development • Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics Summary: This analysis reveals that, according to this teacher, there are 2 main interactive strategies inspectors apply as external supervisors when they carry out their responsibilities with teachers, and these are ‘quality control and assurance’ and ‘professional development’. However how inspectors conduct themselves in carrying out their roles and aspects of organizational cultures also emerged as an integral issue of their roles, and this is categorized as ‘professional ethics’. The analysis also reveals that the emerged dimensions of teacher professionalism are teacher compliance, teacher leadership, teacher knowledge, teacher professional development
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and teacher professional ethics. Thus the analysis reveals that the ‘Quality Control and Assurance’ activities apply by inspectors relate directly to ‘Teacher Compliance’, ‘Teacher Knowledge’ and ‘Teacher Leadership’ according to the participant’s perception. The ‘Professional Development’ strategies lead to a ‘learning environment’ in the school (Teacher Professional Development). The emerged theme of ‘Professional Ethics’ relates directly to ‘Teacher Professional Ethics’ implying that how the inspectors conduct themselves does relate to how the teacher conducts himself in carrying out responsibilities. 3. STAGE 3: ANALYSES - SIMILAR PARTICIPANTS ANALYSIS FOR CASE 3 Introduction Within the school and inspectorate of this case the linkages from the emerged themes for each type of participants (teachers, head teachers and inspectors) including documents are compared for similarities and differences to allow for the findings and discussions for each type of participants for the case to be made and to produce intra-case analysis. The following are the results: Teachers – MVT 1, MVT 2 and MVT 3 Inspectorial Strategies Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism MVT 1 • Quality assurance Teacher compliance Teacher knowledge Teacher leadership • Professional development Teacher professional development • Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics MVT 2 • Quality assurance Teacher compliance
Teacher knowledge Teacher Leadership
• Professional development Teacher professional development • Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics MVT 3 • Quality assurance Teacher compliance • Professional development Teacher professional development • Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics Conclusion for Teachers • Quality control and assurance Teacher compliance
Teacher knowledge Teacher Leadership
• Professional development Teacher professional development • Professional ethics Teacher professional ethics Summary: Teachers in this case relate quality control and assurance interactive strategies relate to teacher compliance, teacher knowledge and teacher leadership; professional development interactive strategies relate to teacher professional development; and professional ethics relate to teacher professional ethics.
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4. STAGE 4: ANALYSES - SIMILAR PARTICIPANTS ANALYSIS FOR CASE 3 Introduction In this stage the results from Stage 3 covering similar participants (teachers, head teachers, focus groups and inspectors) from within the case are used to identify common and different linkages to allow for the findings and discussions to be made for the case. The results of this stage analysis become the analysis for the case. Case 3 Analysis Summary of Table 18: In Table 18, the results of Stage 3 above are summarized into an analysis for this case. With this case analysis then findings and discussions are used to establish the ‘relationships’ between the interactive strategies of inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher professionalism as perceived by participants and as documented. Table 18: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case 3
Participants 1
Teacher Professionalism
2
Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 3
Quality Control & Assurance
4
Professional Development
5
Inspector Professional Ethics 6
Key: MVT 1 - 3▲ MVH 1 ► MFG 1 ▼ MVI 1 – 2 ◄
Teacher Compliance ▲►▼◄ ▼ Teacher Leadership ▲►◄ ◄ Teacher Professional Development
► ▲►▼◄
Teacher Professional Ethics
►▼ ▲►▼◄
Teacher Knowledge ▲►◄ ◄ Findings: Inspectorial Interactive Strategies • The activities that inspectors use in carrying out their responsibilities are emerged into quality control and
assurance, professional development and professional ethics. Dimensions of teacher professionalism • Teacher professionalism is perceived to have the dimensions of teacher compliance, teacher leadership,
teacher professional development, teacher professional ethics and teacher knowledge. Linkages between the interactive strategies and dimensions of teacher professionalism • Teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive quality control and assurance activities carried out by
inspectors as having direct influence in teachers and head teachers: o complying with requirements of the NDOE and TSC, o developing leadership qualities and being promoted, and o having appropriate knowledge needed to perform their responsibilities.
• Only head teachers perceive quality control activities as having influence on their professional development. • Only teachers and head teachers perceive quality control and assurance activities as having influence in how
they conduct themselves in their work. • Teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive professional development activities carried out by inspectors
as having direct influence in teachers’ and head teacher’s professional development. • Only inspectors perceived professional development activities as having influence on teacher leadership and
teacher knowledge. • Only teachers perceive professional development as having related to teacher compliance. • Teachers, head teachers and inspectors perceive how inspectors and personnel of central organizations
conduct themselves (professional ethics) in carrying out their responsibilities as having direct influence in how teachers and head teachers conduct themselves in carrying out their responsibilities.
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365
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